Postcolonial Environmentalism?

Whatissettlercolonialism?Colonialismisthepracticeofoccupyingsomeoneelse’slandandexploitingit.Thisoftenincludedtakingpartialorfullpoliticalcontrol,orevenestablishinglong-termsettlementstoensurecontrol.Whencolonialisminvolveslong-termsettlement,thisiscalled‘settler-colonialism’.Evenpeoplewhodidnotvoluntarilycometoacolonisedspace,suchasforcedlabourers,areconsideredsettlers.Non-indigenousAmericans,Canadians,AustraliansandNewZealandersandotherswhoacknowledgeon-goingcolonialoccupationofthelandstheyliveinoftenrefertothemselvesas‘settlers’,thusacknowledgingtheindigenousview.Aspartofthis,theyalsooftenacknowledgetheoriginalnamesofareas,theirstewardsandthetreatiesthatshouldhaveassuredthisstewardshiporthesovereigntyofanindigenousgroupofpeople.

Post-colonialEnvironmentalism?Whydopeopletalkabout‘postcolonialenvironmentalism’-andwhyisthereaquestionmarkafterthetitle?Togiveyouasenseofthedebate,IamgoingtousethecaseoftheDakotaAccessPipelineProtestsasanillustration.Onesentencethatmayserveasaguide:Youdon’tjustwalkintoanaturalenvironment,butalwaysalsoahistory.

Imagesource:ACLU.orgAshorthistoryofUScolonialismNativeAmericanshaveenduredalongandviolenthistoryofsettlercolonialismsincetheir“discovery”byEuropeans(note:checkouttheNiñoBrothers–ChristopherColumbus’BlackSpanishnavigatorsandcrew).AsChristians,Europeansfirst

hadtoprocesstheshockoffindinganunfamiliarlandandpeople.Thepope,however,swiftlydecidedthatEuropeanmonarchsshouldproceedtoclaimthe‘NewWorld’anditspeople.Inparticular,Britain,Denmark,France,theNetherlands,Portugal,andSpainlayclaimtotheAmericas.Approximately90%ofindigenouspeoplesareenslavedandkilledinlargenumbers(seeKochetal,2019),buttheyalsoresist,tradeandformalliances.TheAmericasareprogressivelypopulatedbymassimmigrationsofEurope’sandAsia’spoor(immigrationfromAsia,especiallyChina,islatercurbedbyEuropeansettlers),andalsobyforcedmigrationsfromAfrica(slavery).

Theunequalmake-upofthenewarrivalsleadstosomenotablealliancesbetweenNativeAmericans,AfricanslavesandindenturedEuropeans.Inordertopreventsuchalliances,policiesareputinplacethatelevatethestatusofWhiteEuropeansandimposeinheritedenslavementuponindenturedBlackworkers.AfterFrancelosesAmericanterritorythroughtheHaitianRevolutionandthesaleofLouisiana(checkouttheworkofgeographerKarenSalt),theUSdeclareswarwithBritain(1812-1815),inparttomovebeyondestablishedwesternboundariesofthenewnation-state.SomeNativeAmericans(e.g.Shawnee)formaconfederacyandallywiththeBritish.WhentheBritisharedefeated,“thetreatyofGhentestablishesfirmbordersbetweenBritishCanadaandtheUnitedStates,ignoringNativeland

claims.NolongercheckedbyBritishcompetition,theUnitedStatesbeginsremovingIndianstowesternlands.”(seeStandingRockSyllabus).In1816NativeAmericansarebannedfromtradingwithpartnersoutsidetheUS.

TheFightoverNativeAmericansovereigntyandindependence(1823-32)endsinIndiansbeingtreatedas‘domesticdependentnations’.ThismeansthattheUShastherighttogovernNativeAmericansandtheirinterrelations.Forthispurpose,theBureauofIndianAffairs(stillactive)isfoundedin1824.Betweentheyears1835-1861discoveriesofgoldandothervaluableresourcesondesignatedNativeAmericanterritoriesleadtomoresystematicannihilationthatwillfullyignoreexistingcontracts.Thisisdonethroughbountyplacement,forcedremovals(e.g.TrailofTears)andorganizedgenocide(“totalwar”)ofNativeAmericansandtheirfoodsources(image:bisonmasskillings,1877).

DuringtheAmericanCivilWar(1861-1865),NativenationsandforcesfightforboththeUnionandConfederacyinordertopreservetheirlandsandsovereignty.However,furtherlandistakenawayfromNativeAmericans(e.g.Mississippi),especiallysince,aftertheendoftheAmericanCivilWar,morelandisneededwiththeabolitionofslavery.

AnotableeventthatdirectlyconnectstotheDakotaAccessPipelineprotestsistheGreatSiouxUprising(1862-1864)againstsettlerencroachment,lackofpaymentforNativelands,railroadconstructionanddisregardoftreaties.Thisresultsinfurtherforcedrelocations.ThisperiodalsomarksthebeginningofforcedassimilationthroughboardingschoolstoexterminateNativeAmericanlanguageandculture(AmericanIndianboardingschoolswerestartedin1860):“KilltheIndian,savetheMan”.Untilthemid-20thcentury,around1millionNativeAmericanchildrenwerere-educatedandabusedinsuch‘schools’.SimilarprogrammeswereinoperationinCanada,Australiaandothercolonizedlands.Afterthewar,thelegalstatusofNativeAmericansisfurtherdiminishedwhenUScitizenshipisgrantedtoUSbornblackAmericans,butnotNativeAmericans(theydidnotgetcitizenshipuntil1887,iftheylivedseparatelyfromtribes,oruntil1924,regardlessoflocationortribe).Asaconsequenceoftheirmarginalization,NativeAmericansbecameromanticizedasarchaicnaturelovingwarriors,andtheirsurvivingcultureswerecaricaturedandselectivelycommercialisedandconsumed(see“NativeAmerican”festivalsinCzechRepublic,Germanyetc).Tothisdate,NativeAmericansarefightingforsovereigntyandreligiousfreedom.

NativeAmericansarefurthersubjectedtowhatgeographerscall‘environmentalracism’(Bullard,1983)and‘slowviolence’(Nixon,2011).NativeAmericanlandsoftenbecomedumpinggroundsforhazardouswasteorpollutingindustries(e.g.radioactivewaste,wasteincinerators).Furtherenvironmentalabuseincludesnuclearweaponstesting,mininganddamming.‘Environmentalracism’alsodisproportionallyaffectstheAfricanAmericanpopulationintheUS,aswellasotherpoorcommunitiesandcommunitiesofcolouraroundtheworld,includingtheUK(ethnicitybeingthemostdeterminingfactor).

TheStandingRockIndianReservation(size:9,251.2km2=3,571.9sqmiles)islocatedinNorthDakotaandishometomostlyHunkpapa,SihasapaandYanktonaiLakota.Itwassplitoffinthe1890break-upoftheGreatSiouxNationbytheUSgovernment,asthegovernmentwantedtopreventtribalalliances.Thepartlyanti-colonial,partlyassimilationary‘GhostDance’Movementdevelopsaroundtheideasof“prophet”Wovoka/JackWilson.ThemovementfrightenstheBureauofIndianAffairsandgatheringsofNativeAmericansbecomeplacedunderhighlevelsofsurveillance.OnesuchgatheringbecomesthesiteoftheWoundedKneemassacreof300unarmedLakota.

Theriseofindigenouspower

The1960sand70ssawtheriseoftheRedPowerMovement,whichincludedgroupssuchastheAmericanIndianMovement(AIM–seeflag),theNationalIndianYouthCouncil(NIYC)andIndiansofAllTribes(IOAT).AlthoughtreatedakintoaterroristthreatbytheUSgovernment(liketheBlackPowerMovement)-AIMmemberLeonardPeltierremains

apoliticalprisoneruntilthisday-theRedPowerMovementachievedconcreteimprovementsofthesituationofNativeAmericans.Forexample,itraisedawarenessoftheNativeAmericansituationforotherAmericansandgainedmanynon-Nativeallies,forexample,byre-occupyingkeysitesofNativeAmericanhistorysuchasWoundedKnee.Moreimportantly,therewasaregainedsenseofprideinNativeAmericanheritageaswellasimportantlegal(re)gains.Duringyourdegree,youarelikelytocomeacrossRedPowerintellectualVineDeloriaJr(1933-2005),amulti-disciplinaryacademicfromtheStandingRockReservationwhowrotemanybooksandessayssuchasResearch,RedskinsandReality(1991).Hisworksarefoundationaltextsinresearchmethodsandacademicworkaroundcolonialism,spiritualityandindigenousstruggle.

In2007,theUnitedNationsDeclarationoftheRightsofIndigenouspeoplewaspublishedandmarkedamilestoneformanypeoplewhocontinuetoliveunderconditionsofcolonialism.WhiletheUNcannotenforcetheserights,thedeclarationcanbeusedbyindigenouspeopleinthefightforrecognitionandsovereignty(e.g.in

theUS–seeimageofNativeAmericanleaderswiththeObamas).Itincludes:

• Rightsofself-determination• Rightsofindigenousindividualsandpeopletoprotecttheirculture• Indigenouspeoples’righttoowntypeofgovernanceandeconomic

development• Healthrights• Landrights,includingreparation,returnofland,environmentalissues

WhatdoestheDakotaAccessPipelinehavetodowithallofthis?

WiththediscoveryofthediscoveryofParshallOilfieldin2006andUSshalegasreserves,anoilboombeganinNorthDakota.ItwaslargelyenabledbytheUSgovernmentanditsdesiretohaveresourceindependencefromothercountries(especiallyMiddleEast,Venezuela),butalsobyadvancementsinextractiontechnologies.TheimpactonNorthDakotaisremarkable:

astatewithapoorpopulationofaround700,000nowhasabudgetsurplusofseveralbillion(!).Thedownsidesofthisdevelopmentincludeproblemssuchaswatershortage,sewage,housingprovisionandcrime,especiallysexualviolenceagainstNativeAmericanwomenandchildren(includinghumantrafficking).

TheDakotaAccessorBakkenPipelineisa1,172-mile-long(1,886km)undergroundoilpipelinethattransportsoilfromtheBakkenOilFields(Stanley,NorthDakota)tooiltankfarmnearPatoka,Illinois–viaSouthDakota,Iowa(seenextpage).Itisdesignedtotransportasmanyas570,000barrelsperdayandhasbeenoperationalsinceJune2017.Itcostaround$4billiontobuild.Pipelinesaregenerallycontroversial,becausetheyhaveahighoccurrenceofleaks.Forexample,thePipelineandHazardousMaterialsSafetyAdministration(PHMSA)hasreportedmorethan3,300incidentsofleaksandrupturesatoilandgaspipelinessince2010.Entireacademicandprofessionaljournalsarededicatedtotheenvironmentalandoperatinghazardsofoilpipes.Butenvironmentalimpactisnottheonlyissuethatisattheforefrontofthe‘NoDAPL’protests.Itistreatedasanissueofenvironmentalracism.Why?

Hereisthepipeline’sproposedrouteversusitsacceptedroute:

ThepipelinewasfirstsupposedtorunclosetoNorthDakota’scapitalofBismarck,whosepopulationis93%white.Afterwhiteresidentsprotested,thepipelinewasreroutedclosertoNativeAmericanlands(seeprotestsitemarking).Inaddition,NativeAmericansprotesttheprojectduetoatraversalofburialgrounds,inadequateconsultationduringthepermittingprocess,generalconcernsaboutclimatechangeandexpansionofoilinfrastructure,aswellasfearofleaksintotribalwatersupplies(e.g.Missouririver,severallakes).Inthecaseofaleakintorivers,thewatersupplyofupto17millionpeoplecouldbeaffected.Intotal,theprotestlastedfromSpring2016(youthprotest)toSpring2017,wherethepipelinewasputintooperation(despiteleaksduringthetestingphase).Afteraninitialabsenceofthemedia,widercoverageoftheprotestresultedfromskirmishesbetweenNativeAmericanprotestersandprivatesecurity.CoverageintensifiedwhentheUSArmywaslatercalledtointerveneandsomearmyveteransjoinedtheNativeAmericansinprotestandapologizedfortheirhistoricalinvolvementincrimesagainstNativeAmericans(similarapologieswereperformedattheKeystoneXLpipelineprotestsite,mostnotablybythe‘CowboysandIndiansAlliance’).Thatthepipelineisnowinoperationdoesnotmeanthatthechallengeshavestopped,butthattheyhavechangedinnature.

Whatissoremarkableaboutthisprotest?

Theprotestisfrequentlycitedasanexemplarycaseof‘post-colonialenvironmentalism’,becauseofthesortofalliancesthatwereforged,andthekindsofstrategiesthatwereutilised.Further,thecolonialhistoryoftheUSplayedacentralroleinhowtheDAPLprojectunfolded.Thisincludedallianceswithnationalandinternationalsindigenousandnon-Indigenouscommunities,includingUSArmy

veterans,BlackLivesMatter,queercommunities,AsianAmericans,Hawaiians,Palestinians.Therewereteach-insaroundtheworldthatfocusedonUScolonialhistoryandindigenousrights,aswellasenvironmentaljustice.TheStandingRockSyllabusthatemergedaroundteach-insinNewYork,continuestobeavaluableteachingresource.Inaddition,manymusicians–bothNativeandnon-Native,USandnon-US,knownandlessknown–contributedsongsindifferentgenresfromhiphoptofolk.Thisfurthercontributedtotheprotestsenteringpopularculture,inadditiontothemanyactionsparticularlybyyoungNativeAmericanssuchasOcetiSakowinyouthrunning2000milesfromStandingRocktotheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersHQinWashingtonDC.

"MytribeisCrow,andourtraditionalenemiesaretheLakhotas,andtheyshareda[peace]pipetogetherat[StandingRock].Theyhaven'tdonethatinalongtime.”Supaman(Rapper).

EnvironmentalMovements&RaceExamplessuchasStandingRockalsoraisequestionsaroundenvironmentalmovementsasawhole.Whoandwhoseenvironmentaretheyfightingfor–andwhatsortofconceptsaretheyfightingwith?Suchquestionshaveespeciallyoccupiedenvironmentalistswhohaveoftenfeltexcludedbythe‘Whiteliberal’priorities(therearestrongparallelswiththefeministandLGBT+debatesaroundraceandclass).YoumayhaveseenthesedebatesbeingplayedoutinthemediaandsocialmediaaroundtheExtinctionRebellionmovement(XR).Oneofthepointsofcriticismhasbeentheiruseofarrests,whilesimultaneouslycelebratingthepolice–astrategythatmayplayoutalrightformiddleclassWhiteenvironmentalists,butnot,forexample,Blackenvironmentalistsoranysocio-economicbackground.

Further,thereiswidespreadangeratWhiteenvironmentalistsaccusing‘peopleofcolour’oflackingconcernforenvironmentalissues(“concerngap”,“concerndeficit”).Afterall,Black,AsianandIndigenouspeopleshavebeenprotestingtheenvironmentalabuseofEuropeans/Whitesforaverylongtime,andarecontinuingtodiefortheiractivism(e.g.environmentalactivistsintheAmazonorNigeria’soildelta).TherehasalsobeenactivisminmanyotherplacesintheworldthathadnothingtodowithWhitepeopleinitially,butinspiredglobalenvironmental

practices,suchastheChipkomovementinIndiainthe1970s.IntheUK,theGreenPartyhaswidelyknownBlackandAsianrepresentatives,mostfamously“MagicMagid”(MagidMagid)whositsintheEuropeanParliamentandwaselectedLordMayorofSheffield,orlocalpoliticianssuchasEstherObiri-Darko.Theseareon-goingdebatesthatwillevolveoverthecourseofyourdegree,sokeepaneyeoutforrelatedcommentary.GeographyandEnvironmentalRacism:somepointersHowhavegeographersengagedwithenvironmentalracism?Notenough!But:thereisagrowingbodyofworkonthis,bothinphysicalandhumangeographyHumanGeography

• JuneRubisonIndigenousforestconservationstrategies• RobertD.Bullard(sociologistandhonorarygeographer)• RuthWilsonGilmore(mostlyworksonprisonabolition,butalso

Blacknessandgeography/environment)• MichelleDaigleonIndigenouswatergovernance• PatriciaNoxoloonCaribbeanIn/Securities• MabelDenzinGerganonraceandenvironmentaldisaster,water

governance• JulianAgyemanonsustainability• LauraPulidoonLatinAmericancommunities• KathrynYusoffonthe‘BlackAnthropocene’• YasminGunaratnam&NigelClarkonraceandclimatechange• AndrewBaldwinonforestgovernance

PhysicalGeography

• MarcTadakionenvironmentalevaluation• StuartLaneontheDetroitGeographicalExpedition• KarlettaChiefonwaterresources• Indigenous/BlackSTEMNetworks

So,whatisPost-colonialEnvironmentalism?Youwillnotonlycomeacrosstheterm‘postcolonial’environmentalism,butalsorelatedtermssuchas‘postcolonialecology’.Youwillfindthesetermsattachedtocasestudiesfromacrosstheworld,whetheritisconservationeffortsinKenyaorhurricanedefencesintheCaribbean.Oftenthissimplymeansthatthecolonialhistoryofaplacehasbeentakenintoconsideration.Asyouwillhopefullyhavegatheredfromthislectureandzine,currentenvironmentalcontroversiescanhaverootsthatreachhundredsofyears,sometimesthousandsofyears,intothepast.Thisdoesnotmeanthatproblemsdon’tchange(thoughsometimestheyreallydon’t!),butthattheireffectsrippleonandmakeasituationmuchworse.Despitethisacknowledgementofcontinuingcolonialviolence,thetermhasbeencriticizedfornotgoingfarenoughand,moreproblematically,forconcealingourcurrentgeopoliticalandenvironmentalconditionthroughthehopefulprefix‘post’.Formanyacademicsoractivists,‘postcolonialenvironmentalism’,however,emphasisesthatcolonialismhasnotended,sincehowwepresentlyacttowardsourenvironmentand‘developing’nations–isstillverymuchcolonial:wecarryonexploitinglandandresourcesasifwecanjustmoveontosomewhereelse.Somepeopledescribethepresentas‘neo-colonial’,oftenpointingtohowmany‘developed’nationsstilldictatetheenvironmentaluseof‘developing’nations.Stillothercriticsfindthat‘postcolonialenvironmentalism’isinappropriatelyattachedtoonlyformercoloniesandnottheenvironmentofthecolonisers.Sincesomanythingsinthecoloniser’senvironmentareshotthroughwithcolonialhistory,shouldn’ttheterm‘postcolonial’alsobeappliedmoreuniversally?Aren’twereplicatingcolonialviolenceifweagaindesignatecertainspacesasdifferent?Assomepeoplefindthetermusefulandothersdon’t,onecouldsaythat‘postcolonialenvironmentalism’encompassesbothaconceptANDadebate.ThequestionmarkafterthistermisthemostimportantthingthatIwantyoutotakeawayfromthislecture:theterm,aswellastheactionsoneshouldundertaketoshapeatruly‘post-colonial’environment,areunderconstantdiscussion–adiscussionthatisshapedbythepeoplewhoarestillaffectedbycolonialism,butalsobypeoplelikeyouandme,whoselivesarealsoentangledincoloniallegacies.

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Iwillleaveyouwithsomesongs,videos–andtheStandingRockSyllabus:StandUp/StandNRock#NoDAPLhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Onyk7guvHK8ATribeCalledRedxProlificTheRapper-BlackSnakes(Remix)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nh_HCqp3sd0StandingRockbyTrevorHallhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyzzEnRR8f8TanyaTagaq(interestinginterviewwiththeInukthroatsinger):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YkD00mGqBxEInterviewwithJasilynChargerfromCheyenneRiverSiouxTribe(‘OneYearatStandingRock’)(2017):https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yb9HHtye1TkAlJazeera(2016)WhatisEnvironmentalRacism?https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TrbeuJRPM0oStandingRockSyllabushttps://nycstandswithstandingrock.wordpress.com/standingrocksyllabus/

ZineversionJune2020Author:DrAngelaLast(al418@leicester.ac.uk)forRACE(raceingeography.org)Image:DAPLOcetiWinds.AdamAlexJohannsonIndianCountryMediaNetwork