Plumbing skills development for a healthy future

C.D. Gordona�, G.M. Edmondsa, J. Wilsonb

aCardonald College, Glasgow G52 3AY, United Kingdom

email: cgordon@cardonald.ac.uk, gedmonds@cardonald.ac.ukbForth Valley College, Stirling FK7 7QA, United Kingdom

email: jwilson@forthvalleycollege.ac.uk

Received 31 January 2008; revised accepted 15 May 2008

Abstract

The modern plumbing industry in Scotland developed as a result of the poor sanitary conditions of the 19th and early 20th cen-

turies. It continues to develop into the 21st century with an increasing emphasis on accurate technological skills underpinned by well

honed practical craft skills. This skills training is as a result of a competency-based education and assessment system pioneered by

Scotland’s Colleges. The competency-based system allows an analysis of practical and technical skills required for plumbing, water

supply and sanitation tasks. Each skill identified is taught and assessed by College staff working closely with the Scottish plumbing

industry to ensure skills required by emerging technologies are integrated and that public health is protected. The experience of the

Scottish plumbing industry combined with the considerable expertise in skills development of the Scottish colleges sector has the

potential to make a major contribution to water and sanitation in international development and a healthy future. The

competency-based model used in Scotland’s Colleges ensures that training is aligned to the current and projected needs of industry.

Keywords: Plumbing; Skills development; Competency-based education and training

1. Introduction

This paper introduces the dual themes of plumbing

skills development and the roles of Scotland’s Colleges

sector in the development of plumbing skills. The intro-

duction of the Water Byelaws 2004 places an increasing

emphasis on the individual plumber to be accountable

for his/her actions. This emphasis for accountability is

reflected in other regulations that impinge on plumbing

work – such as health and safety and environmental

protection in addition to the integrity of sanitary pipe-

work systems and drainage. To prepare the modern

plumber for his/her role in Scotland the Scottish plumb-

ing industry and the Scottish College sector have estab-

lished a working relationship based on good plumbing

practice and sound educational principles for the devel-

opment of appropriate skills. The paper describes the

evolution of plumbing skills development from an

examination based system to a competency-based sys-

tem of assessment. The competency-based approach is

fully explained using appropriate examples. The paper

identifies contemporary practice within a historical� Corresponding author.

Presented at the Water and Sanitation in International Development and Disaster Relief (WSIDDR) International

Workshop Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 28–30 May 2008.

Desalination 248 (2009) 479–484

0011-9164/09/$– See front matter © 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.05.091

context linked to water and sanitation solutions in inter-

national development. The authors of this paper suggest

that the good practice existing between the Scottish

plumbing industry and the Scottish colleges sector could

be used in a knowledge transfer approach to promote

appropriate skills for water supply and sanitation within

international development and disaster relief scenarios.

2. Plumbing

Plumbing can be described [1] as ‘‘work associated

with the provision of water supply pipework including,

without limitation, that used for fire fighting; sanitary

appliances; discharge pipework and drainage; the

weathering of structures and buildings; all forms of

water and space heating by any energy source’’. While

this definition is suitable for a developed nation with

good public water supply and sewerage it can be further

defined for use in countries at the early stages of introdu-

cing effective plumbing systems.

The World Plumbing Council and World Health

Organisation (WPC/WHO) [2] suggest the three roles

of the plumber in this situation are:

• to design, install and maintain drinking-water supply

and waste removal systems;

• to manage the health and financial risks associated

with plumbing and

• to help conserve limited supplies of safe drinking

water.

However, within an international development con-

text when public water supply and sewerage services are

not available the definition of plumbing can be narrowed

to include ‘‘work associated with the provision of water

supply pipework including that used for sanitary appli-

ances, discharge pipework and drainage’’. As can be

deduced from these definitions plumbing skills include

the application of craftsmanship and technical standards

that can be used to apply solutions to water supply and

sanitation. Scottish plumbers are trained in practical

technical skills such as plumbing system design, plumb-

ing system installation and system commissioning.

Additionally, Scottish plumbers have developed self-

reliance as they often work as individuals in the Scottish

plumbing industry and develop highly tuned core skills

in problem solving. These qualities of self-reliance and

problem solving are a direct result of the training

approach used in Scotland – the training approach could

also be adapted and contextualized, and could then make

a valuable contribution to water supply and sanitation

solutions within international development and disaster

relief.

2.1. Water supply

In Scotland, plumbers have the advantage of

working with a public supply of wholesome water

[3]. While care must be taken to ensure a plumbing

system does not contaminate the public water supply

many plumbers work with private water supplies in

Scotland that are subject to the Private Water Supply

Scotland) Regulations 2006 [4]. As a result many

plumbers develop practical and technological skills

in water abstraction and treatment direct from rural

water sources such as spring’s, bore holes, streams

and lochs. Many Scottish plumbers adopt the princi-

ples of good practice embedded in regulations and

guidance [5] to develop auxiliary skills to plumbing.

These auxiliary skills in water abstraction and treat-

ment are of direct relevance to water supply settings

in international development.

The Scottish plumbing community and Scotland’s

Colleges who teach plumbing can contribute to the fol-

lowing water supply goals listed by WPC/WHO [6].

These water supply goals are central to the training

approach and map directly to the training outcomes of

Scottish Qualification Authority (SQA) units.

• The local drinking-water supply should be adequate in

terms of quantity, safety, continuity and reliability.

• Water supplied for human consumption should be

safe at all times.

• Every building should have an internal drinking-water

piped system.

• Water should be conserved by minimizing leakage

and wastage.

• Water should be supplied from a suitable number of

accessible and hygienic fixtures. Building contents

should be protected from the effects of malfunction-

ing of the plumbing system.

• Adequate lighting and ventilation should be provided

for toilet and washing fixtures.

• Hot water systems should be carefully designed to

avoid health hazards.

C.D. Gordon et al. / Desalination 248 (2009) 47 –49 84480

2.2. Sanitation

Plumbers in Scotland have developed design, instal-

lations and commissioning skills for drainage works that

discharge to the public sewer network. However, many

Scottish plumbers have developed skills in sewage treat-

ment and effluent disposal for rural houses and commu-

nities where access to a public sewer is not possible. The

discharges from these installations are monitored by the

Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) [7]

with tertiary treatment such as reed beds being increas-

ingly integrated. While septic tank treatment has been

common, increasingly, packaged systems that include

aerobic and anaerobic biological treatment are used.

These skills could transfer to international development

contexts by adoption of a Scottish training approach in

international locations. Scottish plumbers who have

developed these skills would be able to contribute to

sanitation solutions in international development

contexts.

The Scottish plumbing community and Scotland’s

Colleges who train in plumbing skills can contribute

to the following liquid waste disposal goals listed by

WPC/WHO [8]. These liquid waste disposal goals are

central to the training approach and map directly to the

training outcomes of SQA units.

• Liquid wastes should be disposed of promptly and

hygienically.

• Drainage systems should be of adequate size and

easily cleaned.

• Drainage systems should be equipped with liquid seal

traps.

• All drains should be adequately ventilated.

• Deleterious substances should be excluded from

sewers.

• Backflow of sewage should be prevented.

2.3. Historical context

Scotland can be described as a developed society

with Scottish plumbers increasingly installing sophisti-

cated bathroom installations in new homes. However,

it was not always like this. Churchill [9] wrote about the

years following the Roman Empires departure from

Britannia as follows, ‘‘From the year 400 till the year

1900 no one had central heating and very few had hot

baths’’. The truth of this statement is witnessed when

comparing the remains of Roman era baths in

Bearsden north of Glasgow with the plumbing

arrangements in Scottish Castles and other structures

build within this time period. This lack of water sup-

ply and sanitation development lasted to the indus-

trial revolution in Scotland during the 19th century

when economic migration to the urban central low-

lands led to overcrowding and outbreaks of cholera

(an outbreak is recorded in Glasgow in 1832 [10])

and other unhygienic conditions. An eventual reac-

tion to these situations led to the formation of the pub-

lic health movement in the late 19th century and the

establishment of modern sanitation and plumbing prac-

tice within Scotland. Within the career experience of

the lead author in Glasgow, Scotland, sanitation has

progressed from shared toilet provision between

households in tenement property and households with-

out bathrooms to the present high standard of sanita-

tion. Many Scottish plumbers are historically and

culturally aware of the role of the Scottish plumbing

industry in advancing sanitation in Scotland. This

awareness, and experience, could be harnessed to the

benefit of the international community via a capacity

building/knowledge transfer approach.

3. Skills development – a college/industry

partnership

The development of plumbing skills for new entrants

to the plumbing industry in Scotland since 2004 has

been by a modern apprenticeship framework [11]. The

modern apprenticeship requires the apprentice to be

registered and employed by a company engaged in

plumbing work for four years. Most of these companies

are members of the Scottish and Northern Ireland

Plumbing Employers Federation (SNIPEF) who work

with the Scottish College sector in the integration of the

needs of the Scottish plumbing industry into the plumb-

ing curriculum. During that time the apprentice must

achieve a Scottish Vocational Qualification (SVQ)

Level 3 Mechanical Engineering Services: Domestic

Plumbing.

The SVQ standards are nationally developed by

Summit Skills the Sector Skills Council for the plumb-

ing industry. In addition the apprentice must develop

core skills such as communication, working with others,

problem solving, information technology and numer-

acy. Separate technical enhancements such as, Water

C.D. Gordon et al. / Desalination 248 (2009) 47 –49 84 481

By-Laws 2004 certification and ACS Domestic Gas

Assessment, must also be achieved.

The SVQ Level 3 Mechanical Engineering Services:

Domestic Plumbing framework specifies seven manda-

tory units [12] in addition to four optional units that are

not applicable within an international development

context.

DD1C 04 Maintain the Safe Working Environment

when Undertaking Plumbing Work

Activities

DD1D 04 Plan Complex Domestic Plumbing Work

Activities

DD14 04 Install Complex Domestic Plumbing Sys-

tems and Components

DD5D 04 Commission and Decommission Complex

Domestic Plumbing Systems

DD1J 04 Service and Maintain Complex Domestic

Plumbing Systems and Components

DD19 04 Maintain Effective Plumbing Working

Relationships

DD12 04 Contribute to the Improvement of Plumb-

ing Business Products and Services

The modern apprenticeship is accepted as an integral

part of the plumbing sector in Scotland. Achievement of

the SVQ Level 3 is by the Scottish plumbing industry

partnership with the Scottish Colleges who teach plumb-

ing. To ensure the success of this partnership the Scot-

tish plumbing industry and Scotland’s Colleges who

teach plumbing have devised delivery units to underpin

the SVQ Level 3 standards. These units are continuously

monitored to allow the introduction of new technologies

and form the basis of plumbing courses in Scotland’s

Colleges. [13] The units are devised as a result of coop-

eration with the British Plumbing Employers Council

(Training) Ltd. (BPEC) and SQA.

Delivery units

1. Introductory

2. Cold water

3. Hot water

4. Central heating

5. Domestic drainage and sanitary plumbing

6. Electricity for plumbers

7. Installation practice

8. Administration and quality

9. Fuel combustion, ventilation and flues

10. Sheet lead work

3.1. Skills development for international development

In many developing countries plumbing activities

are not regulated by law with the potential for poor

plumbing practices to become established. This can lead

to leakage and contamination due to lack of knowledge

and understanding of appropriate practices. Scotland’s

Colleges have developed teaching and learning techni-

ques for each of the delivery units for the SVQ Level

3 qualification. These techniques, and learning materi-

als, can be adapted for use in water supply and sanitation

scenarios in international development. The most appro-

priate delivery units are, introductory unit, cold water,

hot water, domestic drainage and sanitary pipework and

installation practice.

A useful knowledge transfer approach would be to

map selected Performance Indicators (PI) against

WPC/WHO water supply and liquid waste disposal

goals to provide training solutions to specific interna-

tional development and disaster relief scenarios.

A capacity building approach would involve train-

ing trainers to develop solutions by matching PI’s

against water supply and liquid waste disposal needs.

Scotland’s Colleges have the experience to train these

trainers in applicable Technical and Vocational Edu-

cation and Training (TVET) techniques to provide a

sustainable solution within communities in the devel-

oping world.

4. Competency-based education and training

Over the last three decades there has been a move

from exam based to competence-based assessment of

practical skills in Scotland. Plumbing apprentices are

no longer assessed by final exams, but by continuous

competence-based assessment. This allows the candi-

dates to show the development of their skills over time

rather than as a ‘‘snapshot’’ on examination day and is

a more reliable method of ascertaining whether a candi-

date is proficient. It also compares the candidate’s per-

formance to a set of standards, rather than a normative

approach which compares each trainee to other

candidates.

A competence-based system of assessment is based

on units of competence, which are the smallest sub-

divisions of an SVQ suitable for separate accreditation

[14]. Each unit consists of a number of elements which

C.D. Gordon et al. / Desalination 248 (2009) 47 –49 84482

state the activities to be performed in order to complete a

task. Each element of competency consists of three

parts:

1) Performance criteria which specify the level and

quality of performance required.

2) Range statements which specify the various circum-

stances in which activities have to be performed.

3) Evidence requirements, often further divided into

knowledge and performance requirements, which

specify the amount and type of evidence that must

be collected to demonstrate that the candidate has

met the required standards.

We can use an example from the SVQ Level 3 fra-

mework to illustrate the competence-based system of

assessment [12].

DD14 04 Install Complex Domestic Plumbing Systems

and Components

Performance criteria: The candidate must provide

evidence to prove that he or she can fabricate system

components using work methods that conform to indus-

try requirements.

Range requirements: The range over which the com-

petence has to be proved.

1) System components

a) Pipe materials, fittings, fixings, controls

b) Heat exchangers – boilers – radiators

c) Pumps, accelerators and motorised/isolating

valves

d) Storgae vesels – cylinders, cisterns

e) Sanitary appliances

2) Industry requirements

a) Codes of practice

b) British standards recommendations

c) Manufacturers technical data

d) Safe working practices

Evidence requirements: The candidate must provide

evidence to prove that he or she knows how to measure

and record installation and site details for prefabrication

purposes.

This method of assessment is a more appropriate

tool for assessing the practical skills associated with

plumbing than more traditional forms. Being competent

means performing to professional or occupational stan-

dards. Both the learning provision and the assessment

are governed by statements of competence. Thus, the

move to competence-based education and training in

traditional sectors such as water and gas has also gener-

ated a substantial rise in the number of trainers in these

areas who have achieved Assessor Awards – a formal

training qualification. This leads to a general skills

development in these areas as assessors increasingly

understand how to use competence-based units effec-

tively. College lecturers in the sector are also being

encouraged to acquire formal assessor qualifications

through realistic working environments which enable

them to administer assessments correctly and effectively

to the apprentices in their classes. The use of similar qua-

lifications in both College and workplace environments

ensure that the industry sector can have confidence that

the apprentices are being trained to the same standards

regardless of the training environment. This in turn leads

to very high levels of validity and reliability in SVQ

qualifications.

Competence-based assessment is based on clearly

defined standards, supported by detailed checklists that

ensure that the standards have been met in a strainghtfor-

ward method for assessors to understand and implement.

This makes it an ideal method to disseminate to plumb-

ing trainers in developing countries and areas that are

threatened with natural disasters. The principles of this

type of assessment could be taught to senior trainers who

could easily cascade the method to others.

A major benefit of competency-based education for

the plumbing sector is that it is activity based and is

therefore ideally suited to measuring performance in

practical skills. In addition, in order to be judged compe-

tent in a unit the candidates are asked to demonstrate an

understanding of the knowledge that underpins the per-

formance of the task. This ensures that the candidates

understand why a task must be performed in a particular

manner, ensuring that learners have transferable skills

and promoting sustainability.

5. Conclusions

Competency-based vocational training rests on a

partnership between industry and training providers –

in Scotland, the College sector and the National Award-

ing Body, SQA, along with employers organisations,

C.D. Gordon et al. / Desalination 248 (2009) 47 –49 84 483

such as SNIPEF and BPEC for the plumbing sector,

work to ensure that training is aligned to the needs of

each industry sector.

Scotland’s recent developments in plumbing and

water safety means that Scotland’s training systems for

plumbing is appropriate for contextualization and adap-

tation by developing countries and for disaster relief

work.

A competence-based training system can be an

effective and efficient means of raising the skills level

of the workforce in developing countries. The history

of training in the plumbing sector in Scotland is one

example of this training approach in action.

A competency-based training framework can be

used in a training environment or in the workplace; les-

sons learned in Scotland show that an increased number

of trainers can also be produced fairly rapidly to cascade

training and promote sustainability.

The authors believe that this training model is

appropriate for international development education,

using a knowledge transfer/capacity building approach.

It can easily and quickly be contextualized for use

overseas.

The health benefits of plumbing improvements are

well documented. The centrality of effective training

processes is less thoroughly researched. Scotland’s

approach is ready to be piloted in an international devel-

opment context, and this will be a key strategic goal for

Scotland’s Colleges. We look forward to contributing to

the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals

through this effort.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to extend thanks to Scot-

land’s Colleges International who encourage links

with international partners for Scotland’s colleges.

www.scotlandscollegesinternational.com.

The authors would like to extend thanks to Mr. John

Lang, Section Leader, Faculty of Technology, Business

and Industry at Cardonald College Glasgow, for his

advice and comment during the preparation of this

paper. www.cardonald.ac.uk.

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