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8/6/2019 Plantmate Aud & NZ
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The Application of BiotechnologyThe Application of Biotechnology
in Organic Agriculturein Organic Agriculture
8/6/2019 Plantmate Aud & NZ
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It is common knowledge
that there are millions of
hectares in the world today
either highly acidic or alkaline
that are unproductive or crop
yields are so poor and are left
untilled.
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However, the harnessing
of beneficial microorganisms
in the production of quality
organic fertilizer may providehope for these soils to once
again become productive.
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An Experimental Station in
Yucheng, Shandong which has been
conducting agricultural research for 43
years among which was on soil salinity
management reported that farmerswere able to obtain good yields with
crop rotation: wheat in fall, corn in
summer then followed by another
wheat crop.
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The way they manage the
serious problem of saline soils
consisted of digging deepdrainage ditches to lower the
water table way below the root
zone.
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Worldwide, there is growing
interest in the use of organic
fertilizer due to depletion in the soil
fertility and because the continuoususe of chemical fertilizers create
potential polluting effects due to
chemicals in the environment.
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In northern China several
investigators reported that the
use of organic fertilizer and
green manuring made possible
and improve the yields of crops
including forage for animal
feeds.
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Managing Saline Soils:
Salinity problems are caused
from the accumulation of soluble
salts in the root zone. These excesssalts reduce plant growth and vigor
by altering water uptake and
causing ion-specific toxicities orimbalances.
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It is important to know the level of salinity
as this will determine the following:
1. The types of plants that will grow in the
soil and their yield potential.
2. The characteristics of a soil.
3. The quality of water for irrigation,
domestic, industrial and other uses.
4. The extent of the problem.
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General Signs of Salinity Manifestations:
1. Leaves appear smaller and darker thannormal.
2. Marginal and tip burning of leaves occur
followed by yellowing and bronzing.
3. Plants grow poorly and in severe conditions
they don¶t survive.
4. White crust forms over bare ground.
5. Overall yield will decline, and
6. Plants are more susceptible to stress and
prone to on-set of diseases.
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Part I. In Relation to Organic Agriculture
A. Middle East ExperienceKingdom of Saudi Arabia. In the 80¶s while doing
some consulting works with the Saudi authorities and
some private landowners the author established thousands
of hectares of alfalfa or lucerne (Fig. 1) in Sayhat, Al-Khobar, wheat plantation in Al-Kharj (Fig. 2), vegetable
farms in Al-Jumum, vineyards in Taif and some other
places within the Kingdom. The desert lands are very
saline with pH as high as 11.0 and salinity at 10-15 dS/mabout 8-9,000 ppm/mgl.
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Fig. 1. An alfalfa
plantation in Al-Khobar,
Saudi Arabia.
Fig. 2. A wheat farm inAl-Kharj, Saudi Arabia
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The irrigation systems employed
are center pivots on circular patterns
for wheat and alfalfa and forage cropplantations; drip system for orchard,
vineyards and vegetable farms.
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Sultanate of Oman. Three years ago our Company jointly with an
Omani Company planted dates, bananas, melons and assorted vegetables in Al-
Khabourah, Oman
A banana plantation growing in the high-saline, desert soil of the
Sultanate of Oman which is being fertilized with organic fertilizer.
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With organic fertilizer it is now possible to grow bananas and
dates with better yields in the deserts of the Sultanate of Oman.
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B. Asian Experience
1. Malaysia. Our Company in Malaysia has
done extensive production of various crops,
namely: oil palm, rice, corn, vegetables,
orchards, and other plantation crops such as
tea, banana and papaya on varied types of soil
including lateritic or stony areas and from
acidic to alkaline soils.
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B. BananaA. Oil Palm
C. Corn D. Rice
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2. Vietnam. On highly acidic
soils (ph 4) our Company has
successfully planted rice doubling
the yields from less than 4 tons per
ha to as much as 8 tons per ha. Wehave also commercially grown
cassava or tapioca and fruit trees
with very good yields on alkaline or
saline soils.
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A. Cassava
B. Longan Fruit Tree
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3. Indonesia. Jointly with
the Indonesian Company we
have made successful production
of oil palm, rice, corn and other
crops including shrimp ponds in
this country.
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Organically grown oil palm plantation (10-12 year old trees).
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4. Thailand. Our experience on
rice production in this country is quite
outstanding having realized increased in
yields on areas that are highly acidic (pH
4.5) while the optimum pH is 6.5 for this
crop.
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A rice plant in its reproductive (flowering) stage fertilized
with organic fertilizer.
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5. China. Using organic fertilizer we
have successfully grown several crops e.g. rice,
corn, sorghum, vegetables, potato, soybean,winter melon, aloe vera, ganoderma, grapes, etc.
In Da Qing, Heilongjiang Province we
have turned high saline soils (pH >10) andsuccessfully planted trees, forage crops and
ornamental shrubs.
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A. Rice B. Winter Melon
C. Ganoderma, the wonder fungus D. Aloe Vera
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High saline soil, pH > 10 Trees growing well on barren land.
Forage grass for animal feeds are intercropped with the trees.
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Cutting grass for animal feeds. Semen persicae thriving on high saline soil.
Semen persicae, an ornamental shrub blooming in spring.
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A. Rice B. Squash
C. Carrot D. Cabbage
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Country Crop Result
China Hybrid Rice
(temperate var.)Hybrid yellow
corn
Sweet melon
Grapes, apples,
pears peaches
Sugar cane
Tea
Assorted Veggies
Commercial
trees forage
crops
Yields of 10-12
tons/haYields of 12-13
tons/ha
Yields of 30-35
tons/ha
Yields of 35-40
tons/ha
Yields of 130-140
tons/haYields of 25-30 t
tons/ha
Yields of 35-40
tons/ha
In Heilongjiang,
trees and forage
crops were
successfully grownin high saline
barren lands where
it was impossible
before.
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Role of Microorganisms vis-a-vis Plant Nutrients
Assimilation
Microorganisms have the ability to efficientlyaccess elements from both inorganic and organic
sources and making them more assimilable for plant
use.
And this is the reason why even in problem
soils plants can still access these nutrients for their
growth and development.
If the nutrient elements are in excess amounts
they can immobilized some so phytotoxicity can be at
manageable levels insofar as the plant is concerned.
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From organic sources e.g. breakdown of
proteins and other nitrogenous substances is the
result of the metabolism of a multitude of microbial
strains each of which has some function in the
pathway of conversion.
Microorganisms also has the ability tosynthesize extracellular, proteolytic enzymes for the
enhanced decomposition of nitrogenous substances
converting them into highly assimilable compounds.
The nitrifiers can fix nitrogen from the air
asymbiotically effected by the genus Rhizobia andsymbiotically by the genus Rhizopus and this means
substantial savings on the use of nitrogenous
fertilizers.
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Species of bacteria such as those belonging to
the genera P seudomonas, Bacillus, Serratia and Micrococcus including fungi belonging to the
genera Aspergillus, P enicillium and Rhizopus could
effectively perform the function mentioned above.
Mineralization of nutrient elements is highly
influenced by soil pH and their availability asshown in the following schematic diagram.
8/6/2019 Plantmate Aud & NZ
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pH 4.0
Microbial activities of Bacteria &
Actinomycetes is only 20%
N assimilation = 15%
Ca, Mg & Mo assimilation = 15%
S assimilation = 25%
B = 20% assimilable
pH 5.0
B assimilation goes down
Below pH 5.5
N bacteria & actinomycetes efficiencystarts to go down
Below pH 6.0
P goes down
Above pH 7.0, B assimilation
diminishes
Above pH 7.0
P efficiency reduces
pH 8.375
B & P efficiency reduces to 25% and
goes up to 40% at pH 9.0
pH 8.5
Ca & Mg efficiency goes down and is20% at pH 9.0
8/6/2019 Plantmate Aud & NZ
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The element phosphorus as an inorganic nutrient
required by plants, microorganisms again play an activerole in its transformation to be better assimilated by plants.
Even the intake of nitrogen from urea can be
enhanced through microbial action. A number of bacteria,
fungi and actinomycetes synthesize urease, a catalystresponsible for hydrolyzing urea to enhance utilization.
Certain bacteria belonging to the genera Bacillus,
Actinomycetes and P seudomonas as well as fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Mucor and P enicillium can effectively release
potassium from known sources so they can be made available
for plant use.
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Sulfur can also be transformed biologically especially
those beloning to the genus T hiobacillus e.g. T . thiooxidans
can oxidize elemental sulfur and is capable of active growth at
pH 3.0 or below.
T . ferrooxidans has the ability to use the oxidation of
either ferrous or sulfur salts for energy. It has also been
discovered that other species of bacteria belonging to the
genera Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter and
P seudomonas including Actinomycetes as well as fungi e.g.
Aspergillus and P enicillium have the ability to oxidize
sulfur compounds .
Acidity caused by iron toxicity can be checked by
microbial action. Species belonging to the genera Bacillus,
Klebsella, P seudomonas and Serratia can effectively reduce
iron hence toxicity can become manageable.
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Manganese being present in acid soils can be responsible
for poor plant growth because excessive levels of this ion is
phytotoxic and the injury is worst in poorly drained or
flooded fields. Such effects have been noted in both orchardtrees and agronomic crops.
Selenium, a very essential element for plant growth and
development, can be effectively transformed for better
assimilation by plants by species belonging to the generaC andida,C lostridium, C orynebacterium, Micrococcus and
Rhizobium.
Microbiologically, the solubility and assimilability of
zinc can happen by (a) organic acids produced by some
bacteria can solubilized zinc silicates, (b) oxidation of
ammonium salts by the nitrifiers will make zinc available, (c)
the decomposition of plant residues leads to a release of the
soluble cation, and (d) the oxidation of sulfide by T hiobacillus
will release the element in a water-soluble form.
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T . ferrooxidans is also capable of bringing about an
enzymatic oxidation of cuprous to cupric ions so it becomes
more assimilable. It has been observed that the biological
production of sulfuric and nitric acids for sulfur and
ammonium salts can cause the solubilization of calcium and
aluminum, an effect which is readily availble in natural
condition.
Similarly, organic acids generated by heterotrophs
will solubilize silicon, aluminum, magnesium and calcium.
Bacteria and fungi also synthesize a variety of chelatingagents, and these compounds are known to liberate silicon,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum, sodium and other elements
from minerals or insoluble salts.
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The following table shows the species of bacteria that can fix elements
and/or transform into more stable and easily assimilated nutrients by the
plants.
lementic ro or ga nism s e sp on sib le fo r
ixation or on ersion to
ssim ila ble u trien ts
a te o f
s s imi la t ion by
lants
itrogenerage of .
o f to ta l w eig ht
biomass
Azotobacter vinelandii con erts
Nitrosomonas europeae o xidi es
Nitrobacter winogradskyi
con erts
or sym biotic fixation
hizobium japonicum; hizobium
leguminosarum
or ym biotic fixation
hizopus oligosporus
ssimilation of utrients
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Element
icroorganisms Responsible
for Fixation or Conversion to
Assimilable Nutrients
Rate of
Assimilation by
Plants
Phosphorus
Average of
0.2 % of
total weight
of biomass
The following microbes solubilize
insoluble phosphorus into assimilable
nutrients for plant use:
Bacillus subtilis; Bacillus
licheniformis; Penicillium notatum;
Aspergillus niger
Note: Solubilization is enhanced by
organic acids e.g. formic acid, aceticacid, citric acid, etc.
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Element
Microorganisms Responsible
for Fixation or Conversion to
Assimilable Nutrients
Rate of
Assimilation by
Plants
PotassiumAverage of 0.2 %
of total weight of
biomass
The following microbes
solubilize insoluble
potassium into assimilablenutrients for plant use:
Bacillus sp.;
Aspergillus sp.;
Penicillium sp.
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Element
Microorganisms Responsible
for Fixation or Conversion to
Assimilable Nutrients
Rate of
Assimilation by
Plants
Sulfur
Iron
Average of
0.01 % of
total weight
of biomass
Average of
0.01 % of
total weightof biomass
The following microbes oxidize
inorganic sulfur into assimilable
compounds and also capable of
reducing sulfur to sulfide:
Thiobacillus thiooxidans;Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
These microbes reduce ferric to
ferrous hence, minimizing phyto -
toxicity in iron toxic soils:
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans;
Bacillus sp.
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Category 1: Seven (7) Bacteria for Decomposition, Enzyme Production
and Nutrients Transformation. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of
Biomass = 1x106 up to 1x108.
Bacillus stearothermophilus Lactobacillus caseiCellulomonas fabia
Methanobacterium forminicumThiobacillus thiooxidans
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
Methanobacterium ruminantium
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Category 2: Three (3) Bacteria for Decomposition of Polysaccharides and Enzyme
Production. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x106 up to 1x108.
B
acillus polymyxaB
acillus licheniformisB
acillus subtilis
Category 3:Three (3) Bacteria for Enhanced Decomposition, Compost ³Sweetening´
and Probiotics Production. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass =
1x105 up to 1x107.
Streptomyces thermophilus Thermoactinomyces vulgaris Thermonospora curvata
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Category 4: Five (5) Bacteria for Nitrogen Fixation and Nutrients Transformation.
Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x105 up to 1x106.
Rhizobium leguminosarumRhizobium japonicum
Nitrobacter winogradskyi Nitrosomonas europeae Azotobacter vinelandii
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Category 5: Seven (7) Fungi for Decomposition, Probotics Production and
Nutrients Transformation. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram
of Biomass = 1x104 up to 1x106.
Aspergillus niger Aspergillus oryzae Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Penicillium notatum Rhizopus oligosporus Humicola insolensG lomus mosseae
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Plantmate Australia &
New Zealand+610417 773 954
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
CONTACT
GARY LOW