Pine NutsTechnical Information

The pine tree belongs to the Pinaceae family and the Pinus genus is the largest and most important genus of conifers with more than 100 species, found mainly in the Northern hemisphere. A great number of species of the genus Pinus produce edible seeds, also known as pine nuts. Pine trees are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees whose height depends on the species, ranging from 10 m up to 30 m tall. They are also adapted to a wide variety of weather conditions: from the extremely harsh and cold climate of northeast Siberia to the hot dry deserts of Nevada and Mexico. They are long-lived with some trees living for over 1,000 years.

Pine nuts have been collected since ancient times. They were prized by the Romans and Greeks and were a staple food of several Native American tribes in North America, and indigenous peoples in Siberia and the Russian Far East. Today pine nuts are considered a gourmet product and are highly regarded as an ingredient in a multitude of recipes. Most pine nuts are marketed shelled, although a small quantity is marketed in-shell.

Pine nuts are known around the world as a nutritious snack (raw or roasted) and an essential ingredient in many traditional dishes. They are highly valued for their taste. In addition, like all tree nuts, they have an interesting nutritional profile, high in vitamin E and K, and minerals such as iron and magnesium, among others. They also are high in polyunsaturated fats (34%).

Pine nuts are the edible seeds of pine trees, which are evergreen, coniferous resinous trees of the Pinaceae family. Pine trees are mainly spread across the Northern hemisphere and are found in Asia, Europe, the Near East and North America. Several species of pine trees produce edible nuts, which are considered a delicacy. The major producers are China, North Korea, the Russian Federation, Pakistan and Afghanistan; in the Mediterranean (Pinus pinea), the top producing countries are Italy, Turkey, Spain and Portugal. Pine nuts are used in a wide variety of traditional recipes.

Pine Nuts1. General Information 1

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Pine Nuts / 1. General Information

Seasons

Northern Hemisphere

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

HarvestingBlooming

Pine trees are rarely planted for nut production purposes. Most of the pine nuts available on the market come from natural forests, where no cultivation techniques are applied except for silvicultural practices. Commercial plantations are very scarce for several reasons. Pine trees take a long time to bear nuts, between 10 and 40 years (or even more), depending on the species and the conditions. Although pine nuts are collected without any expense of plantation forestry, the labor cost is particularly important given that the collection and processing are very labor-intensive.

Pine nuts are gymnosperms, meaning that they grow inside a cone rather than being protected by an ovary or fruit. Most of them are monoecious, having male and female reproductive structures –cones– on the same tree. The male cones (herbaceous cone) fall as soon as the pollen is shed. After wind pollination, the seeds in the female cones (woody cone) mature in the third year. When the cone is ripe the scales open and the seeds (pine nuts) are released.

This chart shows the most common blooming and harvesting months, which may vary depending on the pine tree species and the area. The harvest may last from autumn to spring since the pine nuts are well stored in their cones on the tree.

In hand-harvesting, the still-closed green cones are collected by gatherers and piled into heaps to dry in the sun, so that the cone scales open and loosen the seeds. In recent years the use of machines during harvesting has increased. Mechanical harvesting is performed by tree shakers, with special vibrating jaws coupled onto fronted booms of a farm tractor or on compact utility tractors with armored cabins.

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Sources:• Ciesla, W. M. (1998). Non-wood forest products from conifers. FAO. • Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual

Report. Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri.• Mutke, S., et al. (2012). 4 Mediterranean Stone Pine: Botany and Horticulture. Horticultural reviews, 39, 153.

Overview of Pine Nut Production

Global pine nut production has presented marked fluctuations over the years, partly because pine trees tend to produce periodic crops, with good crops every 3-5 years on average. The average annual production of pine nuts between 2014/15 and 2018/19 was 27,000 metric tons (MT), kernel basis.

China is the main producing country with a 5-year average (2014/15-2018/19) crop of 8,100 MT, which accounts for 30% of world production. The average production in North Korea was 4,900 MT, and in the Russian Federation, Pakistan and Afghanistan 3,600 MT each. Note that these averages are merely the arithmetic averages –pine trees usually have periodic crops, with good crop years approx. every 3-5 years.

In general, North Korea, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Russia export a significant percentage of their in-shell production to China. For instance, from the 2016/17 Russian crop, around 50% was exported to China and the remaining half was consumed domestically. Russia is one of the major producers of Pinus sibirica and P. koraiensis. However, due to the vastness and isolation of the Siberian forest, only around 10% of the production potential is currently harvestable.

PINE NUT WORLD GROWING AREAS

Pinus koraiensis

Pinus sibirica

Pinus pinea

Pinus edulisP. cembroides

Pinus gerardiana(P. griffithii)

Pinus lambertianaP. monophyllaP. quadrifoliaP. sabineanaP. torreyanaP. coultieri

Pinus pinea

Pinus massoniana

Pinus yunnanensis

Pinus pumila

Main Pine Nut Growing Areas (Source: INC)

Enjoyed by the Greeks and Romans in ancient times, the pine nut kernel is an edible nut with an exquisite flavor and high in vitamin E and K, as well as minerals such as iron and magnesium. Pine nuts are considered a delicacy in many cultures. They can be eaten raw, but also lightly roasted. In addition, they are highly valued as ingredients for a great number of recipes both sweet and savory.

Pine Nuts2. Products

Pine nuts are known around the world as a nutritious snack (raw or roasted) and may be found in some nut mixes. In addition, pine nuts are a culinary ingredient widely used in the elaboration of dishes and salads, in the confectionery and bakery industry, as well as the world-famous pesto sauce.

Although the dietary values differ depending on the species, the nutritional profile of the pine nuts is very interesting. They are high in polyunsaturated fats, thiamin, vitamin E and K, and minerals such as iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and manganese. They are as also a source of fiber, potassium, niacin and riboflavin.

Pine nuts can be pressed to obtain a gourmet cooking oil. The highest quality oil is obtained by cold pressing. Pine nut oil is also used in cosmetics, beauty products and as a high-end massage oil. The by-product of pine nut oil pressing is called pine nut flakes (contains up to 30% oil) and is usually used in granolas, chocolates and bars.

When flakes are further pressed and crushed to extract oil, they turn into pine nut meal or flour, which has a wide variety of culinary uses such as in pastries, pancakes, etc. Mixed with water, the meal becomes a beverage or cream.

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NUTRIENTS IN 100 g OF DRIED PINE NUTS* Calories 673 kcalProteins 13.69 gSaturated fat 4.899 gMonounsaturated fat 18.764 gPolyunsaturated fat 34.071 gCarbohydrate 13.08 gFiber 3.7 gPhosphorus 575 mgPotassium 597 mgMagnesium 251 mgManganese 8.802 mgZinc 6.45 mgIron 5.53 mgCopper 1.324 mgVitamin E 9.33 mgVitamin K 53.9 µgThiamin 0.364 mgNiacin 4.387 mg

* Includes pignolia (Pinus pinea) and Korean (Pinus koraiensis). Source: USDA FoodData Central, January 2019.

Pine Nuts / 2. Products

Used as a Snack

Uses as an Ingredient

Other Uses

Dishes Pesto and other sauces, salads, toppings, traditional vegetable, fish and meat dishes, and desserts.

Bakery Industry Breads, cookies, cakes, pastries.Pine nuts may be made into flour for cakes.

Confectionary Industry Pine nuts are used as an ingredient in chocolates and bars.

Beverage Industry Pine nut meal or flour mixed with water is made into pine nut beverages and cream.

Oil Industry Due to their polyunsaturated fats (34%), pine nuts are a source of vegetable oil. Their oil can be used as dressing for salads, for cooking or eaten raw.

Cosmetics Pine nut oil can be used in cosmetics and soaps.

Sources:• Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers

Association 95th Annual Report. Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri.

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Examples of commercialized pine nut snacks

Raw pine nuts Roasted pine nuts

Pine nuts in nut and dried fruit mixtures Candied pine nuts

There are approximately 30 species of Pinus that produce seeds and that have been used as a food item, at least by indigenous tribal cultures. Pine nuts of different pine species differ in size, nutritional value and taste.

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Around 30 pine species in Asia, Europe, the Near East and North America produce edible pine nuts. However, only a small number of species are commercially important. Many species were historically important but lost their importance as emphasis shifted from nut production to timber or charcoal.

Some species (e.g., P. armandii) are found to cause pine nut syndrome. Pine nut syndrome is a pine nut related dysgeusia whose symptoms are predominantly related to taste disturbances, such as a constant bitter or metallic taste. The taste disturbance has been reported to occur 1-2 days after ingestion of pine nuts from the species of Pinus armandii.

Scientific name Common name Natural range Economic valuePinus edulis Colorado pinyon,

two-leaf pinyonUSA (semi desert from Texas to California), Mexico (northwest Chihuahua)

High.Important producer of pine nuts.

Pinus monophylla Single-leaf pinyon, one leaf pine

USA (Nevada, California, Utah), Mexico (northwest Chihuahua)

High.Important producer of pine nuts.

Pinus cembroides Mexican pinyon, three-leaf pinyon

USA (southeast Arizona, southwest New Mexico, west Texas), Mexico (northeast Sonora, south Chihuahua to Puebla)

High historically.Locally important.

Pinus quadrifolia Parry pinyon California, Mexico High historically.Locally important.

Pinus nelsonii Nelson pinyon Central Mexico mountains Locally important.Seeds collected with P. cembroides.

Pinus pinceana Pince pinyon Central Mexico mountains Locally important.Pinus torreyana Torrey, Soledad,

Ione or Del Mar pineUSA (California mountains) High historically.

Traditional food for indigenous tribes.

Pinus sabiniana Digger pine, bull pine, grey pine

USA (California), Mexico High historically.Traditional food for indigenous tribes.

Pinus coulteri Coulter pine USA (California), Mexico Traditional food for indigenous tribes.

Pinus lambertiana Sugar pine USA (California, Oregon), Mexico (Sierra Nevada)

Traditional food for indigenous tribes.

Major Pine Species with Edible Nuts

NORTH AMERICA

Pine Nuts / 3. Varieties

Sources:• Ballin, N. Z. (2012). A trial investigating the symptoms related to pine nut syndrome. Journal of Medical Toxicology, 8(3), 278-280.• Ciesla, W. M. (1998). Non-wood forest products from conifers. FAO. • Sharashkin, L., & Gold, M. (2004, August). Pine nuts: species, products, markets, and potential for US production. In Northern Nut Growers Association 95th Annual Report.

Proceeding for the 95th annual meeting, Columbia, Missouri.• UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013.• China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products. Chinese Pine Nuts.

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Korean pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus koraiensis

Siberian stone pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus sibirica

Yunnan pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus yunnanensis

Japanese stone pine kernel. Botanical name: Pinus pumila

Himalayan pine kernel.Botanical name: Pinus griffithii

Pictures courtesy of the China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products.

Scientific name Common name Natural range Economic valuePinus koraiensis Korean pine,

Red pineEast China, Japan, Korea, Russia (southeast Siberia)

Very high. Cultivated.Important in international trade.Use: edible, oil crashing.

Pinus sibirica Siberian pine, Siberian cedar

Russia (central Siberia, Urals), north Kazakhstan, north Mongolia

Very high. Cultivated.Use: edible, cooking oil.

Pinus pinea Italian stone pine Mediterranean Europe and Near East

Very high. Cultivated.Important in international trade.Use: edible.

Pinus gerardiana Chilgoza pine East Afghanistan, Pakistan, north India

High. Important in international trade.

Pinus pumila Japanese stone pine, Siberian dwarf pine

East Siberia, east China, Korea, north Japan, north Mongolia

Medium.Locally important.Use: edible as snack and paste.

Pinus wallichiana, Pinus griffithii

Himalayan (white) pine, Bhutan pine

Himalayas, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan

Medium.Locally important.

Pinus yunnanensis Yunnan pine South China, Tibet Use: edible, oil crashing.Pinus bungeana Lacebark pine,

Bunge’s pineNorthwest China Medium.

Locally important. Pinus tabulaeformis Chinese pine North China Accounts for 3% of Chinese pine nut

export shares.Pinus cembra European stone pine Alps, Carpathian Mountains Low.

Locally important.

EURASIA

There are several pine tree species that produce edible nuts. Pine nuts of different pine species vary widely in size and shape, which can influence the processing methods. They are processed to obtain the pine nut kernel in optimal condition.

Pine Nuts4. Processing

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PROCESSING, STORAGE, PACKAGING, AND TRANSPORT

PROCESSING

The cones are collected while they are still closed. Once collected, they are dried in the sun (during the summer) or in a dryer where they are heated, allowing the opening of the scales and the release of the seeds (pine nuts). The advantage of using dryers is that cones can be opened according to the market requirements, not only during summer.

Once opened, the cones are ground and the pine nuts are separated from the cone scales and fragments by sieves and cyclones. The pine nuts are then stored in-shell.

Before shelling, in-shell pine nuts are soaked in water to increase elasticity and avoid kernel fractures. Shelling should avoid damaging the kernels. There are two main methods of shelling: rotary-friction shelling and impact shelling. In the rotary-friction method, the pine nuts are placed between two hard surfaces that roll against the nuts and remove the shell. The distance between the two surfaces must be adjusted to crack the shell without damaging the kernel. For this reason, pine nuts need to be sized in order to get a uniform size lot. In the impact shelling method, pine nuts do not need to be sized since they are cracked by impact against a hard surface. The latter method is more appropriate for soft-shell pine nuts.

After shelling, pine nut kernels are separated from the shell by sieves and cyclones. Further processing consists of humidity standardization, polishing with sawdust and classification by size, wholeness and color, using electronic colorimeters.

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Figure 1. This flow chart is not exhaustive, it is only an overview of the steps involved in processing pine nuts.

Pine Nuts / 4. Processing

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Sources:• Mutke, S., et al. (2012). 4 Mediterranean Stone Pine: Botany and Horticulture. Horticultural reviews, 39, 153.• UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013.• CODEX. 1972. Code of hygienic practice for tree nuts. CAC/RCP 6-1972.

Pictures courtesy of PICASA,Piñones de Castilla S.A.

Shelling machine.

Cleaning and drying.

STORAGE

Pine nuts may be stored within the cones (before opening) or after separating the pine nuts from the cones. Pine nuts can be stored for years in-shell without becoming rancid.

According to the Codex Alimentarius:(i) For optimum storage conditions, store at approximately 1 °C (34 °F) with a

relative humidity from 60% to 70%. In temperate countries, nuts in-shell and kernels may be stored in sound, dry warehouses at ambient temperatures.

(ii) Where nut products are stored under conditions in which they may become infested by insects and/or mites, appropriate methods of protection should be used regularly. Nut products should be stored in such a manner that they can be fumigated in situ or that they can be removed elsewhere for fumigation in special facilities (e.g., fumigation chambers, steel barges, etc.). Cold storage can be used, either to prevent infestation in localities where insects are likely to be present in ordinary storage or to prevent insects damaging the nut products.

PACKAGING

According to the UNECE Standard DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, the kernels must be packed in such a way as to properly protect the produce.

The materials used inside the package must be clean and of a quality such as to avoid causing any external or internal damage to the produce. The use of materials, particularly of paper or stamps bearing trade specifications, is allowed, provided that the printing or labeling has been done with non-toxic ink or glue.

Packages must be free of all foreign matter.

TRANSPORT

According to the Codex Alimentarius, the means of conveyance of the product should be adequate for the purpose intended and should be of such material and construction as will permit thorough cleaning, and should be so cleaned and maintained as not to constitute a source of contamination for the product.

To ensure the safety of pine nuts, growers and processors have developed a wide range of good practices. Pine nuts should be produced with consideration for quality control and international food safety standards. Careful practices have been established to control the chemical, microbiological, pesticide and contaminant content.

Pine Nuts5. Quality Requirements 5

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QUALITY - MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS (UNECE)

The kernels must be:• intact, however, slight superficial damage is not considered a defect,

•sound; produce affected by rotting or deterioration such as to make it unfit for human consumption is excluded,

•clean; practically free of any visible foreign matter,

•sufficientlydeveloped; no shrunken or shriveled kernels which are extremely flat and wrinkled, or with desiccated, dried-out or tough portions affecting more than 20% of the kernel,

• freefromblemishes, areasofdiscolorationorspreadstains in pronounced contrast with the rest of the kernel affecting in aggregate more than 10% of the surface of the kernel,

•wellformed,

• freefromlivingpests, whatever their stage of development,

• freefromdamagecausedbypests, including the presence of dead insects and/or mites, their debris or excreta,

• freefrommold filaments visible to the naked eye,

• freefromrancidity,

• freefromabnormalexternalmoisture,

• freefromforeignsmelland/ortaste.

Pine Nuts / 5. Quality Requirements

PESTICIDES

The use of chemicals is carefully regulated and so they must be used responsibly. Producers should be aware of all rules regarding the products they use and the maximum residue limits in the destination market.

RTE: Ready-to-eat. FP: For further processing.

InternationalMaximumLevelsforAflatoxinsinPineNuts

Country Aflatoxin B1 (ppb)

Total Aflatoxins (B1-B2-G1-G2) (ppb) Source

China 5 (RTE & FP) GB 2761-2017 Food Safety National Standard for Maximum Levels of Mycotoxins in Foods

EU 5 (FP)2 (RTE)

10 (FP)4 (RTE)

Commission Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 of 19 December 2006 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs

USA 20 (RTE & FP) U.S. Food and Drug Administration Compliance Policy Guides (CPG) CPG 555.400. Foods - Adulteration with Aflatoxin

CONTAMINANTS

QUALITY ASSURANCE

The following programs are endorsed by the industry:• Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), which provide growers guidelines and principles to apply for on-farm production and post-

production processes, to provide safe and healthy pine nuts, minimizing potential hazards, such as pathogens, contaminants and pest management materials.

• Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs), which define procedures to be used in the processing, packaging, storing, and transport stages by handlers to ensure the quality of the product. GMPs are used by handlers to treat pine nuts under the best sanitary conditions.

• Good Storage Practices (GSP), which provide procedures that should be in place in the post-harvest, processing and transport stages by handlers to control the moisture content and temperature, and to minimize the levels of fungi (especially aflatoxins) and insects.

• Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP), which provides a systematic preventive approach to food safety that identifies, assesses and controls the risk of biological, chemical and physical hazards in production processes.

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Sources:• UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013.• China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products. Chinese Pine Nuts.

CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

UNECE China Chamber of Commerce (Grade A)

ChemicalMoisture ≤ 3.5%, except for:

− Pinus pinea ≤ 6.0%− Pinus gerardiana ≤ 7.0%

≤ 3%

Free fatty acids - ≤ 0.5%Peroxide value - ≤ 5 meq/kgMicrobiologicalTotal plate count - Ready to eat: ≤ 10,000 cfu/g

Material: ≤ 30,000 cfu/gYeast and mold - ≤ 3,000 cfu/gColiforms - ≤ 1,000 cfu/gE. coli - ≤ 10 cfu/gSalmonella - Negative

The following requirements are extracted from the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Standard DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels (2013 edition), and from the brochure “Chinese Pine Nuts” published by the China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products in 2012. This kit merely outlines some international and national standards. Operators are free to choose which standards they use in their business practice, subject to national regulations.

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UNECE Standards were created by the Specialized Section on Standardization of Dry and Dried Produce of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) with the help and recommendations of the International Nut and Dried Fruit Council (INC) and the supervision and approval of the main producing countries.

The DDP-12 Standard applies to decorticated pine nut kernels of species (cultivars) grown from Pinus pinea L., Pinus koraiensis, Pinus sibirica, Pinus yunnanensis, Pinus wallichiana, Pinus gerardiana and Pinus pumila, intended for direct consumption or for food when intended to be mixed with other products for direct consumption without further processing. This standard does not apply to pine nut kernels that are processed by salting, sugaring or flavoring, or for industrial processing.

SIZING

According to UNECE Standard DDP-12, sizing is optional. When sized, size is determined by count, i.e., the number of kernels per unit of weight according to the following table.

Species Size Kernels per 100 grams

Pinus pinea L., Pinus gerardiana600-700

More than 700

Pinus koraiensis550 500-600650 600-750

Pinus sibirica850 800-900

1,100 1,000-1,200

Pinus yunnanensis850 800-900

1,200 1,000-1,500Pinus wallichiana, Pinus griffithii 400 350-550Pinus pumila 1,800 1,700-2,400

Pine Nuts / 6. Standards and Grades

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Sources:• UNECE STANDARD DDP-12 concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of pine nut kernels, Edition 2013.• China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products. Chinese Pine Nuts.

Defects allowedTolerances allowed*

Extra Class Class I Class II(a) Tolerances for produce not satisfying the minimum requirements, of which no more than: 3 5 7

Not sufficiently developed, shrunken and shrivelled 1 3 5Moldy 0.5 0.5 1Rancid or damaged by pests, rotting or deterioration 0.5 2 3Living pests 0 0 0Oily, mottled, yellow peak 1 2 2Pine nuts in the germination stage 1 2 2Pine nuts with superficial defects or traces of seed coat 2 4 6

(b) Size tolerancesFor produce not conforming to the size indicated, in total 5 10 10

(c) Tolerances for other defectsForeign matter - empty shell, loose shell, shell fragments, fragments of hull, dust (by weight), of which no more than:

0.05 0.05 0.05

Empty shells, loose shell (number of pieces in 2.5 kilograms) 1 1 1

Broken kernels 1 3 10Pine nut kernels belonging to other species covered by this standard (excluding Pinus pinea) 2 5 5

*Percentage of defective produce, by number or weight.

The China Chamber of Commerce of I/E of Foodstuffs, Native Produce and Animal By-products published the following specifications in the brochure “Chinese Pine Nuts”.

Species Size (kernels per 100 g) Shape ColorPinus koraiensis 550-750 Long triangle Ivory whitePinus sibirica 800-1,200 - Ivory whitePinus yunnanensis 850-1,500 Oval Grey whitePinus pumila 1,700-2,400 Triangle Light yellowPinus tabulaefomis 4,000-6,000 Oval Milk whitePinus griffithii 500-800 Cylinder -

CLASSIFICATION & QUALITY TOLERANCES

In the UNECE Standard DDP-12, the classification is made according to the defects allowed, which are listed in the following table.