Physics for Wikipedia

8/6/2019 Physics for Wikipedia

1/29

Physics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,searchFor other uses, seePhysics (disambiguation).

Physics

Massenergy equivalence

History of...

[hide]Branches

Classical mechanics

Electromagnetism

Statistical mechanics

Thermodynamics

Quantum mechanics

Relativity

[hide]Research Fields

Applied PhysicsAstrophysics

Atomic, molecular, and optical

physics

Biophysics

Condensed matter physics

Geophysics

Particle Physics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#column-one#column-onehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#searchInput#searchInputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass-energy_equivalencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic,_molecular,_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Physics


2/29

[hide]Past Experiments

2-degree-Field Galaxy Redshift

Survey

2-Micron All-Sky Survey

(2MASS)

Bell test BOOMERanG

Camera obscura experiments

Cavendish experiment Cosmic

Background Explorer (COBE)

Davisson-GermerDouble slit

Foucault pendulum Franck

Hertz Gravity Probe A

Gravity Probe BGeiger

Marsden Homestake

experiment Oil-drop

experiment Michelson-Morley

Neutrino experiment Sloan

Digital Sky Survey Stern-

Gerlach Wilkinson Microwave

Anisotropy Probe

[hide]Current Experiments

Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

HERA LHC

James Webb Space Telescope

[hide]Scientists

BohrDirac Einstein

FeynmanGalileo Heisenberg

MaxwellNewtonPauli

Rutherford Schrdinger

Wigner

This box:viewtalkedit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOOMERanG_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOOMERanG_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics#Experimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer_(COBE)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer_(COBE)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davisson-Germer_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davisson-Germer_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_slit_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_slit_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_slit_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck_Hertz_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck_Hertz_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-Marsden_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-Marsden_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-Marsden_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestake_Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestake_Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-drop_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-drop_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern-Gerlach_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern-Gerlach_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Colliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron_Elektron_Ring_Anlagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Paulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Paulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Paulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Wignerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Physics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Physics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2dF_Galaxy_Redshift_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2MASShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOOMERanG_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics#Experimentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer_(COBE)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer_(COBE)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davisson-Germer_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_slit_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foucault_pendulumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck_Hertz_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franck_Hertz_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Probe_Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-Marsden_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger-Marsden_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestake_Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homestake_Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-drop_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil-drop_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson-Morley_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Surveyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern-Gerlach_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stern-Gerlach_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Colliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron_Elektron_Ring_Anlagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Hadron_Colliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Paulihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugene_Wignerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Physics&action=edit


3/29

A magnetlevitating above ahigh-temperature superconductordemonstrates the Meissnereffect.

Experiment using a (likely argon) laser

Physics (Greek:physis meaning "nature") is thenatural science which examines

basic concepts such asenergy, force, and spacetime and all that derives from these, suchas mass, charge, matter[1] and its motion.[2]More broadly, it is the general analysis of

nature, conducted in order to understand how the worldand universebehave.[3][4]

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion

ofastronomy.[5] Over the last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymouswithphilosophy, chemistry, and certain branches ofmathematicsandbiology, but during

the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern

science in its own right.[6] However, in some subject areas such as inmathematicalphysics andquantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish.

Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding

have often translated into new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often

resonate with the other sciences, mathematics and philosophy. For example, advances inthe understanding ofelectromagnetism led directly to the development of new products

which have dramatically transformed modern-day society (e.g., television, computers,

and domestic appliances); advances in thermodynamics led to the development ofmotorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired the development of the calculus.

Contents

[hide]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-feynman-0#cite_note-feynman-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-4#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-5#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculushttp://toggletoc%28%29/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Military_laser_experiment.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Military_laser_experiment.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_zoom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meissner_effect_zoom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-temperature_superconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissner_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-feynman-0#cite_note-feynman-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-1#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-2#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-4#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-5#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculushttp://toggletoc%28%29/


4/29

1 Introduction

o 1.1 Scope and Aims

o 1.2 The scientific method

o 1.3 Theory and experiment

o 1.4 Relation to mathematics and the other scienceso 1.5 Philosophical implications

2 History

o 2.1 Ancient times

o 2.2 Middle Ages

o 2.3 The Scientific Revolution

o 2.4 1895 to present

3 Branches of Physics

o 3.1 Classical mechanics

o 3.2 Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics

o 3.3 Electromagnetism

o 3.4 Relativityo 3.5 Quantum mechanics

4 Research fields

o 4.1 Condensed matter

o 4.2 Atomic, molecular, and optical physics

o 4.3 High energy/particle physics

o 4.4 Astrophysics

5 Application and influence

6 Current research

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

[edit] Introduction

See also:List of basic physics topicsandList of basic science topics

[edit] Scope and Aims

Thisparabola-shaped lava flow illustratesGalileo's law of falling bodies as well as

blackbody radiation you can tell the temperature from the color of the blackbody.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Introduction#Introductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Scope_and_Aims#Scope_and_Aimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#The_scientific_method#The_scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Theory_and_experiment#Theory_and_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Relation_to_mathematics_and_the_other_sciences#Relation_to_mathematics_and_the_other_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Philosophical_implications#Philosophical_implicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#History#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Ancient_times#Ancient_timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Middle_Ages#Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#The_Scientific_Revolution#The_Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#1895_to_present#1895_to_presenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Branches_of_Physics#Branches_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Classical_mechanics#Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics#Thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Electromagnetism#Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Relativity#Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Quantum_mechanics#Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Research_fields#Research_fieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Condensed_matter#Condensed_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physics#Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#High_energy.2Fparticle_physics#High_energy.2Fparticle_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Astrophysics#Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Application_and_influence#Application_and_influencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Current_research#Current_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_basic_physics_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_basic_physics_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_basic_science_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Introduction#Introductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Scope_and_Aims#Scope_and_Aimshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#The_scientific_method#The_scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Theory_and_experiment#Theory_and_experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Relation_to_mathematics_and_the_other_sciences#Relation_to_mathematics_and_the_other_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Philosophical_implications#Philosophical_implicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#History#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Ancient_times#Ancient_timeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Middle_Ages#Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#The_Scientific_Revolution#The_Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#1895_to_present#1895_to_presenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Branches_of_Physics#Branches_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Classical_mechanics#Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanics#Thermodynamics_and_statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Electromagnetism#Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Relativity#Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Quantum_mechanics#Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Research_fields#Research_fieldshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Condensed_matter#Condensed_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physics#Atomic.2C_molecular.2C_and_optical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#High_energy.2Fparticle_physics#High_energy.2Fparticle_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Astrophysics#Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Application_and_influence#Application_and_influencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Current_research#Current_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#External_links#External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_basic_physics_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_basic_science_topicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_falling_bodieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody_radiation


5/29

Cassiopeia A asphericallysymmetric remnant of the 1680 supernova

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from the smallest sub-atomic particles, to the

largest galaxies. Included in this are the very most basic objects from which all other

things are composed of, and therefore physics is sometimes said to be the "fundamentalscience".[7]

Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of simpler

phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the things we see around us to root

causes, and then to try to connect these causes together in the hope of finding an ultimatereasonfor why nature is as it is. For example, theancient Chinese observed that certain

rocks (lodestone) were attracted to one another by some invisible force. This effect was

later called magnetism, and was first rigorously studied in the 17th century. A little earlierthan the Chinese, the ancient Greeksknew of other objects such as amber, that when

rubbed with fur would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also

first studied rigorously in the 17th century, and came to be called electricity. Thus,

physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause(electricity and magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that

these two forces were just two different aspects of one force electromagnetism. This

process of "unifying" forces continues today (see section Current research for moreinformation).

[edit] The scientific method

Physics uses the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using amethodical approach to compare the implications of the theory in question with the

associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations conducted to test it.

Experiments and observations are to be collected and matched with the predictions andhypotheses made by a theory, thus aiding in the determination or the validity/invalidity of

the theory.

Theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any empirical test

are often called scientific laws, or natural laws. Of course, all theories, including thosecalled scientific laws, can always be replaced by more accurate, generalized statements if

a disagreement of theory with observed data is ever found.[8]

[edit] Theory and experiment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Everythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Everythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Everythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroweak_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Current_research#Current_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-7#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Casa-72l.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Casa-72l.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia_Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Everythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Everythinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroweak_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#Current_research#Current_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-7#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=4


6/29

Main articles: Theoretical Physics andExperimental Physics

The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall

Dispersion oflight by aprism

Lightning is electric current

The culture of physics has a higher degree of separation between theory and experiment

than many other sciences. Since the twentieth century, most individual physicists have

specialized in eithertheoretical physics orexperimental physics. In contrast, almost allthe successful theorists inbiology and chemistry(e.g. American quantum chemist and

biochemistLinus Pauling) have also been experimentalists, although this is changing as

of late.

Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with existing experiments

and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists devise and performexperiments to test theoretical predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory

and experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon each other.Progress in physics frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that

existing theories cannot explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable

predictions, which inspire new experiments. In the absence of experiment, theoretical

research can go in the wrong direction; this is one of the criticisms that has been leveledagainst M-theory, a popular theory in high-energy physics for which no practical

experimental test has ever been devised. Physicists who work at the interplay of theory

and experiment are often calledphenomenologists.

Theoretical physics is closely related tomathematics, which provides the language ofphysical theories, and large areas of mathematics, such as calculus, have been invented

specifically to solve problems in physics. Theorists may also rely on numerical analysis

andcomputer simulations. The fields ofmathematical and computational physics areactive areas of research. Theoretical physics has historically rested onphilosophy and

metaphysics; electromagnetism was unified this way.[9]Beyond the known universe, the

field oftheoretical physics also deals with hypothetical issues,[10] such asparallel
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-fallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Paulinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoristhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-9#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PrismAndLight.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PrismAndLight.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astronaut-EVA.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astronaut-EVA.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-fallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Paulinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoristhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-9#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretation


7/29

universes, a multiverse, and higher dimensions. Physicists speculate on these

possibilities, and from them, hypothesize theories.

Experimental physics informs, and is informed by,engineering andtechnology.Experimental physicists involved inbasic research design and perform experiments with

equipment such asparticle accelerators and lasers, whereas those involved inappliedresearch often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI) andtransistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areaswhich are not well explored by theorists.[citation needed]

[edit] Relation to mathematics and the other sciences

In theAssayer(1622), Galileo noted that mathematics is the language in which Nature

expresses its laws.[11] Most of the experimental results in physics are numerical

measurements and theories in physics use mathematics to give numerical results to matchthese measurements. Physics relies on mathematics to provide the logical framework in

which physical laws can be precisely formulated and predictions quantified. Wheneveranalytic solutionsof equations are not feasible,numerical analysisandsimulations can beutilized. Thus, scientific computation is an integral part of physics, and the field of

computational physics is an active area of research.

A key difference between physics and mathematics is that since physics is ultimately

concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by comparing thepredictions of its theories with data procured from observations and experimentation,

whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, not limited by those observed

in the real world. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large areaof research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known asmathematical

physics.

Physics is also intimately related to many other sciences, as well as applied fields like

engineering and medicine. The principles of physics find applications throughout theothernatural sciences as some phenomena studied in physics, such as the conservation of

energy, are common to allmaterial systems. Other phenomena, such as

superconductivity, stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only

appear in some systems. Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistryis sometimes included), because each of the other disciplines (biology, chemistry,

geology, material science,engineering, medicine etc.) deals with particular types of

material systems that obey the laws of physics.[7] For example, chemistry is the science of

collections of matter (such as gases and liquids formed ofatoms and molecules) and theprocesses known as chemical reactionsthat result in the change ofchemical substances.

The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by theproperties of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics such

as quantum mechanics (called in this casequantum chemistry), thermodynamics, and

electromagnetism.

[edit] Philosophical implications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse_(science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse_(science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_dimensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-10#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-worlds_interpretationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiverse_(science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_dimensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_acceleratorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laserhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-10#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation#computer_simulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6#cite_note-Feynman_lectures-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleculehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_substancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=6


8/29

For more details on this topic, seePhilosophy of Physics.

Physics in many ways stemmed from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first

attempt to characterize matter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to aninvariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline firmament, and Aristotle's book

Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well into the18th century, physics was known as "Natural philosophy".

By the 19th century physics was realized as apositive scienceand a distinct disciplineseparate from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science,

relies onphilosophy of science to give an adequate description of the scientific

method.[12] The scientific method employs a priori reasoningas well as a posteriori

reasoning and the use ofBayesian inferenceto measure the validity of a given theory.[13]

Truth is ever to be found in the simplicity, and not in the multiplicity andconfusion of things.

Isaac Newton

The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has

also raised new questions. Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the

philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature ofspace and time, determinism,

and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[14]

Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for

instance Laplace, who championedcausal determinism,[15] andErwin Schrdinger, who

wrote on Quantum Mechanics.[16] The mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been

called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[17]a view Penrose discusses in his book, The

Road to Reality.[18]Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes

issue with Penrose's views.[19]

[edit] History

Main article:History of physics

See also:Famous physicists andNobel Prize in physics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-11#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-12#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-13#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-14#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-14#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-15#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-16#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-16#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-16#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-17#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-17#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-18#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_physicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thaleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democritushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-11#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori_(philosophy)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-12#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-13#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_determinismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-14#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-15#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Penrosehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-16#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-17#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-18#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famous_physicistshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_physics


9/29

Aristotle

[edit] Ancient times

Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the natural world. One

great mystery was the predictable behavior of celestial objects such as the Sun and theMoon. Several theories were proposed, the majority of which were disproved. Early

physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and never verified by

systematic experimental testing as is popular today. Many of the commonly acceptedworks ofPtolemy and Aristotle are not always found to match everyday observations.

Even so, Indian philosophers and astronomers gave many correct descriptions in atomism

andastronomy, and the GreekthinkerArchimedesderived many correct quantitativedescriptions ofmechanics and hydrostatics.

[edit] Middle Ages

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)

The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers eventuallyresulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific

Revolution of the late 17th century. The precursors to the scientific revolution can be

traced back to the important developments made in India and Persia, including theelliptical model of planetary orbits based on the heliocentricsolar systemdeveloped by
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_science_and_technology#Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ibn_al-Haytham.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ibn_al-Haytham.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_(Aristotle)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_science_and_technology#Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greecehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_system


10/29

Indian mathematician-astronomerAryabhata; the basic ideas ofatomic theory developed

by Hindu andJaina philosophers;[citation needed] the theory of light being equivalent to energy

particles developed by the Indian Buddhist scholars Dignga and Dharmakirti;[citation needed]

the optical theory oflight developed by ArabscientistAlhazen; theAstrolabeinvented by

the Persian Mohammad al-Fazari; and the significant flaws in thePtolemaic system

pointed out by Persian scientistNasir al-Din al-Tusi. As the influence of the IslamicCaliphate expanded to Europe, the works of Aristotle preserved by theArabs, and the

works of the Indians and Persians, became known in Europe by the 12th and 13th

centuries.

The Middle Agessaw the emergence ofexperimental physics with the development of anearly scientific method emphasizing the role ofexperimentation and mathematics. Ibn al-

Haytham (Alhazen, 9651039) is considered a central figure in this shift in physics from

a philosophical activity to an experimental one. In hisBook of Optics (1021), hedeveloped an earlyscientific method in order to prove the intromission theory ofvision

and discredit the emission theory of vision previously supported by Euclidand

Ptolemy.

[20][21][22]

His most famous experiments involve his development and use of thecamera obscura in order to test several hypotheses on light, such as light travelling instraight lines and whether different lights can mix in the air.[23]This experimental tradition

in optics established by Ibn al-Haytham continued among his successors in both the

Islamic world, with the likes ofQutb al-Din al-Shirazi,Kaml al-Dn al-Frisand Taqial-Din, and in Europe, with the likes ofRobert Grosseteste,Roger Bacon,Witelo, John

Pecham, Theodoric of Freiberg, Johannes Kepler,Willebrord Snellius,Ren Descartes

andChristiaan Huygens.

[edit] The Scientific Revolution

Galileo

The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians (e.g., Howard Margolis) to have

begun in 1543, when the first printed copy ofNicolaus Copernicus'sDe Revolutionibus

(most of which had been written years prior but whose publication had been delayed) was

brought fromNuremberg to the astronomer, who died soon after receiving the copy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dign?gahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmakirtihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_al-Fazarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Thiele-19#cite_note-Thiele-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-20#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Gorini-21#cite_note-Gorini-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-22#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-22#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kam?l_al-D?n_al-F?ris?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_al-Dinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_al-Dinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grossetestehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grossetestehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pechamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pechamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snelliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snelliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snelliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren?_Descarteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dign?gahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharmakirtihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_al-Fazarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haythamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_theory_(vision)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Thiele-19#cite_note-Thiele-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-20#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-Gorini-21#cite_note-Gorini-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_obscurahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-22#cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kam?l_al-D?n_al-F?ris?http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_al-Dinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taqi_al-Dinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grossetestehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witelohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pechamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pechamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willebrord_Snelliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren?_Descarteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg


11/29

Sir Isaac Newton

Further significant advances were made over the following century by Galileo Galilei,Christiaan Huygens, Johannes Kepler, and Blaise Pascal. During the early 17th century,Galileo championed the use of observation and experimentation to validate physical

theories. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results indynamics, in

particular the Law ofInertia. In 1687,Newtonpublished thePrincipia, detailing two

comprehensive and successful physical theories:Newton's laws of motion, from whicharise classical mechanics; andNewton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the

fundamental force ofgravity. Both theories agreed well with experiment. ThePrincipia

also included several theories in fluid dynamics. Classical mechanics was re-formulatedand extended by Leonhard Euler, French mathematicianJoseph-Louis Comte de

Lagrange, Irish mathematical physicistWilliam Rowan Hamilton, and others, who

produced new results in mathematical physics. The law of universal gravitation initiatedthe field ofastrophysics, which describes astronomical phenomena using physical

theories.

After Newton defined classical mechanics, the next great field of inquiry within physics

was the nature ofelectricity. Observations in the 17th and 18th century by scientists suchas Robert Boyle,Stephen Gray, and Benjamin Franklin created a foundation for later

work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge

andelectric current.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_Law_of_Gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_Law_of_Gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eulerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamiltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamiltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gray_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_Clerk_Maxwell.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiae_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematicahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_laws_of_motionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton's_Law_of_Gravitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Eulerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rowan_Hamiltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gray_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current


12/29

James Clerk Maxwell

In 1821, the English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday integrated the study of

magnetism with the study of electricity. This was done by demonstrating that a moving

magnetinduced anelectric current in aconductor. Faraday also formulated a physical

conception ofelectromagnetic fields. James Clerk Maxwell built upon this conception, in1864, with an interlinked set of 20 equations that explained the interactions between

electricand magnetic fields. These 20 equations were later reduced, using vectorcalculus, to a set of four equations, namelyMaxwell's equations, by Oliver Heaviside.

In addition to other electromagnetic phenomena, Maxwell's equations also can be used to

describe light. Confirmation of this observation was made with the 1888 discovery of

radio by Heinrich Hertzand in 1895 when Wilhelm Roentgen detectedX rays. Theability to describe light in electromagnetic terms helped serve as a springboard forAlbert

Einstein's publication of the theory ofspecial relativity in 1905. This theory combined

classical mechanics with Maxwell's equations.

From the late 17th century onwards, thermodynamics was developed by physicist andchemist Robert Boyle,Thomas Young, and many others. In 1733,Daniel Bernoulli used

statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating

the field ofstatistical mechanics. In 1798,Benjamin Thompson demonstrated theconversion of mechanical work into heat, and in 1847 James Joule stated the law of

conservation ofenergy, in the form of heat as well as mechanical energy. Ludwig

Boltzmann, in the 19th century, is responsible for the modern form of statistical

mechanics.

[edit] 1895 to present

In 1895, Wilhelm Rntgen discovered X-rays, which turned out to be high-frequencyelectromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, and

further studied by Marie Curie,Pierre Curie, and others. This initiated the field ofnuclear

physics.

In 1897, Joseph J. Thomson discovered the electron, the elementary particle which carrieselectrical current in circuits. In 1904, he proposed the first model of theatom, known as

theplum pudding model. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in 1808 by John

Dalton.)

These discoveries revealed that the assumption of many physicists that atoms were thebasic unit ofmatterwas flawed, and prompted further study into the structure ofatoms.

In 1911,Ernest Rutherford deduced from scattering experiments the existence of a

compact atomic nucleus, with positively charged constituents dubbedprotons.Neutrons,the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in 1932 by Chadwick. The equivalence

of mass and energy (Einstein, 1905) was spectacularly demonstrated during World War

II, as research was conducted by each side into nuclear physics, for the purpose of

creating a nuclear bomb. The German effort, led by Heisenberg, did not succeed, but the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faradayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Heavisidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Roentgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoullihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoullihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Thompsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Thompsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R?ntgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Becquerelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Sklodowska-Curiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.J._Thomsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom/plum_puddinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Chadwickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_Clerk_Maxwell.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Faradayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductor_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell's_equationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Heavisidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Hertzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Roentgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_rayshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoullihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Thompsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_R?ntgenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Becquerelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Sklodowska-Curiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Curiehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.J._Thomsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_circuithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom/plum_puddinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Daltonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Rutherfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_scatteringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Chadwickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon


13/29

Allied Manhattan Projectreached its goal. In America, a team led byFermiachieved the

first man-made nuclear chain reaction in 1942, and in 1945 the world's first nuclear

explosive was detonated at Trinity site, nearAlamogordo,New Mexico.

In 1900, Max Planckpublished his explanation ofblackbody radiation.[24] This equation

assumed that radiators are quantized in nature, which proved to be the opening argumentin the edifice that would become quantum mechanics.

Albert Einstein in 1947

1905 was Albert Einstein's "Annus Mirabilis", during which he wrote five

groundbreaking papers, including a paper onSpecial Relativity. Relativity prescribes adifferent transformation between reference frames than classical mechanics which

necessitated the development of relativistic mechanics. Einstein built further on the

special theory by including gravity into his calculations, and published his theory ofgeneral relativity in 1915. General relativityunifies space and time into a single entity,

spacetime.

One part of the theory of general relativity are Einstein's field equations. These describes

how thestress-energy tensorcreates curvature ofspacetime and forms the basis ofgeneral relativity. Further work on Einstein's field equation produced results which

predicted the Big Bang,black holes, and the expanding universe. Einstein believed in a

static universe and tried (and failed) to fix his equation to allow for this. However, by1929 Edwin Hubble's astronomical observations suggested that the universe is expanding.

Thus, the universe must have been smaller and therefore hotter in the past. In 1933 Karl

Jansky at Bell Labs discovered the radio emission from theMilky Way, and thereby

initiated the science ofradio astronomy. By the 1940s, researchers like George Gamowproposed theBig Bangtheory,[25]evidence for which was discovered in 1964;[26]Enrico

Fermi and Fred Hoyle were among the doubters in the 1940s and 1950s. Hoyle had

dubbed Gamow's theory theBig Bangin order to debunk it. Today, it is one of theprincipal tenets ofphysical cosmology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamogordohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-23#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_papershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_referencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_field_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanding_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Janskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Janskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-24#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-24#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-24#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-25#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hoylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_Head.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_Head.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weaponhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamogordohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbody_radiationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-23#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einsteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annus_Mirabilis_papershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_referencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_relativityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_field_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_holehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expanding_universehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Janskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Janskyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Wayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Banghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-24#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-25#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_Fermihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Hoylehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology


14/29

Beginning in 1900,Planck, Einstein,Niels Bohr, and others developed quantum theories

to explain various anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels.

In 1925, Heisenberg and 1926, Schrdingerand Paul Dirac formulatedquantummechanics, which explained the preceding heuristic quantum theories. In quantum

mechanics, the outcomes of physical measurements are inherentlyprobabilistic; the

theory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes thebehavior of matter at small distance scales. During the 1920sErwin Schrdinger,Werner

Heisenberg, and Max Born were able to formulate a consistent picture of the chemical

behavior of matter, a complete theory of the electronic structure of the atom, as abyproduct of the quantum theory.

Richard Feynman (center) with Robert Oppenheimer(right) relaxing at a Los Alamos

social function during the Manhattan Project.

Quantum field theorywas formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be

consistent with special relativity. It was devised in the late 1940s with work by RichardFeynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, and Freeman Dyson. They formulated

the theory ofquantum electrodynamics, which describes the electromagnetic interaction,

and successfully explained the "Lamb shift". Quantum field theory provided the

framework for modernparticle physics, which studies fundamental forcesand elementaryparticles.

Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee, in the 1950s, discovered an unexpected

asymmetry[27] in the decay of a subatomic particle. In 1954, Yang and Robert Millsthendeveloped a class ofgauge theories[28] which provided the framework for understanding

the nuclear forces. The theory for the strong nuclear force was first proposed by Murray

Gell-Mann. The electroweak force, the unification of the weak nuclear forcewithelectromagnetism, was proposed by Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salamand Steven

Weinberg and confirmed in 1964 by James Watson CroninandVal Fitch. This led to the

so-called Standard Modelof particle physics in the 1970s, which successfully describes

all the elementary particles observed to date.

Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools forcondensed matter physics,

whose largest branch is solid state physics. It studies the physical behavior of solids and

liquids, including phenomena such as crystal structures, semiconductivity, andsuperconductivity. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include Bloch, who created

a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Bornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Schwingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin-Itiro_Tomonagahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Dysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Dysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Ning_Yanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Leehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Leehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-26#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mills_(physicist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mills_(physicist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-27#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-27#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_nuclear_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroweak_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_nuclear_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_nuclear_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheldon_Lee_Glashowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdus_Salamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdus_Salamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Weinberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson_Croninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Watson_Croninhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_Fitchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_Fitchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val_Fitchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Modelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Blochhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niels_Bohrhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirachttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Schr?dingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_Heisenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Bornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_field_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Schwingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin-Itiro_Tomonagahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_Dysonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Ning_Yanghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Leehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-26#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Mills_(physicist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics#cite_note-27#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_nuclear_forcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wik

Documents

Physics for Wikipedia