Physics F5 Repaired)

Pusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Waves

Transfer energy through medium without transferring matter

Transverse Waves

Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation

E.g. : water wave, electromagnetic wave (EMW), light wave

Longitudinal Waves

Particles of the medium oscillates in a direction parallel to the direction of propagation

E.g. : sound wave

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1.1 Understanding Wave


Ripple Tank

Water waves are produced by a vibrating bar The tank is leveled, to ensure wave propagate at a uniform speed The water acts as a lens to produce a pattern of bright and dark

fringes under the tank

Phase

the current position in the cycle of something that changes cyclically

Wavelength, λ

The distance between two successive particles which are at the same phase

Wavefronts

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Line or a surface that connects points that are moving at the same phase and has the same distance from the source of the waves

Always perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

Oscillating Systems

Equilibrium position → zero resultant force

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Complete oscillation

Amplitude - the maximum displacement of an object from its equilibrium position

Period, T - time required for one complete oscillation or vibration Frequency, f - the number of complete oscillations that take place in

one second,

Displacement-Time Graph

From the graph, we can determine the:

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Pusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya o Amplitudeo Periodo Frequency

Displacement-Distance Graph

From the graph, we can determine the:o Amplitudeo Wavelengthso Locations of crests and troughs or compressions and

rarefactions

Wave Speed

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Damping

decrease in the amplitude of an oscillating system energy is losing to the surrounding as heat energy frequency of the system remains unchanged

Internal Damping External DampingOscillating system loses energy due to the extension and compression of the molecules in the system

Oscillating system loses energy to overcome frictional force or air resistance that act on it

Natural Frequency

the frequency of the system when there is no external force acting on it

Forced Oscillation

Oscillation with the help of external force

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Resonance

In a forced oscillation, if the frequency of the external force is equal to the natural frequency of the system, the system will oscillates with maximum amplitude

When pendulum X oscillates, the other pendulums are forced to oscillate, pendulum D will oscillates with the largest amplitude

Pendulum X and D have equal length and consequently equal natural frequency

Resonance happens to pendulum D, and it oscillates with maximum amplitude

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Reflection of Waves

Direction changes λ is the same f is the same v is the same Angle of incident is the same as the angle of reflection

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1.2 Reflection of Waves


Refraction of Waves

Direction changes λ in denser medium is shorter f is the same v in denser medium is smaller Angle of incident is the greater as the angle of reflection

i. Deeper to shallower region

ii. Shallow to deeper region

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1.3 Refraction of Waves


iii. Other patterns

iv. Natural phenomenon

At the bay, the energy of the wave spread to a wider area, and cause

the amplitude to reduce

At the cape, the energy of the wave is converged to a smaller area,

therefore the amplitude of the wave increases

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Diffraction of Waves

Diffraction is the spreading of a wave when it travels through an

opening Or an obstacle

Direction changes λ is the same f is the same v is the same Amplitude decreases after diffraction

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1.4 Diffraction of Waves


Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Diffraction

i. Wavelength

Shorter wavelength Longer wavelength

Diffracted less Diffracted more

ii. Size of Opening

Small opening Large opening

Diffracted more Diffracted less

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Principle of Superposition

States that where two or more waves meet, the total displacement

at any point is the vector sum of the displacements that each

individual wave would cause at that point

Interference

The phenomenon when two or more waves overlap in the same

region of space at the same time

Constructive interference (anti-node)

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1.5 Interference


Destructive interference (node)

Formula:

Coherent Waves

Two wave sources which are coherent have the same frequency

(therefore same wavelength) and in phase or constant phase

difference

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Sound Wave

Sound wave is a mechanical wave that requires a medium for its

propagation, therefore sound wave cannot propagate in vacuum

Sound waves propagate fastest in solid and slowest in gas

Amplitude depends on loudness

Frequency depends on the pitch

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1.6 Sound Wave


Electromagnetic Waves

Can travel in free space,

without medium

Electromagnetic waves are electrically neutral

Electromagnetic wave show characteristic of polarization

Polarization of Transverse Waves

A transverse wave can be polarized

Plane polarized light will be produced when light travels through a

polarizing material like polaroid

Polaroid is a type of material that only allows light waves of one

plane to pass through. This means that only a portion of the source

light gets to pass through the polaroid

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Violet Red

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2.1 Electric Fields and Charge FlowPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Electric Current

Rate of flow of electric charges

Electric Charges

(+) charge and (-) charge Same charges repel each other Different charges attract each other Unit : Coulomb (C)

,

Relationship between Electric Charges and Electric Current

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Van de Graaf generator is used to produce and store charges When the generator is switched on, the needle of the ammeter is

deflected, showing there is current flow This is because:

When generator is switched on, the motor of the generator will drive the rubber belt causing it to rub against the roller and hence becomes charged

The charge is carried to the metal dome and is collected there

The collected charges at the dome will cause a shock if touched by hand, showing that electric charges are present

Electric Field

The region where electric charges experiences electric forces

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The lines coming out of the (+) charge is called electric lines of force or electric field lines

Characteristics of electric lines of force: Moves from (+) charge to (-) charge Indicates magnitude and direction of electric field Never cross each other Most dense around objects with great amount of charges

Application of Electric Field

Application Explanation

Ping pong ball coated with conducting material

When the ping pong ball touches the (-) plate, it will be negatively charged and move away from the (-) plate

When the ping pong ball touches the (+) plate, it will be positively charged and move away from the (+) plate

This cycle is repeated until voltage supply is turned off

When the EHT power supply is switched on, the candle flame divided into two portions in opposite directions

This is because the flame ionises the air molecules to (+) and (-)

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Candle flame ions

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2.2 Relationship between Electric Current and Potential Difference


Potential Difference

the work done when 1 C of charge moves between two points in an electric field

Ohm’s Law

The electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it if the temperature and other physical conditions are constant

The constant of is defined as the resistance

Hence,

Ohmic Conductor

Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law

Resistance

A measure of how much a conductor resists the flow of electricity

Unit : ohm (Ω)

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Factors Affecting Resistance

Factors Experimental Proof

Length of wire,

Cross-sectional area f wire,

Type of material of wire

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Temperature,

Metal

Resistance increases with temperature

Semiconductor

Resistance decreases with temperature

Superconductor

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Pusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya a material whose resistance becomes zero when its temperature

drops to a certain value called the critical temperature

Advantages: Able to sustain large currents Smaller power loss during transmission Less heat energy is wasted Small-sized motors and generators can be used

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2.3 Series and Parallel CircuitsPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Comparison between Series and Parallel Circuits

Series Parallel

Same current at all points, because the current has only one path to flow

Different current at all points

The current from battery splits into branches and joins back together at the end of the branches

Hence,

Different voltage at different points

All resistance share the voltage

Same voltage at the same junctions

All resistance receive full voltage

If one bulb is removed, the other bulbs go out

If one bulb is removed, the other bulbs keep working

Effective resistance, R Effective resistance, R

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2.4 Electromotive Force and Internal ResistancePusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Electromotive Force

The work done by a source in driving one coulomb of charge around a complete circuit

Indicated on the labels on batteries

Unit : volts (V)

The e.m.f. = the reading of the voltmeter which is connected directly across the terminals of the cells

Comparison between Electromotive Force and Voltage

Electromotive Force Voltage

Indicates the electrical energy given to 1 C of charge flowing through the cell or source

Indicates the electrical energy that is transformed to other forms of energy when 1 C of charge passes through a component in a closed circuit.

Used in reference to source of electrical energy

Used in reference to electrical component in a circuit

Represented by the voltmeter reading in an open circuit (when switch is opened)

Represented by the voltmeter reading in a closed circuit (when switch is closed)

Measured in JC-1 or volts, V Measured in JC-1 or volts, V

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2.4 Electromotive Force and Internal ResistancePusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Internal Resistance

The internal resistance, r of a source or battery is the resistance against the moving charge due to the electrolyte in the source or cell

Work is needed to drive a charge against the internal resistance This causes a drop in potential difference across the cell as the charge

flows through it and loss of heat energy in the cell

Hence,

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2.5 Electrical Energy and Power


Electrical Energy

the ability of the electric current to do work

or

kWh is defined as the amount of energy consumed in 1 hour by an electrical appliance at the rate of 1 kW

Electrical Power

Rate of electrical energy dissipated or transferred

Unit : watt (W)

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3.1 The Magnetic Effect of Current-Carrying ConductorPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Electromagnets

Device which magnetism is produced by electric current

Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Straight Wire

Right hand grip rule, the thumb refers to the direction of current while the fingers refer to the direction of magnetic field

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Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Coil

Magnetic Field Due to a Current in a Solenoid

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Strength of Magnetic Field of a Solenoid Increases when :

Magnitude of current increases Number of turns increases Turns of wire are pushed closer so that the solenoid becomes shorter Use soft iron core

Soft Iron Core

Magnetise and demagnetise quickly

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3.2 Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor in a Magnetic FieldPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Resultant Magnetic Field (Catapult Effect)

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Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Catapult Force

Strength of magnetic field Magnitude of current Length of conductor Angle

Force between 2 Current-Carrying Conductors

Parallel Current flow will attract Opposite direction of current flow will repel

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DC Motor

Component FunctionCommutator reverse the direction of current in

the coil every half rotation so that the coil continues to turn in same direction

Carbon brush to be in contact with the commutator so the current from the battery always enters the coil

Spring push the brush so it will always be in contact with the commutator

Speed of motor increase when:

Strength of magnetic field increases Number of turns of wire increases Area of the coil increases The coil is wound over an iron core The magnitude of the current increases

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3.3 Electromagnetic InductionPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Electromagnetic Induction

Production of current by a changing magnetic field Produced when :

A conductor cuts across a magnetic field

A change of magnetic flux linkage with a coil

Faraday’s Law

The size of the induced e.m.f is directly proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts through the magnetic field lines

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Size of induced current can be increased by :

Moving the magnet or the solenoid at a higher speed Increasing the number of turns of the wires on the solenoid increasing the strength of the magnetic field through the use of a

stronger magnet

Lenz’s Law

The direction of the induced current in a solenoid is such that its magnetic effect always oppose the change producing it

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Fleming’s Right Hand Rule (Dynamo Rule)

DC Generator

Induced current always positive, this shows that DC is induced

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AC Generator

Induced current varies from positive to negative value, hence AC is induced

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Comparison between DC and AC

DC ACOne direction Direction changes every cycleConstant magnitude Magnitude always changeCannot flow through capacitor Can flow through capacitorCannot flow through transformer Can flow through transformer

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3.4 Transformers


Transformers

device which increases or decreases an alternating voltage based on the principle of electromagnetic induction

The purpose of the common iron core is to provide a magnetic field linkage in the secondary coil

Operating Principle of a Transformer

i. Connect AC to the primary coil onlyii. The AC produces a flux with changing magnitude and direction which

link the primary coil with the secondary coiliii. Changing of magnetic flux induces current with changing magnitude

and direction too, hence AC is produced at the secondary coil

Types of Transformers

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3.4 Transformers


Step-up transformer,

Step-down transformer,

Ideal Transformers

Efficiency 100% Ways to improve efficiency:

Improvements ExplanationUse thick wires To lower the resistance,

hence reducing heat lossUse a laminated core Prevent eddy currents

(currents that are induced in the soft iron core) to flow, hence reducing heat loss

Use soft iron core Requires little energy to magnetise

Winding the secondary coil on top of the primary coil

Reduces magnetic flux leakage

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3.4 Transformers


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3.5 Generation and Transmission of Electricity


Renewable Energy Sources

Energy source that is continually replaced Eg : hydroelectric, solar energy, biomass energy, wind energy etc.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Energy source that cannot be replaced Eg : oil fuel, diesel fuel, natural gas, coal, nuclear energy

Ways of Generating Electricity

Electricity is produced using generators A generator has a huge magnet that is turned by a turbine As the magnet turns inside a coil of wire, electricity is produced by

electromagnetic induction Many sources of energy are used to turn these turbines

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3.5 Generation and Transmission of Electricity


Transmission of Electricity

Electrical energy is transmitted to the consumers using long transmission cables

Power loss by the heating effect due to the resistance of the cables can be reduced by lowering the current, but this will be too expensive (use thick cables and good conductors such as gold). So, to reduce power loss, voltage is increased

,

Current can be reduced, hence reducing power loss

National Grid Network

Network of cables connecting electrical power stations to consumers

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4.1 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope


Thermionic Emission

Process involving the emission of electrons from a hot metal surface

Process:i. A metal has many free electrons

ii. But, the electrons are bound to the surface of the metal

iii. When heated at a high temperature, electrons are emitted

iv. This is because of some of the electrons have gained enough kinetic energy to break free from the metal surface

Factors that Increases the Rate of Thermionic Emission

Large surface of area High temperature of metal Type of metal with high rate of thermionic emission Nature of metal surfaces (coated with metal oxide)

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Cathode Ray

Produce a continuous flow of fast moving electrons known as cathode rays

The heated cathode will emit electrons that are accelerated towards the anode which then will be focused by the anode into a fine beam

Properties : Negatively charged Travel in straight lines in vacuum and cast shadows Possess momentum and kinetic energy due to

moving electrons Travel at a very high speed Can cause fluorescence (kinetic energy is converted

into light energy) Can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields,

direction of deflection is determined by Fleming’s left hand rule

Strike heavy metal target to produce X-rays, rest of the energy is released as heat

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Maltese Cross Tube

Step ObservationConnect only the 6 V power supply to the filament

A dark shadow of the Maltese Cross is formed on the screen.

Connect the 6 V and EHT to the electrodes

A darker shadow of the Maltese Cross is seen on the screen. The shadow is surrounded by green light.

Bring a pole of a bar magnet near to the neck of the tube.

Two shadows are seen on the screen. The light shadow remains at the centre of screen while the dark one is shifted.

Reverse the pole of the bar magnet

The light shadow remains at the centre of screen while the dark one is shifted to the opposite direction.

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Deflection Tube

Step ObservationNo voltage is connected to the deflecting plates

No deflection

Top plate is connected to EHT (+) while the lower is connected to EHT (-)

Deflected upward

Top plate is connected to EHT (-) while the lower is connected to EHT (+)

Deflected downward

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Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

Main part Components Function

Electron gun Filament Heat up the cathode

Cathode Heated cathode emits electrons through the process of thermionic emissions

Control grid Control the number of electrons in the electron beams hence controlling the brightness of the spot on the screen

Focusing anode To focus the electrons into a beam and to attract electrons from the area of the control grid.

Accelerating anode

To accelerate the electron beam towards the screen

Deflection system

Y-plate Move the electron vertically

X-plate Move the electron horizontally

Fluorescent screen

Inside surface coated with zinc sulphide

Fluoresces when electron beam strikes it

Glass coated with graphite and connected to Earth

Channels the electrons striking the screen to Earth

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Control Knob FunctionPower switch Controls the power supplyFocus Controls the sharpness of the bright spotBrightness Controls the brightness of the spot on the

screenX-shift Displaces the spot horizontallyY-shift Displaces the spot verticallyY-gain (volts/div) Controls the magnitude of vertical

position of the bright spot by adjusting the amplitude

Time-base control (time/div) Controls the magnitude of horizontal deflection of the bright spot by adjusting the frequency

X-input Connects to the X-plateY-input Connects to the Y-plateAC/DC switch DC displays wave form of potential

difference of DC and AC AC displays wave form of potential

difference of AC only, DC component is blocked by a capacitor in the C.R.O. circuit

Earth connection Connects the input terminal to Earth

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4.2 Semiconductor Diodes


Conductors

Materials which allow current to flow through them easily Have free electrons which can drift between their atoms

Insulators

Materials which do not conduct electric current

Semiconductors

Materials whose conductivity and resistance between those of good conductors and those of good insulators

Silicon

Semiconductor Each electron in the outermost shell can form a covalent bond with

one electron in the outermost shell of another atom Hence, forms 4 covalent bonds

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Doping

Process of adding a small amount of impurities (dopants) into a pure semiconductor to improve its conductivity

Type of Doping Products Characteristicsp-type semiconductor Dopants : Boron, Indium,

Gallium, Aluminium Acceptor atom Majority charge carrier of

holes

n-type semiconductor Dopants : Antimony, Phosphorus, Arsenic

Donor atom Majority charge carrier of

electrons

Semiconductor Diodes

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p-n junction is formed when p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined together

At the p-n junction, a region called the depletion layer is formed Forward-biased :

Reverse-biased :

Diodes as Rectifier

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Half-wave rectifier :

L = Load

Full-wave rectifier

Smoothing

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When the current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor is charged and stores energy

When there is no current pass through the resistor and capacitor, the capacitor discharge and the energy from it is used to produce voltage across the resistor

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4.3 Transistors


Transistors

Consist of 3 terminals : Base, Collector and Emitter Functions as automatic switch and amplifier

, B = Beta (label on transistor)

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4.4 Logic Gates


Logic Gates

Electronic switches with one or more input terminal but only one output terminal

Logic Gate

Symbol Boolean Algebra

Truth TableInput Output

A B X

AND 0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

OR 0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

NOT 0 1

1 0

NAND 0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

NOR 0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

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5.1 Nucleus of an Atom


Composition of the Nucleus

Matters consist of atoms Atoms have large dense core called the nucleus The electrons move in orbit around the nucleus The subatomic particles in the nucleus is called the nucleon which are

the protons and neutrons Protons carry (+) charge, neutrons have no charge and electrons

carry (-) charge

Nuclide Notation

Isotopes

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5.1 Nucleus of an Atom


Isotopes of an element which have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers

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5.2 Radioactive DecayPusat Tuisyen Faiza Jaya

Radioactivity

Spontaneous (the process is not triggered by any external factors such as temperature of pressure) and random (there is no way to tell which nucleus will decay, and cannot predict when it is going to decay) disintegration of an unstable nucleus accompanied by the emission of an energetic particle or photon (radioactive emission) to become more stable

Detectors of Radiation

Detector Type of radiation that can be detected

Geiger-Muller tube α, β, γCloud chamber α, β, γSpark counter αPhotographic badge α, β, γGold leaf electroscope α, βScintillation α, β, γ

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Types of Radiation

Characteristic Alpha Beta Gamma Nature Helium nuclei,

or 2 p and 2

n

Electrons, Electromagnetic radiation

Mass 4 1/2000 0 Charge +2e -e Neutral Speed Slow, 10% of

speed of lightFast 99% of speed

of lightSpeed of light,

Ionizing ability High Medium Low Tracks in cloud chamber

Penetrating power

Stopped by A few cm of air or a piece of

paper

A few mm of aluminium foil

A few cm of lead

Deflected by electric and magnetic fields

Yes Yes No

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Effect of electric field

Effect of magnetic field

Photographic Badge

Is worn by worker in nuclear power stations and in radiation laboratories

The badge contains a photographic film in a light-proof packet The parts of the film which had received radiation will be darkened The degree of darkening indicates the amount of radiation the

person had been exposed to

Cloud chamber

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It shows the path travelled by the ionizing radiation in air The radioactive produces ions in the air that is saturated with alcohol

vapour The alcohol vapour condenses on the ions to make the tracks of the

radiation visible. Alpha particles are best for this because it ionization power is high

Geiger-Muller Tube (GM tube)

The radioactive emission enters the tube through the mica window and ionizes the argon gas

The electrons and positive ions are attracted towards the anode and cathode respectively

When electrons are collected by the anode, a pulse of current is produces

The pulses of current are counted by a scaler or ratemeter The scaler gives the number of counts over a certain period of time Initially the GM tube is switched on without the presence of any

radioactive substance. The reading displayed by the ratemeter is known as the background count rates

When the GM tube is used to detect radioactive emission, the background count rate is subtracted from the count rate obtained

Half-Life

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The time taken for the number of radioactive substance to be reduced to half of its original price

Activity (Decay Rate)

The number of decays per second of the unstable nuclei Each decay = one photon Unit : becquerel (Bq) = 1 decay per second

As the number of radioactive substance decreases, the activity will also decrease

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5.3 Uses of Radioisotopes


Radioisotopes

Unstable isotopes which decay and give out radioactive emissions

Application of Radioisotopes

Application Function Explanation

Nuclear medicine

Tracers A radioisotope is taken in by a patient through the digestive system, by inhalation or through the blood vessels by injection

The radiation emitted enables organs such as thyroid, bones, heart and liver to be easily imaged by imaging equipment. Disorders can then be detected

Chemotherapy Cobalt-60 destroys cancer cells

Thyroid cancer Iodine-131 destroys thyroid cancer cells

Industry Smoke detectors Contain a weak radioactive source such as americium-241

Alpha radiations are used When the there is smoke, it will

absorb the alpha particle, hence reducing the current

This will trigger the alarm Americium-241 has a long half-life,

460 years so that the substance will last longer

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5.3 Uses of Radioisotopes


Thickness control

Beta radiations are used for thin sheets

If the sheet is too thin, the reading of the detector increases

A signal is sent from the roller control to the rollers so that the pressure on the sheets can be reduced

Detecting pipe leaks

A radioactive substance which emits beta particles is added to a fluid

A larger increase in the count rate will indicate that there is leak in that area

Archaeology Carbon dating Calculate the age of fossils by measuring the remaining carbon-14

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5.4 Nuclear Energy


Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.)

The unit of mass for atoms and subatomic particles such as the proton, neutron an electron

Unit : u

Carbon-12

kg

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei

Fission occurs when the nucleus of an atom is bombarded with a neutron

The energy of the neutron causes the target nucleus to split into two (or more) nuclei that are lighter than the parent nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy during the process

Chain Reaction

Self-sustaining reaction in which the products of a reaction can initiate another similar reaction

In order for a chain reaction to occur, the sample of uranium must have a certain minimum mass known as critical mass

Graphite can act as moderators to slow down the chain reaction to occur at a smaller critical mass 68

5.4 Nuclear Energy


Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion is the combining of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a vast amount of energy during the process

Mass defect

Sum of the masses before reaction subtract sum of the masses after reaction

, m/s

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5.4 Nuclear Energy


Generation of Electricity

Nuclear reactor It produces tremendous amount of energy through nuclear fission

Uranium fuel rods The nuclei are split by neutrons in a controlled chain reaction, releasing a large amount of energy. The energy released heats up the cold gas that passes through the reactor core

Graphite moderator Acts as a moderator to slow down the fast neutrons produced by the fission. Slower neutrons are more readily captured by the uranium nuclei

Coolant Take away the heat from the nuclear reactor. Substances with high specific heat capacity such as water and carbon dioxide are used

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5.4 Nuclear Energy


Boron or cadmium control rod

The boron control rods absorb neutrons. It can control the rate of fission reaction. When the rods are lowered into the reactor core to absorb some of the neutrons, the rate of the fission reaction reduced

Concrete shield Prevents leakage of radiation from the reactor core

Heat exchanger Heat energy from the very hot gas is used to boil the water into steam

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5.5 Proper Management of Radioactive Substances


Negative Effects of Radioactive Substances

When radioactive emissions strike living cells, it can cause ionization to the molecules of the cells. This may cause the cells to be killed, resulting in tissue damage

At low doses of radiation, the damaged tissues can repair itself rapidly but at high doses of radiation can cause burn effects known as radiation burns

The ionization effect of radiation can also cause genetic damage to the molecules of the cells. This may lead to the formation of cancerous cells and tumour development

If the radioactive substances gets inside the body, the most harmful effects come from the alpha particles because they have the highest ionization power

If the radioactive source is outside the body, the greatest danger is from gamma sources because gamma rays have the highest penetrating power. The alpha particles would not penetrate clothing and is highly unlikely to reach living cells in the body

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5.5 Proper Management of Radioactive Substances


Precautions in Handling Radioactive Substances

Read and follow the advice and instructions marked on radioactive sources, equipment and work manuals

Gloves must be worn any time an unsealed source is being used or whenever contamination is likely to occur

Laboratory coats, long pants, and closed-toe footwear should be worn

When using radioactive liquids, plastic or metal trays (stainless steel washes easily) should be utilized to contain potential spills

Radioactive material, especially liquids, should be kept in unbreakable containers whenever possible. If glass is used, a secondary container is necessary

Radiation badges containing photographic film should be worn to monitor exposure to radiation

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Physics F5 Repaired)