Physico- Chemical Analysis of Rain Water Collected From 10 Selected Areas in Awka South, Anambra State, Nigeria

7/29/2019 Physico- Chemical Analysis of Rain Water Collected From 10 Selected Areas in Awka South, Anambra State, Nigeria

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U.C. Umeobika et al., IJSID, 2013, 3 (1), 56-73

International Journal of Science Innovations and Discoveries, Volume 3, Issue 1, January-February 2013

56

PHYSICO- CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF RAIN WATER COLLECTED FROM 10 SELECTED AREAS IN AWKA SOUTH, ANAMBRA

STATE, NIGERIA

U.C. Umeobika1, V.I.E Ajiwe1, M.I. Iloamaeke1, C.O Alisa2

Department of Pure and Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Physical Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State,

Nigeria1. Chemical Science Department, Novena University, Ogume, Delta State2

ISSN:2249-5347

IJSID

International Journal of Science Innovations and Discoveries An International peerReview Journal for Science

Research Article Available online through www.ijsidonline.info

Received: 09-01-2013

Accepted: 11-02-2013

*Corresponding Author

Address: Department of Pure

and Industrial Chemistry,

Nnamdi Azikiwe University,

Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria

Name:

U.C. UmeobikaPlace:

Anambra State, Nigeria

E-mail:

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The physico-chemical properties of rain water from ten selected areas in Awka-

South LGA of Anambra State, Nigeria were carried out. Rain water samples were collected

from ten locations (viz Unizik campus, Okpunor, Ifite, Amawbia, Udoka Estate, Iyiagu

Estate, Emma Nnaemeka, Ngozika estate, Nibo and Nise) of Awka-South Metropolis,

during the month of April to August, 2010. Rain water samples were grouped into two

periods: early rain (from month of April to June) and late rain (July and August). The

rainwater samples were analysed using standard methods. The result of analyses in therainwater samples indicated that the mean concentration of all the heavy metals studied

were generally above the WHO recommended limit. The high mean concentrations of

heavy metals coupled with high coefficients of variation suggest anthropogenic sources

for arsenic, iron, mercury, zinc, lead, chromium, bismuth and selenium.The pH values of

the samples for the two periods showed slight acidity (ie mean pH


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INTRODUCTION

Rainwater is an important source of fresh water especially for those who live in rural areas, where water use is

limited due to scarcity or where surface and underground water quality is poor. In many areas, rainwater is still considered as

a safe and suitable source of potable water, and it is commonly used as such (Vikaskumar et al, 2007). Rainfall constitutes one

of the largest sources of water for Nigeria. The rainfall is mainly during the rainy season which varies from north to south

Hence, it runs from June to October and April to October in the north and south, respectively (Nsi, 2007). Developments inscience and technology have brought improved standard of living, but have also unwittingly introduced some pollution into

our environment. Substances are regarded as pollutants if they are present in concentration toxic to man, animals or plants,

have an odour or in some other ways that irritate our senses (Wooven, 1974). These include emissions and effluent outflow

from factories, refineries, waste treatment plant, oil or gases of varying quality and quantity that are emitted into the

atmosphere. As noted by Ayodele and Abubakar (1998) the concentrations of pollutants correlated with the industrial

activities of metropolis. These chemicals are mostly odourless, colourless and tasteless and most importantly, are health

hazards. The massive increase in chemical utilization due to recent development in science and technology has greatly

increased different contaminant present in water generally, regardless of its source (Dinrifo et al., 2010). Pollutants released

to the atmosphere as gases and aerosols from human activities are transported and deposited several kilometers away from

their source as dry or wet deposition, with its consequences over living organisms in the ecosystems (Steinnea,1990).

Acid rain is formed through a complex process of chemical reaction involving air pollution (Kemp, 1971). The most

important pollutants that contribute to the formation of acid rain are nitrogen oxide and sulphur-dioxide, which react with

moisture in the atmosphere, to form nitric and sulphuric acid. The sulphur and nitrogen compounds that contribute to acid

rain primarily come from manmade source, such as industries, utilities, automobiles, and other form of transportation and

industrial processes. Acid rain has recently become a serious environmental problem in many industrialized countries

including Japan, in Europe and in the northeast areas of the United States and Canada (Adachi, et al1990).

Many researchers including Evans et al(2006), Yasunori and Akira (1981), Nicole and Mason (2001) and Susumu et a

2001) have considered the effect of acid rain on human health. These Pollutants that contributes to acid rain may be carried

hundreds of miles before being deposited on the earth (Steinnea, 1990). Because of this, it is sometimes difficult to determine

the specific sources of these acid rain pollutants as non-industrial area can experience dry or wet deposition (Dinrifo et al.

2010).

Awka is not an industrial city but is surrounded by oil producing states like Delta, Rivers, Akwa Ibom etc. Air

pollutants from industrial activities of these states like gas flaring, bush burning etc., may be carried over hundreds of miles

before being deposited which can cause environmental pollution to the neighbouring cities in which Awka city is among. The

farmers and horticulturists in Awka depend on rainfall and the water harvested by the usual methods of rainwater harvesting

(RWH). Beside farming and horticultural activities, the quality of rainwater has the potential to affect aquaculture (Adewolu eal2009). There is a need therefore, to investigate the effects of these pollutants on the rainfall occurring in the vicinity of these

industries and neighbouring industries. Such study may form the basis for the recommendation of remedial actions. In this

study, rainwater samples from ten locations namely Unizik campus, Okpunor, Ifite, Amawbia, Udoka Estate, Iyiagu Estate

Emma Nnaemeka, Ngozika estate, Nibo and Nise were collected in order to check for the physical and chemical properties.


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MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

Description of Study Site

Awka is in the tropical zone of Nigeria and experiences two distinct seasons brought about by the two predominant

winds that rule the area: the South Western Monsoon winds from the Atlantic Ocean and the North Eastern dry winds from

across the Sahara desert. Seven months of heavy tropical rains (May - October) are followed by five months of dryness

(November - March). The Harmattan a particularly dry and dusty period occurs for about two weeks within the dry seasonThe temperature is generally hot and humid in the range 27-28 degrees celsius during July through December but rising to 35

degrees between February and April. All the selected areas were within Awka-South Local Government Area, Anambra State,

Nigeria.

Collection of Rain Water Samples

Samples of rainwaterwere collected in the ten (10) different places ( Unizik campus, Okpunor, Ifite, Amawbia, Udoka

estate, Iyiagu estate, Emma nnaemeka, Ngozika estate, Nibo and Nise) of Awka-South Metropolis. Care was taken to ensure

that samples were representative of water to be examined and that no accidental contaminations occur during sampling

Sample collectors were trained and made aware of the need to send the samples to the laboratory for analysis without delay.

Rainwater samples were collected in clean plastic containers by placing the container on a raised platform in an open

environment in other to ensure that the water have no contact with any object before getting into the container. The samples

were analysed on the same day of collection to preclude possible chemical reactions that may occur in the samples. The

sample points were assigned serial numbers (SN) as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Sampling points of rain water samples

SN Sampling Points

1 Unizik Campus

2 Okpuno

3 Ifite

4 Amawbia5 Udoka Estate

6 Iyiagu Estate

7 Emma Nnaemeka

8 Ngozika Estate

9 Nibo

10 NiseParameters Tested

The parameters, pH, Total Solid, Total Suspended Solid, Total Dissolved Solid, Total Hardness and Chloride were

determined by the methods outlined by AOAC, 1980. Nitrate was determined by Brucine method while sulphate was

determined by Turbidmetric method (AOAC, 1980). Dissolved Oxygen and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) were

determined using the Clemets Method. The heavy metals present in the samples were determined by the use of Atomi

Absorption Spectrometer (Pye Unican 969) connected to computer software.


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RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Table 2: Physico-chemical Parameters of Rain water in April, 2011

ND = Not detected

Table 2 showed the physico-chemical parameters of rain water samples for the month of April 2010. The results shothat the pH values was in the range of 4.9-5.7 (mean: 5.56) which was above permissible level of WHO rain water standards.

high acidity of these rain water samples strongly suggested anthropogenic effect which might be due to climate change,

pollutants from burning of fossil fuel, solid wastes etc.

Similarly all the selected metals analyzed were detected and they were above the WHO standard (WHO, 1993). T

suggested anthropogenic effects which might be due to climate change or air pollutants that have travelled for hundreds of mil

the air before reacting with the rain to form a wet deposition. Other parameters such as hardness, dissolved oxygen (D

Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean W

S

pH 5.8 4.9 5.3 5.7 5.6 5.7 5.7 5.7 5.6 5.6 5.56 5.8Acidity (mg/l) 0.403 0.96 0.464 0.125 0.336 0.288 0.256 0.320 0.288 0.334 0.489

Hardness (mg/l) 36.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 10.8 2DO (mg/l) 4.8 4.0 4.4 5.6 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.8 3.2 4.28COD (mg/l) 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0

BOD (mg/l) 35.2 36.0 35.6 34.4 36.0 36.0 36.0 36.0 35.2 36.8 35.72

Hydroxyl(mg/l)

ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Bicarbonate(mg/l)


Alkalinity(mg/l)


TSS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TDS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Chlorides, Cl(mg/l)

3.976 3.976 1.988 1.988 3.976 1.988 1.988 3.976 3.976 1.988 2.982

Nitrates, NO3-(mg/l)

6.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 4.5 13.0 7.5 10.0 20.0 7.5 7.65

Sulphates, SO42-(mg/l)

9.0 12.0 5.0 8.0 4.0 9.0 9.0 2.0 8.0 4.0 7 2

Calcium(mg/l)

13.10.23

12.080.21

11.020.26

0.890.25

3.560.22

7.080.23

3.560.22

2.340.21

7.90.22

14.090.23

7.562

Magnesium(mg/l)

11.940.23

1.010.21

8.110.26

10.010.25

3.90.26 6.790.23

4.060.22

11.080.21

12.110.22

13.140.23

8.215 1

Iron (mg/l) 7.120.23

5.180.21

6.020.23

9.020.25

8.110.26

2.070.23

8.010.22

3.10.21

8.210.22

2.30.23

5.914

Chromium(mg/l)

0.810.23

0.780.21

5.90.26

5.010.25

5.30.26

4.010.23

0.110.22

1.80.21

2.050.22

5.890.23

3.166 0

Bismuth(mg/l)

6.90.23

7.890.21

6.060.26

7.530.25

3.40.26

7.040.23

6.990.22

7.010.21

0.540.22

0.760.23

5.412

Lead(mg/l)

7.050.23

6.070.21

0.670.26

3.030.25

5.870.26

6.450.23

6.230.22

0.60.21

7.010.22

7.110.23

5.009 0

Arsenic(mg/l)

1.270.23

1.060.21

0.010.26

0.125.9

0.890.26

1.290.23

1.060.22

0.090.21

0.120.22

0.170.23

0.606 0

Mercury(mg/l)

40.23 3.070.21

3.070.26

5.660.25

4.110.26

4.230.23

4.060.22

0.790.21

5.390.22

4.090.23

3.847 0

Selenium(mg/l)

0.90.23

2.10.21

2.110.26

2.190.25

2.90.26

0.90.23

0.970.22

5.90.21

2.780.22

2.90.26

2.365 0

Zinc(mg/l)

6.120.23

19.890.21

4.90.26

8.90.25

4.080.26

3.110.23

8.90.22

18.90.21

17.010.22

8.90.23

10.071


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chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chloride, nitrate, sulphate and calcium were below the W

standards while parameters such as hydroxyl content, bicarbonate content, alkalinity, total solid (TS), total dissolved solid (T

total suspended solid (TSS) were not detected.

Table 3: Physico-chemical Parameters of Rain water in May, 2010

ND = not detected

Table 3 showed the physico-chemical parameters of rain water samples for the month of May, 2010. The pH values

was in the range of 5.0 to 6.0 (mean = 5.69) which was slight acidic, which also suggested anthropogenic effect from either

climate change, air pollutants from burning of fossil fuel etc. the values of heavy metals were above the WHO standards whichalso suggested anthropogenic effect.

Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean WHO

StdpH 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.8 5.7 5.0 5.8 5.3 5.8 6.0 5.69 5.8-8.5

Acidity (mg/l) 0.336 0.288 0.528 0.368 0.296 0.36 0.4 0.352 0.512 0.344 0.378Hardness (mg/l) 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 200

DO (mg/l) 3.2 1.6 3.6 3.2 3.6 4.8 1.6 3.2 5.6 4.0 3.44 7.5COD (mg/l) 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40BOD (mg/l) 36.8 38.4 36.4 36.8 36.4 35.2 38.4 36.8 34.4 36.0 36.56

Hydroxyl (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDBicarbonate(mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Alkalinity (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDTSS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDTS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TDS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDChlorides, Cl(mg/l) 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988

Nitrates, NO3- (mg/ 7.5 4.5 3.0 7.5 2.0 9.0 12.0 7.5 4.5 3.0 6.05 10Sulphates, SO42-(mg/l)

9.0 14.0 16.0 5.0 12.0 5.0 10.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 10.1 250

Calcium (mg/l) 14.890.23

8.10.23

8.80.28

5.160.25

3.040.35

4.890.28

7.560.38

4.510.85

6.060.14

0.870.76

6.388 75

Magnesium(mg/l)

8.290.42

6.70.23

8.90.28

20.010.25

5.60.35

5.610.28

2.080.38

5.070.85

6.030.14

6.780.76

7.507 150

Iron (mg/l) 10.210.42

3.010.23

2.90.28

8.760.25

2.980.35

3.850.28

5.890.38

3.250.85

8.230.14

7.010.76

5.609 0.3

Chromium(mg/l)

3.020.42

4.110.23

0.10.28

0.650.25

1.890.35

1.530.28

0.320.38

0.220.85

5.430.14

5.870.76

2.314 0.05

Bismuth(mg/l)

6.070.42

7.10.23

0.990.28

0.940.25

7.120.35

4.240.28

5.030.38

50.30.85

20.010.14

2.190.76

10.399

Lead (mg/l) 0.09

0.42

1.1

0.23

1.41

0.28

5.12

0.25

4.39

0.35

0.98

0.28

5.660.3 4.17

0.85

4.67

0.14

7.43

0.76

3.502 0.05

Arsenic (mg/l) 0.390.42

1.040.23

0.090.28

1.490.25

0.010.35

1.80.28

1.430.38

0.60.85

0.10.76

1.190.76

0.814 0.01

Mercury(mg/l)

4.040.42

3.780.23

5.910.28

5.030.25

0.180.35

0.980.28

5.60.38

0.650.85

0.880.14

0.650.76

2.77 0.01

Selenium(mg/l)

0.950.42

2.060.28

0.10.28

0.560.25

2.780.35

2.080.28

0.420.38

0.150.85

0.020.14

0.660.76

0.978 0.01

Zinc (mg/l) 19.98 0.42

19.010.23

6.980.28

5.010.25

12.890.35

7.090.28

9.10.38

8.10.85

0.780.14

0.950.76

8.989 5


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Table 4: Physico chemical parameters of rain water in June, 2010

ND = not detected

Table 4 showed the physico-chemical parameters of rain water samples for the month of June, 2010. The pH values

was in the range of 5.8 to 8.4 (mean=6.56), which was below the WHO standard. The rain was neutral which confirms the

preposition (expectation of acid rain on the month of April, 2010) that was on ground at that time.

The values of the heavy metals were above the WHO standards which also suggested anthropogenic effect from

climate change, air pollutants from burning of fossil fuels (gas flaring) etc.


Std.

pH 5.9 6.0 5.9 5.8 5.9 5.8 5.9 8.1 7.9 8.4 6.56 5.8-8.5Acidity (mg/l) 0.272 0.488 0.464 0.16 0.128 0.64 0.592 0.326 0.712 0.456 0.409

Hardness (mg/l) 8.0 8.0 32.0 12.0 40.0 80.0 64.0 40.0 40.0 24.0 45.6 200DO (mg/l) 3.6 3.6 4.8 4.4 6.0 5.6 6.4 6.4 3.6 4.4 4.88 7.5

COD (mg/l) 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0BOD (mg/l) 36.4 36.4 35.2 35.6 34.0 34.4 33.6 33.6 36.4 35.6 35.12

Hydroxyl (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDBicarbonate (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

Alkalinity (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDTSS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDTS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TDS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDChlorides, Cl(mg/l) 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988Nitrates, NO3- (mg/l 2.0 9.0 13.0 7.5 4.5 9.0 3.0 2.0 10.0 4.5 6.45 10

Sulphates, SO42-(mg/l)

16.0 22.0 22.0 11.0 18.0 25.0 17.0 21.0 18.0 20.0 19 250

Calcium (mg/l) 3.4

0.17

2.08

0.17

2.56

0.63

5.42

0.25

3.58

0.28

6.09

0.31

6.55

0.22

5.72

0.25

6.82

0.23

2.79

0.89

4.501 75

Magnesium(mg/l)

9.10.17

4.10.17

9.10.63

8.980.21

5.060.23

4.20.22

6.40.83

9.20.17

7.50.33

6.780.22

7.042 150

Iron (mg/l) 10.030.17

2.870.17

2.090.63

3.010.21

2.30.62

5.80.17

2.890.18

3.20.23

8.20.19

5.40.17

4.581 0.3

Chromium(mg/l)

0.640.17

5.590.17

3.070.63

3.50.17

4.80.21

0.210.18

0.310.18

0.610.17

2.140.64

5.470.33

2.634 0.05

Bismuth(mg/l)

3.090.17

5.590.17

0.010.63

0.80.19

4.30.42

0.530.23

4.50.21

6.180.21

0.7217

2.120.22

2.784

Lead (mg/l) 0.060.17

7.050.17

0.990.63

2.120.42

4.250.23

0.980.28

5.420.25

0.780.35

4.620.35

7.20.28

3.347 0.05

Arsenic(mg/l)

1.20.17

0.230.17

1.150.63

0.60.28

0.030.38

1.320.85

1.020.14

0.10.76

0.150.67

0.180.41

0.598 0.01

Mercury(mg/l)

3.990.17

4.070.17

4.010.63

5.010.28

0.920.38

1.780.85

4.60.14

0.890.76

2.30.67

4.040.41

3.161 0.01

Selenium(mg/l)

1.010.17

0.90.17

2.090.63

2.010.28

2.80.38

2.30.85

0.580.14

0.220.76

0.750.67

0.670.41

1.333 0.01

Zinc (mg/l) 3.990.17

4.070.17

4.010.63

3.550.28

5.450.38

3.220.85

6.70.14

0.890.76

1.010.67

4.270.41

2.686 5


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Table 5: Mean Results for the Month of April to June, 2010

ND = not detected

Table 5 showed the mean results of physico-chemical parameters for the months of April to June. From Table 5, the pH

values ranged between 4.3-8.4 (mean=5.57) which showed that rain water for this period was slightly acidic which suggested

anthropogenic effect due to climate change, air pollutants from burning of fossil fuel etc. the pH values for this period was

above the WHO recommended limit with the highest value shown in the month of April. The mean values of the heavy metals

for this period were above the WHO standard which suggested anthropogenic effect.

Table 6: Physico-chemical parameters of rain water in July, 2010

Parameter April May June Mean Range WHO Standard

pH 5.8 5.69 6.56 5.565 4.3-8.4 5.8-8.5Acidity (mg/l) 0.16 0.378 0.409 0.425 0.23-0.124

Hardness (mg/l) 12.0 8.0 45.6 21.47 8-120 200DO (mg/l) 4.4 3.44 4.88 4.2 1.6-6 7.5COD (mg/l) 40.0 40 40.0 40 40

BOD (mg/l) 35.6 36.56 35.12 35.8 34-38.4Hydroxyl (mg/l) ND ND ND

Bicarbonate (mg/l) ND ND NDAlkalinity (mg/l) ND ND ND

TSS (mg/l) ND ND NDTS (mg/l) ND ND ND

TDS (mg/l) ND ND NDChlorides, Cl(mg/l) 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988

Nitrates, NO3- (mg/l) 7.5 6.05 6.45 6.717 2-13 10Sulphates, SO42- (mg/l) 11.0 10.1 19 12.03 2-4 250

Calcium (mg/l) 5.420.25 6.388 4.501 6.15 0.89-14.89 75Magnesium(mg/l) 8.980.21 7.507 7.042 7.59 1.01-13.4 150

Iron (mg/l) 3.010.21 5.609 4.581 5.37 2.3-10.21 0.3

Chromium (mg/l) 3.50.17 2.314 2.634 2.71 0.11-5.9 0.05Bismuth (mg/l) 0.80.19 10.399 2.784 6.198 0.01-50.3Lead (mg/l) 2.120.42 3.502 3.347 3.953 0.06-7.45 0.05

Arsenic (mg/l) 0.60.28 0.814 0.598 0.673 0.01-1.49 0.01Mercury (mg/l) 5.010.28 2.77 3.161 3.259 0.76-5.49 0.01Selenium (mg/l) 2.010.28 0.978 1.333 1.559 0.1-5.9 0.01

Zinc (mg/l) 3.550.28 8.989 2.686 7.249 0.45-19.98 5

Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean WHOStd

pH 6.4 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.2 6.2 5.3 6.1 4.9 6.0 6.02 5.8-8Acidity (mg/l) 0.288 0.232 0.304 0.264 0.336 0.352 0.288 0.296 0.4 0.496 0.325

Hardness (mg/l) 80.0 112 16.0 16.0 16.0 24.0 16.0 16.0 8.0 8.0 45.6 200DO (mg/l) 8.2 6.4 4.8 4.0 6.4 6.4 8.2 5.6 6.0 4.0 6.0 7.5COD (mg/l) 40.0 40.0 56.0 40.0 48.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0BOD (mg/l) 31.8 33.6 51.2 36.0 41.6 33.6 31.8 34.4 34.0 36.0 36.4

Hydroxyl (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDBicarbonate(mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDAlkalinity (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TSS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDTS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND

TDS (mg/l) ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND NDChlorides, Cl(mg/l) 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988

Nitrates, NO3- (mg/l) 7.5 10.0 13.0 6.0 2.0 12.0 13.0 12.0 4.5 7.5 8.75 10Sulphates, SO42- (mg/l) 15.0 9.0 16.0 17.0 2.0 31.0 8.0 7.0 2.0 20.0 12.7 250

Calcium (mg/l) 5.50.27

10.400.23

8.80.27

4.520.65

3.80.17

7.40.21

6.750.23

3.010.25

3.010.25

2.050.38

5.524 75


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63

ND = not detected

Table 6 showed the physico-chemical parameters for the month of July, 2010. The pH values was in the range of 4.9 to

6.4 (mean=6.02) which showed that the rain water was below the WHO standard. However, the values of heavy metals

followed a similar trend with other months which was above the WHO recommended standards which suggested

anthropogenic effect as earlier discussed.

Table 7: Physico chemical parameters of rain water in August, 2010

Magnesium(mg/l) 7.850.27

5.450.28

8.140.27

15.050.65

5.6 0.17

6.010.21

3.41 0.23

8.2 0.25

4.20.25

10.40.38

7.431 150

Iron (mg/l) 9.80.27

2.30.28

2.860.27

7.20.65

2.70.17

3.050.21

6.20.23

3.40.25

7.530.25

2.30.38

4.734 0.3

Chromium (mg/l) 0.650.27

0.780.28

1.540.27

0.720.65

5.70.17

1.540.21

0.230.23

2.10.25

2.130.25

5.890.38

2.128 0.0

Bismuth (mg/l) 6.080.27

6.90.28

1.110.27

0.870.65

3.820.17

5.420.21

3.410.23

7.020.25

6.010.25

0.730.27

4.137

Lead (mg/l) 0.10.27 2.150.28 0.470.27 3.010.65 4.380.17 6.020.21 5.610.23 0.630.25 4.160.25 7.440.27 3.397 0.0


0.40.28

0.030.27

1.20.65

0.050.17

1.480.21

1.320.23

0.880.25

0.130.27

1.220.27

0.787 0.0

Mercury (mg/l) 4.010.27

3.150.28

4.110.27

5.520.65

0.170.17

4.020.21

5.140.23

1.270.25

0.720.27

0.870.27

2.898 0.0

Selenium (mg/l) 0.920.27

1.80.28

2.030.27

2.140.65

2.910.17

1.010.21

0.920.23

0.170.25

0.820.27

0.020.27

1.274 0.0

Zinc (mg/l) 0.890.27

2.030.28

0.780.27

6.040.65

11.060.17

4.510.21

8.20.23

15.40.25

7.280.27

5.150.27

6.134 5


Standard

pH 6.1 6.4 6.2 5.2 5.5 5.8 5.9 5.9 5.9 6.0 5.89 5.8-8.5

Acidity (mg/l) 1 0.72 0.826 0.56 0.64 0.715 0.496 0.296 0.552 0.4 0.642

Hardness (mg/l) 16.0 24.0 12.0 24.0 32.0 24.0 56.0 24 8.0 8.0 22.8 200DO (mg/l) 6.0 4.0 .0 3.6 4.4 .0 3.6 4 4.4 4.0 4.2 7.5COD (mg/l) 40.0 40.0 8.0 48.0 48.0 0.0 0.0 40.0 56.0 40.0 44

BOD (mg/l) 34.0 36.0 4.0 44.6 43.6 36.0 36.4 36.0 51.6 36.0 39.82Hydroxyl (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDBicarbonate (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDAlkalinity (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDTSS (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDTS (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDTDS (mg/l) ND ND D ND ND ND D ND ND NDChlorides, Cl(mg/l) 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988 1.988Nitrates, NO3- (mg/l) 9.0 13.0 12.0 10.0 13.0 2.0 3.0 12.0 9.0 3.0 7.7 10

ulphates, SO42- (mg/l) 4.0 2.0 9.0 1.0 6.0 .0 .0 7 4.0 2.0 4 250Calcium (mg/l) 12.05

0.852.40.14

5.50.23

4.060.22

3.20.21

3.60.25

2.80.42

30.63

6.70.17

6.010.27 4.932

75

Magnesium(mg/l)

9.250.85

4.80.14

7.20.23

10.510.22

6.50.21

5.80.25

2.40.42

8.80.63

7.50.17

5.30.27 6.806

150

Iron (mg/l) 3.010.85

2.90.14

2.980.23

4.420.22

7.010.21

3.50.25

5.80.42

3.010.63

6.020.17

4.50.27 4.333

0.3

Chromium(mg/l)

0.920.85

3.160.14

3.070.23

5.020.22

1.620.21

3.980.25

0.180.42

0.220.63

5.420.17

5.880.27 2.947

0.05

Bismuth(mg/l)

7.010.85

1.110.14

0.210.23

2.30.22

5.60.21

6.710.25

.320.42

7.150.63

6.720.17

2.010.27 4.314

Lead(mg/l)

0.230.85

7.020.14

1.010.23

40.22

4.030.21

0.750.25

5.230.42

5.120.63

6.50.17

7.780.27 4.167

0.05


1.070.14

0.050.23

0.990.22

1.110.21

1.020.25

1.150.42

0.520.63

0.10.17

0.170.27 0.651

0.01


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64

ND = not detected

Table 7 showed the physico-chemical parameters for the month of August, 2010. The pH values ranged between 5.2 to6.4 (mean=5.89) as expected from rain water. The pH values were within the accepted level for rain water (WHO, 1993). The

rain water sample for this month was polluted by heavy metals which were above the WHO standard which suggested

anthropogenic effect.

Table 8: Mean Results for the Month of July and August, 2010

ND = not detected

Mercury (mg/l) 4.210.85

3.750.14

5.020.23

5.040.22

3.150.21

0.840.25

5.250.42

1.230.63

5.30.17

3.060.27 3.692

0.01

Selenium (mg/l) 0.960.85

1.60.14

1.890.23

0.820.22

2.620.21

2.020.25

0.30.42

2.40.63

0.040.17

1.420.27 1.407

0.01

Zinc (mg/l) 0.620.85

3.040.14

0.930.23

1.020.22

8.410.21

0.920.25

7.40.42

12.70.63

5.430.17

0.790.27 4.126

5

Parameter July August Mean Range WHO

Standard

pH 6.02 5.89 5.955 4.9-6.4 5.8-8.5Acidity (mg/l) 0.325 0.642 0.484 0.232-1Hardness (mg/l) 45.6 22.8 34.2 8-160 200DO (mg/l) 6.0 4.2 5.1 3.6-8.4 7.5

COD (mg/l) 40.0 44 42 40-48BOD (mg/l) 36.4 39.82 38.11 31.8-51.6Hydroxyl Content (mg/l) ND NDBicarbonate Content (mg/ND NDAlkalinity (mg/l) ND NDTSS(mg/l) ND NDTS (mg/l) ND NDTDS (mg/l) ND NDChloride Content (mg/l) 1.988 1.988Nitrate Content (mg/l) 8.75 7.7 8.225 3-23 10Sulphate Content (mg/l) 12.7 4 8.350 1-20 250Calcium (mg/l) 5.524 4.932 5.228 3-12.05 75Magnesium(mg/l) 7.431 6.806 7.119 2.4-15.05 150

Iron (mg/l) 4.734 4.333 4.534 2.3-9.8 0.3Chromium (mg/l) 2.128 2.947 2.538 0.18-5.89 0.05Bismuth (mg/l) 4.137 4.314 4.226 0.21-7.01Lead (mg/l) 3.397 4.167 3.782 0.23-7.02 0.05Arsenic (mg/l) 0.787 0.651 0.719 0.03-1.18 0.01Mercury (mg/l) 2.898 3.692 3.295 0.17-5.14 0.01Selenium (mg/l) 1.274 1.407 1.341 0.02-2.91 0.01Zinc (mg/l) 6.134 4.126 5.13 0.62-12.7 5


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65

Table 8 showed the mean values of physico-chemical parameters for the month of July and August, 2010. From Table

3.7, the pH values ranged between 4.9-6.4 (mean 5.96). this showed that the rain water samples for this period was neutral

and below the WHO standard (WHO, 1993). The rain water for this period was also polluted with heavy metals but the level of

pollution was less when compared with the first period (Table 3.4). the high values of heavy metals suggested anthropogenic

effect.

Data Management and Multivariate Statistical Techniques

Multivariate analysis of rain water data was subjected through Students T- test and Factor Analysis (FA)

(Johnson and Wichern, 1998; Millard and Neerchal 2001; Yidana et al 2008). The rain water samples were grouped into

two periods; early rain (April-June) and late rain (July-August). The data sets were first summarized as well as their

World Health Organization (WHO, 1993) (Table 9).

Table 9: Descriptive Statistical Data of Rain Water samples

The descriptive statistical data for the rain water samples are shown in Table 9. It was observed that the values of the

coefficients of variation of most of the parameters measured were much larger than the average (1/3 or 33.33%). This

suggested that the data was positively skewed--very few of the measurement scores lie below the average measurement score.

Parameter Early Rain Late Rain

WHO Maxi

Allowable L

Mean Range

Std.

Dev.

Coeff.

of Var. Mean Range Std. Dev

Coeff.

of Var.

pH 5.565 4.3-8.4 0.791 0.133 5.955 4.9-6.4 0.429 0.072 5.6-8.5

Acidity mg/l 0.425 0.23-0.124 0.234 0.550 0.484 0.232-1 0.21 0.434

DO mg/l 4.200 1.6-6 1.173 0.279 5.100 3.6-8.4 1.455 0.285 7.5

COD mg/l 40 40 0 - 42 40-48 4.401 0.108

BOD mg/l 35.8 34-38.4 1.173 0.033 38.11 31.8-51.6 5.938 0.156

Hardness mg/l 21.467 8-120 26.334 1.227 34.2 8-160 39.651 0.105 200

Chloride mg/l 2.319 1.988 0.754 0.325 1.988 1.988 0 -

Nitrate mg/l 6.717 2-13 4.183 0.623 8.225 3--23 4.109 0.500 10

Sulphate mg/l 12.033 2--4 6.184 0.514 8.350 1--20 7.761 0.929 250

Ca (mg/l) 6.150 0.89-14.89 3.797 0.617 5.228 3-12.05 2.767 0.529 75

Mg (mg/l) 7.588 1.01-13.14 3.735 0.492 7.119 2.4-15.05 2.876 0.404 150

Fe (mg/l) 5.368 2.3-10.21 2.678 0.499 4.534 2.3-9.8 2.147 0.474 0.3

Cr (mg/l) 2.705 0.11-5.9 2.165 0.800 2.538 0.18-5.89 2.073 0.817 0.05

Bi (mg/l) 6.198 0.01-50.3 9.197 1.484 4.226 0.21-7.01 2.535 0.6

Pb (mg/l) 3.953 0.06-7.45 2.599 0.657 3.782 0.23-7.02 2.588 0.684 0.05

As (mg/l) 0.673 0.01-1.49 0.568 0.844 0.719 0.03-1.18 0.52 0.723 0.01

Hg (mg/l) 3.259 0.76-5.49 1.780 0.546 3.295 0.17-5.14 1.804 0.547 0.01

Se (mg/l) 1.559 0.1-5.9 1.254 0.804 1.341 0.02-2.91 0.871 0.65 0.01

Zn (mg/l) 7.249 0.45-19.98 6.187 0.854 5.130 0.62-12.7 4.421 0.862 5


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66

A similar trend was observed in the parameters determined for the samples for the two periods (early rain and late

rain) since no significant variation was observed in their results. From Table 9, the pH for the early rain ranged between 4.3

8.4 with a mean of 5.57, which was slightly acidic, while that of the late rain ranges between 4.9-6.4 with a mean of 6.0. The

later result would be regarded as neutral as the value was within the permissible level of WHO rain water standards. Such pH

that was near to neutral was indicative of unpolluted water (Fakayode, 2005).

Acidity increases the capacity of the water to attack geological materials and leach toxic trace metals into the watermaking it potentially harmful for human consumption. Thus, the slight acidity of these rain waters suggested that the waters

were susceptible to some degree of trace metal pollution, possibly through atmospheric deposition as a result of

anthropogenic forces. These factors might be due to change in climate of the place, acid rain due to burning of fossil fuels, town

wastes etc.

The total suspended solid (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, hydroxyl and bicarbonate content were absent in the

samples as expected from rain water.

Water has been classified on the basis of hardness as follows (Agbaire and Oyibo, 2009): water having 0-75

CaCO3mg/l as soft, 75-150 CaCO3mg/l as hard while samples having total hardness of over 300 CaCO3mg/l was hard. Based on

these, the rain water samples in this study for the two periods (early and late rain) fell under soft water. The total

concentration of divalent metal ions (primarily Ca and Mg) expressed in mg/l of equivalent CaCO 3 is termed total hardness o

water. Mg and Ca were in the range of 1.01-13.14mg/l (mean; 7.57 mg/l) and 0.89-14.89 mg/l (mean; 6.15 mg/l) respectively

for the early rain and for the late rain, 2.4-15.05mg/l (mean; 7.12mg/l) and 3-12.05 (mean; 5.23mg/l) respectively. Thes

metals fell within the maximum acceptable limit by WHO (1993). The degree of hardness of the water samples were low and

this might encourage the dissolution of heavy metals (Adeyeye and Ayejuyo, 2002). This might explain the presence of most of

the metals in the rain water samples (Ipinmoroti et al. 1997). Chloride was in the range of 1. 1.988-mg/l (mean, 1.988-mg/l

and this was consistence for all the water samples in both early and late rain water.

Chlorides are relatively harmless to organisms except when converted to Cl 2, ClO-and ClO3- which are toxic. High chloride

content impacts taste and could cause corrosion (Adeyeye and Ayejuyo, 2002).

Dissolved oxygen (DO) is very crucial for survival of aquatic organisms and it is also used to evaluate the degree of freshness o

a river. The DO mean value of early and late rain was 4.25 and 5.89, respectively, and was quite adequate and within the WHO

permissible limit.

The nitrate values ranged between 2-13mg/l (mean 7.9205mg/l) and 2-13mg/l (mean 8.8125mg/l). The result

showed that all samples had low nitrate values when compared with WHO (1993) standard. Nitrate in natural waters could be

traced to percolating nitrate from sources such as decaying plant and animal materials, agricultural fertilizers, domestic

sewage (Adeyeye and Abulude, 2004). Nitrate content in rain water might come from burning of town wastes and fossil fuels

and flaring of petroleum from wells. A nitrate content of more than 100 mg/l impart bitter taste to water and might causephysiological problem. Drinking water containing more than 50mg/l nitrate could cause methamoglobinemia in infants (Uba

and Aghogho, 2001). Epidemiological studies have predicted association between exposures to nitrate and gastric cancer

because of the reaction of nitrate with amine in diet forming carcinogenic nitrosomoamines. Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn etc. are among the

general elements essential for human health and metabolism and should be available in normal rain water (Safe Drinking

Water Comm., 1980). However, if one or more of these elements occur in the water above certain limits, the water may become

objectionable to consumers and even become hazardous to health.


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67

It was noticeable from Table 9 that the mean concentrations for heavy metal are generally high and well above the

WHO recommended guideline maximum values for water potability. They would therefore, pose either physiological or

aesthetic problem to the usage of the waters studied for drinking or domestic purposes. Caution should be exercised if these

waters were to be consumed.

The high mean concentrations of heavy metals coupled with high coefficients of variation (Table 9) suggested

anthropogenic sources for arsenic, iron, mercury, zinc, lead, chromium, bismuth and selenium (U.S.EPA,2008).Table 10: Mean Concentration of Heavy Metal for each Sampling Point

S/N Fe Hg Cr Bi Pb As Se Zn

1 8.034 4.064 1.208 5.83 1.506 0.85 0.948 5.612

2 3.252 3.564 2.884 5.718 4.678 0.76 1.692 8.894

3 3.37 4.424 2.736 1.676 0.91 0.266 1.644 2.882

4 6.482 5.252 2.98 2.488 3.456 0.876 1.544 4.904

5 4.62 1.706 3.862 4.848 4.584 0.418 2.802 8.378

6 3.654 2.37 2.254 4.788 3.036 1.382 1.662 3.77

7 5.758 4.93 0.23 4.85 5.63 1.196 0.638 8.06

8 3.192 0.966 0.99 6.532 2.26 0.438 1.768 11.198

9 7.678 2.918 3.434 6.8 5.392 0.12 0.882 6.302

10 4.302 2.542 5.8 1.562 7.392 0.586 1.134 4.012

Table 10 showed the mean concentration of heavy metal for each sampling point. From Table 3.9, sampling points 1

and 9 had the highest mean concentration of iron showing high dissolution of this metal. Sampling points 4, 3 and 1 showed

high dissolution of mercury, sampling points 10 showed high dissolution of chromium and lead. Also sampling point 9 showed

high dissolution for bismuth while sampling point 8 showed a similar trend for zinc.

Two sample T-Test

The significant difference between the population mean of rain water samples for the two periods was analysed usingT-test and the result has been shown in Table 13.

HYPOTHESIS

H0: Mean difference of the rain samples for the two periods (early and late rain) were significantly equal. i.e. MD = 0 or (ME M

L) = 0.

H1: Mean difference of the rain samples for the two periods (early and late rain) were not significantly equal. i.e. M D 0or(M

ML) 0.

Test Statistics, t = D - 0

SD nD

Where, D = Sample mean difference

SD = Sample standard deviation of difference

nD = Number of pairs

Assumption:

The mean difference in the rain samples is approximately normally distributed.


13/18


14/18



69

Table 14: Computation Data of Pollution Index for the Rain Water Samples

Early Rain Late Rain

Parameter Pollution Index Pollution Index

pH 1.006253 0.9403

DO mg/l 0.56 0.68

Hardness mg/l 0.1073 0.171

Chloride mg/l 0.009 0.007952

Nitrate mg/l 0.6717 0.8225

Sulphate mg/l 0.048132 0.0334

Ca (mg/l) 0.082 0.07051

Mg (mg/l) 0.05059 0.04746

Fe (mg/l) 17.893 15.113

Cr (mg/l) 54.1 50.76

Bi (mg/l) ND ND

Pb (mg/l) 79.06 75.64

As((mg/l) 67.3 71.9Hg (mg/l) 325.9 329.5

Se (mg/l) 155.9 134.1

Zn (mg/l) 1.4498 1.026

However the results of the other parameters studied were cosidered low when compared with the WHO standard fo

drinking water hence did not indicate pollution because their levels were below the limits for portable water. The Pearson

product moment correlation coefficients between measured parameters were shown in Table 15. The pH showed a negative

relationship with all the heavy metals that were determined which suggested that the low pH of the rain water samples

(slightly acidic) leads to dissolution of some of the trace metals in the rain waters. This relationship confirmed the

anthropogenic effect caused by air pollutants from either climate change of the area, burning of fossil fuel etc. which had

resulted in wet deposition (acid rain) which aided in the dissolution of some heavy metals in the rain water samples.

The heavy metals strongly correlated among themselves positively, thus suggesting that they were influenced by

common phenomenon i.e. anthropogenic forces as discussed. The best correlations, significant at P


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70

Based on Eigen values and varimax rotation three factors explained most of the variability (total variance explained was abou

57% for the rain water data).

Table 15: Pearson product moment correlation coefficients between measured parameters

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 16: Factor Analysis Result of Rain Water Samples

Element Communality Eigen % of Variance Cumulative % Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3

Fe 0.096 1.764 22.048 22.048 0.501 0.139 0.115

Cr 0.318 1.463 18.288 40.336 -0.378 -0.788 0.024

Bi 0.252 1.303 16.292 56.628 -0.178 0.336 -0.802

Pb 0.195 1.064 0.192 -0.537 -0.167

As 0.21 0.919 0.621 0.278 -0.014

Hg 0.236 0.696 0.634 -0.123 0.471

Se 0.335 0.404 -0.641 0.198 0.582

Zn 0.239 0.387 -0.32 0.539 0.24

pH DO Acidity HardnessNitrate Sulphate Ca Mg Fe Cr Bi Pb As Hg Se ZnpH 1 .486 -.219 .040 .248 .810 -.846 -.631 -.702 -.268 -.641 -.653 -.287 -.288 -.386 -.877DO

.486 1 -.408 .784

.908

(*) .441 -.355 -.099 -.463 -.385 -.701 -.318 .032 -.178 -.001 -.392

Acidity -.219 -.408 1 -.210 -.051 -.699 -.087 -.298 -.252 .788 -.209 .596 -.588 .809 .341 -.190

Hardnes .040 .784 -.210 1 .792 -.072 -.220 -.155 -.435 -.475 -.339 -.241 .412 -.206 -.174 -.166

Nitrate.248

.908

(*)-.051 .792 1 .078 -.203 -.017 -.425 -.035 -.778 .062 -.180 .215 .298 -.297

Sulphate .810 .441 -.699 -.072 .078 1 -.442 -.163 -.207 -.495 -.296 -.691 -.002 -.576 -.342 -.435

Ca-.846 -.355 -.087 -.220 -.203 -.442 1

.940

(*)

.943

(*).294 .532 .676 .119 .258 .613

.972

(**)

Mg-.631 -.099 -.298 -.155 -.017 -.163

.940

(*)

1.911

(*)

.214 .330 .579 .044 .188 .670.882

(*)Fe

-.702 -.463 -.252 -.435 -.425 -.207.943

(*)

.911

(*)1 .183 .644 .492 .156 .065 .463

.938

(*)

Cr-.268 -.385 .788 -.475 -.035 -.495 .294 .214 .183 1 -.256 .864 -.837

.959

(**).789 .102

Bi -.641 -.701 -.209 -.339 -.778 -.296 .532 .330 .644 -.256 1 -.022 .650 -.391 -.287 .692

Pb-.653 -.318 .596 -.241 .062 -.691 .676 .579 .492 .864 -.022 1 -.523

.885

(*)

.902

(*).520

As -.287 .032 -.588 .412 -.180 -.002 .119 .044 .156 -.837 .650 -.523 1 -.797 -.642 .340

Hg

-.288 -.178 .809 -.206 .215 -.576 .258 .188 .065

.959

(**) -.391

.885

(*) -.797 1 .821 .062

Se-.386 -.001 .341 -.174 .298 -.342 .613 .670 .463 .789 -.287

.902

(*)-.642 .821 1 .413

Zn-.877 -.392 -.190 -.166 -.297 -.435

.972

(**)

.882

(*)

.938

(*).102 .692 .520 .340 .062 .413 1


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71

Factor 1

Factor 1 exhibited 22% of the total variance of 57% with positive loading on all elements except Chromium, Bisthmus

and Selenium. This factor indicated strong association for mercury (r=0.63), Arsenic (r=0.62) and Fe (r=0.50) in the rain water

Mercury concentration ranged from 0.76-5.49mg/l (mean = 3.26) while that of Arsenic ranged from 0.01-1.49mg/l (mean =

0.67). There was strong negative loadings on selenium (r=-0.64) indicating an inverse relation with other metals. Based on

factor analysis on rain water factor model 1 was interpreted to represent mercury contaminated rain water. This was becauseHg had a high correlation value (r=0.63). Sampling point 4 have the highest dissolution of mercury. The source o

contamination was largely anthropogenic.

Factor 2

Factor 2 exhibited 18.2% of the total variance with positive loading on Zinc. Zinc concentration varied from 0.45

19.98mg/l with an average of 7.25mg/l. Sampling point 2 had the highest dissolution of Zn. The negative loading on chromium

indicated an inverse relation with zinc in the rain water. Chromium showed an average concentration of 2.71mg/l.

Factor 3

Factor 3 showed 16.2% of the total variance and with positive loading on selenium and negative loading on bismuth

(r=-0.802). Selenium varied from 0.1-5.9mg/l with an average of 1.56mg/l.

Table 17: Comparison of the Result with other Results

Element Present Study Akure Southern Nigeria Pakistan USA Norway Britain

Fe 2.3-10.21 3.3-6.1 - 0-0.04 - - -

Cr 0.11-5.9 0.1-0.5 0.11-0.12 0-4.10 - - 0.15-0.4

Pb 0.06-7.45 0.1-0.2 0.21-0.44 0.6-4.20 0.83


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72

57% of total variance in the rain water and allowed to group selected parameters according to common features. Based on

factor analysis on the rain water, factor model 1 was interpreted to be mercury contaminated water. This is because Hg has the

highest correlation value (0.63).

Broadly, most of the rain waters bodies in the study area had mean levels of arsenic, iron, mercury, zinc, chromium

selenium and lead which were above WHO guideline values. High concentrations associated with high coefficients of variation

therefore suggest anthropogenic sources for arsenic, iron, mercury, zinc and lead.RECOMMENDATION

It is recommended that routine analyses of this type should also be embarked upon on a regular basis to ascertain the

level of climate and other pollution factors impact on the rain water in this area. Government should also embark on mitigation

policies addressing the release of toxic gases into the environment that can cause rain water pollution as well as indiscriminate

deforestation, over grazing and other agricultural practice which degrade the environment and lead to greenhouse effect, acid

rain and above all contribute to climate change.

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Documents

Physico- Chemical Analysis of Rain Water Collected From 10 Selected Areas in Awka South, Anambra State, Nigeria