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This article was downloaded by: [The UC Irvine Libraries] On: 25 October 2014, At: 12:51 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20 Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy Debra A. Ballinger a & Theresa A. Deeney b a Kinesiology Department b Education School , University of Rhode Island , Kingston , RI 02881 Published online: 25 Jan 2013. To cite this article: Debra A. Ballinger & Theresa A. Deeney (2006) Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77:5, 18-23, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2006.10597873 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2006.10597873 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http:// www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy

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Page 1: Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy

This article was downloaded by: [The UC Irvine Libraries]On: 25 October 2014, At: 12:51Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: MortimerHouse, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & DancePublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujrd20

Physical Educators as Teachers of LiteracyDebra A. Ballinger a & Theresa A. Deeney ba Kinesiology Departmentb Education School , University of Rhode Island , Kingston , RI 02881Published online: 25 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Debra A. Ballinger & Theresa A. Deeney (2006) Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy, Journal ofPhysical Education, Recreation & Dance, 77:5, 18-23, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.2006.10597873

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2006.10597873

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose ofthe Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be reliedupon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shallnot be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and otherliabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to orarising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Page 2: Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy

18 JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 5 • May/June 2006

Recently, in a second-grade class, a young student skidded into the room and shouted in excitement, “Mrs. W.! The physical education teacher just said rambunctious!” Mrs. W. responded, “Why did he say that?” and the student replied, “Because we were all slamming our lockers!”

Not very interesting, one might argue. However, to that student and that teacher, the content of the exchange was very exciting. The teacher had been working to engage students in learning and using “wonderful words” that arose in their classroom read-aloud sessions. She gave a list of targeted words to specialist teachers (art, music, physi-cal education) and other adults in her building and asked for their help. The physical education teacher took this to heart, and low and behold, his students were rambunctious in physical education class, and later tried to keep their voices to a murmur; they also noticed certain skills, preferred certain games, and most defi nitely tried hard not to be argumentative about rules.

This is just one example of how physical education teachers can be teachers and rein-forcers of literacy skills. This article discusses the current state of literacy in the nation, why physical education teachers need to promote literacy practices, and creative ways in which physical education teachers can promote literacy learning.

Literacy Learning: A National AgendaIn the wake of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), school districts are increasingly accountable for demonstrating improved student achievement in English language literacy. The stakes are high for states and districts, which have, in turn, placed increased pressure for these subject areas on all teachers, regardless of what they teach. Why involve all teachers? Bottoms (2003) reported, “There are few jobs—and almost no high-paying ones—not requiring profi ciency in reading for understanding and communicating clearly orally and in writing” (p. 2).

Another reason to get all teachers to incorporate literacy instruction and practices into their teaching is the relative stagnation in the nation’s test scores. The 2003 results of the National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) revealed that a mere 31 percent of fourth graders and 32 percent of eighth graders scored at or above the “profi cient” level in reading, meaning that they have “demonstrated competency over challenging subject matter, including subject-matter knowledge, application of such knowledge to real-world situations, and analytical skills appropriate to the subject matter” (National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 2004, p. 2). In addition, only 63 percent of fourth graders and 74 percent of eighth graders scored at or above the “basic” level, meaning that they have “partial mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skills that are fundamental to work at each grade” (NCES, 2004, p. 2). These statistics may not seem alarming at

Physical Educators as Teachers of Literacy

DEBRA A. BALLINGER THERESA A. DEENEY

You already are a teacher of literacy, whether or not you know it.

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19JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 5 • May/June 2006

fi rst glance, but viewing the converse is more startling—37 percent of fourth graders, and 26 percent of eighth graders are not achieving a basic level of literacy skills. Disaggregating this data by ethnic group shows an even more disconcert-ing picture—among African American students, 60 percent of fourth graders and 46 percent of eighth graders are not meeting the basic standard; and in the Hispanic population, 56 percent of fourth graders and 44 percent of eighth graders are not reaching basic levels of literacy as measured by the NAEP test (NCES, 2004).

What Is Literacy?Literacy is broadly defi ned as the ability to communicate in the language of a particular discipline. For example, the term “computer literate” has become the short way of saying that someone can communicate through a computer. In physical education, teachers work to build physically fi t and “physically literate” students. However, when physical education teachers are asked to be “teachers of literacy,” it is doubtful that the school or district means for them simply to continue to teach the physical edu-cation curriculum to build physically fi t and “physically literate” students.

When the country’s leaders, literacy professionals, and school administrators talk about literacy, they are talking about the ability to communicate effectively in written and spoken language—the ability to read, write, speak, and lis-ten. The report of the National Reading Panel (2000), which formed much of the basis for current literacy legislation, states that reading incorporates fi ve core areas: phonemic awareness (the ability to manipulate in one’s head the sounds in spoken language), phonics (knowing how letters map sounds), fl uency (reading with appropriate voice, phrasing, rate, expression, and comprehension), vocabulary knowledge (both written and spoken), and comprehension. Writing incorporates composition, process, spelling, grammar, and mechanics. Oral language skills include active listening and understanding, following oral directions, and being able to clearly state needs and discuss issues. Literacy skills are not stagnant; they change and grow as children mature. A kindergartener, for example, becomes literate by memoriz-ing familiar books, learning letters and their sounds, and exploring how to play with the sounds in language. Older children who can “read,” might be developing the ability to read with expression, understand complex material, or synthesize information.

Although literacy instruction in language arts classes often involves reading and writing traditional kinds of texts (novels, information books, newspapers, etc.), alternate forms of literacy—“new literacies”—such as instant messaging, blogs, manga, and the like are taking center stage with young students (Knobel & Lankshear, 2004). In addition, studies

show that typical middle school students do read a variety of texts, but that these texts are not the ones commonly used in schools (Worthy, Moorman, & Turner, 1999). This shift in reading and writing practices for young students is good news for specialist teachers, such as physical educators, because it allows them the opportunity to think “outside the box” and to realize that they can be teachers of reading and language skills without needing to give their students reading assignments or acting as though they are language

arts teachers. Physical educators can reconceptualize “reading” and “texts” to include game rules, lists, manuals, internet information, charts, graphs, and data (Bruce, 1997; Hermanson & Kerfoot, 1994; Sweeney, Mon-teverde, & Garrett, 1993), just some of the tools they already use as part of the physical edu-cation curriculum. Furthermore, the fi fth standard for beginning

physical education teachers says that effective teachers should use “knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to enhance learning and engagement in physical education settings” (National As-sociation for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2003, p. 25).

Unless teachers capitalize on literacy teaching and learn-ing in each and every environment possible, and use a variety of texts to do so, they will undoubtedly leave many children ill-prepared for later life. To improve literacy achievement for all students, teachers must think creatively about ways in which literacy teaching and learning can span subject areas and grades and be infused throughout the curriculum of each content area. Every teacher—including physical educators—can and should support literacy instruction. Although, as Bean (2000) points out, subject areas such as physical education and music rarely receive research atten-tion in literacy journals, there are myriad opportunities for reading and writing within these domains. For physical edu-cators, the question is how to capitalize on the opportunities within the gymnasium, fi eld, or other physical education arena of instruction to inspire positive reading attitudes, teach literacy strategies and processes, and model reading and writing as literate acts that are just as important in this content domain.

There are many ways in which the physical education teacher might incorporate literacy skills in the physical education classroom. The following six sections will present general ideas for incorporating reading and writing as integral parts of a physical education program.

Physical Education Journals• Encourage students to write short journal entries re-

fl ecting on why physical activity is important today and in their future. What movies have students seen that relate to

Unless teachers capitalize on lit-

eracy teaching and learning in each

and every environment possible,

and use a variety of texts to do so,

they will undoubtedly leave many

children ill-prepared for later life.

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physical education and sport? What activities taught in class have they used with family or friends on weekends? Then highlight a few journal entries each week, either on a bul-letin board or during class time. Sharing adds importance to students’ ideas, and enhances the value of writing for each student. (Young children may do this activity orally, which encourages speaking and listening.)

• Ask students to keep fi tness journals. This assessment practice is becoming commonplace in most physical educa-tion classes. Asking students to read aloud or share their jour-nals for a minute or two each class elevates the importance of the journal entries to students, knowing that their peers are the audience. To assist students to refl ect on important curricular goals, prepare daily or weekly topics or questions to guide student writing and journal entries.

Sports and Recreation Spotlight• Encourage students to read the sports section of the

newspaper or sports magazines and share what they read during the fi rst few minutes of class. This kind of reading may be much more interesting to students than what they read for their English classes. (What students, particularly high-schoolers, are not intrigued by national hype such as the Boston Red Sox “reversing the curse,” or the successes and failures of their local sports teams?)

• Keep a bulletin board of sports news. In addition to reading and summarizing information found in newspapers, magazines, or on the Internet, encourage students to bring in the information for a “sports spotlight” bulletin board.

Physical Education Newsletter• Send home physical education newsletters to keep par-

ents informed of important class activities and program goals. Older students can create the newsletter outside of class time, which empowers them to write, read, and revise. (It also helps save time for the teacher; time formerly spent writing the newsletter now can be used to provide constructive feedback

to students about how they prepared the newsletter.) • Ask for entries for the newsletter. If students are not

creating the newsletter, they may want to provide a piece for it. Encouraging students to prepare and submit the piece electronically would make assembling a newsletter much easier.

Relinquishing Management and Assessment Duties

• Create task cards with critical elements at each station, and ask students to peer assess and self-assess using rubrics. The process of students reading and assessing their skill performance encourages higher-order thinking (analysis, synthesis, evaluation) about how tasks are accomplished and promotes greater transfer of learning to other similar skills.

• Have students record their own and other students’ fi tness scores by using software like Fitnessgram 8.0 (Coo-per Institute for Aerobics Research, 2005). This not only empowers students to take control of, and assume personal responsibility for, their own fi tness, it frees teachers from record keeping and reporting tasks, thereby enabling them to become motivators for each individual.

• Once results are recorded, students should be encour-aged to print out their personal Fitnessgrams, Activity Grams, or Activity Logs (8.0 version) and work with a partner to set and write their personal goals. Progress toward goal achievement and steps toward better personal health, as well as self-directed learning in the prescription of physical activity, increase student awareness of the importance of physical education, without teachers having to create tests. Such activities are authentic assessments of lifelong health and physical activity goals, requiring literacy skills, but not teacher grading.

• Ask students to share such goals and reports with parents, and ask parents to read and respond in writing to the student’s work. This aids the teaching of reading and writing and also becomes an excellent advocacy opportunity, highlighting for

Phot

os c

ourt

esy

of t

he a

utho

rs

Students exercise their literacy skills in reading task cards for a station (left) and in recording data from a pedometer (right).

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21JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 5 • May/June 2006

parents, family members, and the community the importance of physical education in the school curriculum.

• Have students self-assess using rubrics. All self- and peer-assessment activities are literacy activities. Students reading a rubric, analyzing and evaluating their performances, or comparing the skill performance of a partner to critical ele-ments in checklists requires students to read and to refl ect. If daily preparation of written assessment instruments is not always possible, students can be encouraged or challenged to develop their own rubrics and identify what they believe to be the critical components of skill acquisition (NASPE, 2003). Hearing and seeing student renditions of skills is an excellent opportunity for teachers to assess their own teaching effectiveness—checking to determine that the most important concepts were translated to students.

• Teach students to read and interpret data. An often-heard criticism of middle and high schools is that, rather than teaching students how to read and write, teachers expect students to already know how to do so (including intricacies such as how to look up information, how to use a table, etc.), which is often not the case. Physical educa-tors can easily guard against this criticism by being more cognizant of explicitly teaching students how to use data in various forms (graphs, charts, etc.), rather than assuming they already know. Providing written handouts or follow-on assignments that reiterate the information presented in class further helps to reach each student.

Student Research and Internet Use• Research is an interesting and relevant way to encour-

age both literacy and in-depth knowledge of the world. For example, dance provides infi nite opportunities for literacy as well as for diversity education. Asking students to research the historical or cultural background of folk or popular dances is an easy homework activity, if assigned as an Internet search. When relevant material is found (requiring students to read the web pages), students can be given credit for printing the pages and sharing their results (reading, again) aloud in class. Teachers can collect student “web research” to use in future planning of current and interesting lessons.

• Requiring students to use the Internet at home or in school is often perceived as rewarding and fun, rather than as work. Assigning written work to students requires them to read and follow directions. There are many valuable web sites that students should be encouraged to explore. Opportunities for web research abound on the AAHPERD web site (www.aahperd.org) and on the President’s Council on Fitness and Sport web site (www.fi tness.gov). Teachers might encourage high school seniors to review these sites as research for future careers. Teacher-coaches might encourage student athletes to read position papers on sport-related behavior, injury prevention, training programs, or sport psychology.

• Create a common web index. Asking students to submit via email the web address (URL) of a site related to current units or lessons is a short task that rarely meets with resis-tance. Submitting the best web site to a group collection

of associated links requires refl ection on the quality of the content. Teachers can compile the lists or have students do so. Teachers can share “approved” fi tness, physical activ-ity, or sport web sites with classroom teachers and encour-age students to write about their content for English, social science, science, or math papers (teaching standard #9, NASPE, 2003).

Coordinating Literacy Tasks Not every physical education teacher will feel there is time to assign and critique activities such as journals, newsletters, or research papers. But physical educators can work with classroom teachers in elementary grades, and with content teachers in middle and high school, to coordinate these kinds of efforts. If physical education teachers share the goals and desired content knowledge necessary for students to be “physically literate,” other teachers can use physical education, sport, fi tness, dance, or leisure activity concepts in their writing assignments. Taking this tack also doubles as an advocacy event for the physical education program. Few teachers outside of the profession truly understand how to plan a personal fi tness program, set fi tness goals, calculate target heart rates, or offi ciate a game of lacrosse. Sharing con-cepts with them, or encouraging students to write research papers for other classes using physical education content, results in educating the other teachers as well!

Targeting Specifi c Literacy Skills In addition to the suggestions for ways to incorporate reading, writing, speaking, and listening into the physical education classroom, physical educators should know which literacy skills teachers are working on in their classrooms, or which skills are developmentally appropriate, and how to support these within the physical education class. Here are some ideas for targeting the core areas of reading emphasized by the National Reading Panel.

Grades K-1: Phonemic Awareness and Phonics. Elementary

Peer assessment using a rubric requires students to practice their literacy skills.

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22 JOPERD • Volume 77 No. 5 • May/June 2006

physical education teachers have a unique opportunity to help young students (grades k-1) develop specifi c early-lit-eracy skills. One of these is phonemic awareness, the ability to hear and manipulate the individual sounds in words. Research shows that phonemic awareness is a critical skill in learning to read and that failure to develop it correlates very highly with poor reading achievement across the grades (Juel, 1988). Young children learn many characteristics about sounds in words, including the fact that words rhyme (gym/him), that some words start with the same sound (ball, base, bat), that you can separate sounds in a word (bat = /b/-/a/-/t/; the slashes indicate a phoneme, so that /b/ is the sound equivalent for the letter “b”), that you can blend sounds into a word (/b/-/a/-/t/ = bat), and that you can listen for a particular sound in a word (“Is there an /m/ in gym?”).

It is easy to teach phonemic awareness in physical educa-tion. Physical educators typically begin the year by teaching young children how to follow rules and routines, includ-ing lining up, standing in a particular spot, listening for directions, and so forth. Why not combine this with some phonemic awareness instruction? If students are to line up, have them line up by sounds: “If your name starts with the /j/ sound, line up.” “If you have a /t/ sound in your name, line up.” If students and teachers are building community by throwing a ball back and forth within a group circle while shouting out names, why not have students say a rhyme while they throw and catch (thrower says “cat,” catcher says “bat”)?

Young children are also working to develop their recog-nition of common words. Physical education teachers can help by labeling equipment and parts of the gymnasium (e.g. mat, red line, orange cone). Then they might ask students which word says orange. Physical educators can also label the gymnasium with classroom teachers’ names, indicating where each class is assigned to stand. Young students then need to fi nd their teacher’s name.

Upper Elementary and Beyond: Comprehension Instruction. Typically, classroom or language arts/reading teachers are

teaching students, from the upper elementary grades through high school, strategies to help them understand texts. Com-mon comprehension strategies include activating background knowledge about a topic before reading it, predicting what a text will be about or what will happen next, summariz-ing parts of a text, clarifying information, and questioning the information. Although these strategies usually would be used by classroom teachers for reading comprehension, they easily could be used with oral language as well. For example, before teaching the rules of crab soccer, the physical education teacher could activate prior knowledge by ask-ing students what they already know about soccer. Further, the teacher can remind students that thinking about what we know before we read or learn something new is a good strategy. Ideally, physical educators should collaborate with other colleagues (NASPE teaching standard #10) regarding targeted strategies and then focus on these in the physical education class (NASPE, 2003). For example, if the middle school language arts teacher is teaching students how to summarize information, the physical educator can reinforce this lesson by incorporating summarization into his or her classes. (“Let’s sum up what we discussed today”). Re-gardless of whether the physical education and classroom teachers work in collaboration, the physical education teacher can model and help students practice essential com-prehension strategies.

All Grades: Vocabulary. Perhaps one of the simplest, yet most powerful, ways to expand students’ literacy skills is to pay attention to the vocabulary used by, and expected of, students in class. Vocabulary separates the “haves” from the “have-nots” in terms of literacy skills. In fact, research-ers argue that the reading comprehension gap among or between rich and poor, white and non-white is really a language gap—a gap between students with enriched versus impoverished vocabularies (Beimiller, 2003; Hart & Risely, 2003; Hirsch, 2001). So teachers must raise the language bar by teaching students to use language deliberately and correctly. Asking for other words that mean the same as a movement or skill concept helps students to enrich their vocabulary. Encourage students to fi nd and submit words to supplement the bulletin board on the activities and units being studied in class. Credit can be awarded to students for bringing in synonyms for fi tness or sport language related to the lesson topics, or for appropriately using words with more than two syllables.

To address vocabulary, local Rhode Island teachers have created “the word of the day” for their physical education students, and they reward or praise students not only for re-membering or defi ning the word during closure, but also for using it appropriately during class time, or in their physical activity journals. Other teachers have had students create a weekly bulletin board, using vocabulary words of the week, including defi nitions and pictures or photos that align with the meaning or purpose of the vocabulary words. This type of activity frees the teacher from another time commitment, and provides students whose interests arise from more artistic

After a self-assessment, students write their steps and goals for improving their physical fi tness.

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domains a chance to truly embrace these assignments. In movement education, where the concepts of directionality, laterality, and levels are critical, encouraging students to refl ect on how they move can equally encourage word usage and provide practice in language acquisition. Quickly and simply ask students for their interpretations or labels for their creative movements or poses. This is a fun and educational use of language.

Research studies demonstrate that any teaching of vocabulary (including words used by the teacher) is better than none, but that rich instruction that connects words and concepts across contexts is by far the best means of mov-ing children up the knowledge continuum (McKeown, Beck, Omanson, & Pople, 1985; Na-tional Reading Panel, 2000). Physical education teachers and classroom teachers can support each other in improving stu-dents’ vocabularies. Language should not be a secret. Physical education teachers sharing words and concepts with other teachers, and discovering the words and concepts from the classroom teachers are strategies that all school profession-als can expand upon. As evidenced in our opening vignette about Mrs. W. and her class, it works!

ConclusionQuality physical education teachers have been using strate-gies that encourage students to read, write, refl ect upon, and/or communicate with others for years. Using the in-structional ideas in this article will help physical education teachers further student opportunities to practice valuable literacy skills without adding unreasonable time commit-ments for planning and grading. In addition, doing so can help students understand physical activity from different perspectives, with greater depth and breadth of content knowledge. As with the acquisition of any skill, practice is necessary to achieve competency. Embracing the tools for literacy and incorporating such activities into the teaching of physical education not only aligns the fi eld with NCLB mandates, but also enhances the importance of what is taught by creating relevance in students’ minds. Physical education does not take place only in the gymnasium; it is a lifelong learning experience. Integrating literacy into the curriculum actually integrates physical education into all aspects of the students’ lives.

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Debra A. Ballinger ([email protected]) is an associate professor in the Kinesiology Department, and Theresa A. Deeney ([email protected]) is an assistant professor in the Education School, at the Uni-versity of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881.

Using the instructional ideas in this

article will help physical education

teachers further student opportunities

to practice valuable literacy skills with-

out adding unreasonable time commit-

ments for planning and grading.

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