PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

CHAPTER 3

PHYSICAL-CHEMICALCHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

D.B. Walker, M.L. Brusseau, and K. Fitzsimmons

Apache Reservoir, Arizona. Photo courtesy D. Walker.

24

25D.B. Walker, M.L. Brusseau, and K. Fitzsimmons

3.1 THE WATERY PLANET

3.1.1 Distribution

Ninety seven per cent of water on the Earth is marine (salt-water), while only 3% is freshwater (Figure 3.1). With re-gard to the freshwater, 79% is stored in polar ice caps andmountain glaciers, 20% is stored in aquifers or soil moisture,and 1% is surface water (primarily lakes and rivers). An es-timated 110,000 km3 of rain, snow, and ice falls annually onland surfaces, and this is what replenishes fresh water re-sources. Possible effects of global warming, combined withcontinued increases in human population and economicdevelopment are resulting in critical concern for the futuresustainability of freshwater resources.

The limited supplies of surface waters and groundwa-ter receive significant amounts of the pollutants generatedby humans. Lakes across the planet have an average reten-tion time of 100 years, meaning it takes 100 years to re-place that volume of water. Rivers, on the other hand, havea much shorter retention time. The relatively long retentiontime in lakes highlights the danger of introducing pollutantsthat will be present for a long time (i.e., they are “environ-mentally persistent”). The short retention time in riversmeans that pollutants are transferred rapidly to other areassuch as groundwater or oceans. The retention time ofgroundwater is measured in hundreds if not thousands ofyears. In the groundwater environment, persistent pollu-tants may remain intact for extremely long periods becauseof constraints to transformation. The characteristics ofgroundwater are described in Section 3.10. Pollution ofgroundwater and surface water is discussed in Chapters 17and 18, respectively.

Pollutants in the ocean may be introduced into the foodchain by filter-feeding organisms or possibly may be se-questered in cold, deep basins where they are resistant todegradation by natural processes. Much of the world’s pop-ulation inhabits coastal areas, making oceans especially

vulnerable to pollutants introduced directly or from surfacewater and groundwater drainage.

3.1.2 The Hydrologic Cycle

Water covers much more of earth’s surface than does land.The continual movement of water across the earth due to evap-oration, condensation, or precipitation is called the hydrologiccycle (Figure 3.2). The consistency of this cycle has taken mil-lennia to establish, but can be greatly altered by human activ-ities including global warming, desertification, or excessivegroundwater pumping. Water, in its constantly changing andvarious forms, has been and continues to be an importantfactor driving evolutionary processes in all living things.

Evaporating water moderates temperature; clouds andwater vapor protect us from various forms of radiation; andprecipitation spreads water to all regions of the globe, allow-ing life to flourish from the highest peaks to the deepestcaves. Solar energy drives evaporation from open water sur-faces as well as soil and plants. Air currents distribute thisvaporized water around the globe. Cloud formation, conden-sation, and precipitation are functions of cooling. When va-porized, water cools to a certain temperature, condensationoccurs, and often results in precipitation to the earth’s sur-face. Once back on the surface of the earth, whether on landor water, solar energy then continues the cycle. The latentheat of water (the energy that is required or released as wa-ter changes states) serves to moderate global temperatures,maintaining them in a range suitable for humans and otherliving organisms.

Some processes involved with the hydrologic cycle aidin purifying water of the various contaminants accumulatedduring its cycling. For instance, precipitation reaching thesoil will allow weak acids absorbed from air to react withvarious minerals and neutralize the acids. Suspended sedi-ments entrained through erosion and runoff will settle out asthe water loses velocity in ponds or lakes. Other solids willbe filtered out as water percolates through soil and vadosezones and ultimately to an aquifer. Many organic com-pounds will be degraded by bacteria in soil or sediments.

Freshwater 3%

Oceans 97%

Groundwater20%

Water within livingorganisms 1%

Ice caps &Glaciers 79%

Lakes 52%

Rivers 1% Watervapor 8%

Soil moisture 38%

FRESHWATER

ALL WATER

ACCESSIBLE SURFACEFRESHWATER

Accessible surfaceFreshwater 1%

Distribution of the World’s Water

Figure 3.1 Distribution of the world’s water (http://earth.rice.edu/mtpe/hydro/hydrosphere/hot/freshwater/0water_chart.html)

Figure 3.2 The hydrologic cycle. (http://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/nature/prop/e_cycle.htm)

Salts and other dissolved solids will be left behind as waterevaporates and returns to a gaseous phase or freezes into asolid phase (ice). These processes maintained water qualityof varying degrees before human impacts on the environ-ment; however, the current scale of these impacts often tendsto overwhelm the ability of natural systems to cleanse waterthrough the hydrologic cycle. Further, we have introducedmany compounds that are resistant to normal removal ordegradation processes (Chapters 16–18).

3.2 UNIQUE PROPERTIES OF WATER

3.2.1 Structure and Polarity

Water is an unusual molecule in that the structure of two hy-drogen atoms and one oxygen atom provides several charac-teristics that make it a universal solvent. First is the fact thatthe two hydrogen atoms, situated on one side of the oxygenatom, carry positive charges, while the oxygen atom retainsa negative charge (Figure 3.3).

This induced polarity allows water molecules to attractboth positive and negative ions to the respective poles of themolecule. It also causes water molecules to attract one an-other. This contributes to the viscosity of water and to thealignment that water molecules will take when temperaturesdecrease to the point of ice formation. The fact that water be-comes less dense in its solid state, compared to its liquid state,is yet another unusual characteristic. Because of this, icefloats and insulates deeper water. This is critical to maintain-ing deep bodies of liquid waters on Earth rather than a thinlayer of water on top of an increasingly deep bed of solid ice.

The bipolar nature of water and its attraction to otherpolar compounds makes it an easy conduit for the dissolutionand transport for any number of pollutants. Because so manymaterials dissolve so completely in water, their removalfrom water is often difficult.

3.2.2 Thermal Properties

Water has unique thermal properties that enable it to exist inthree different states: vapor; solid; and liquid under environ-mentally relevant conditions. Changes in each phase have cer-tain terminology, depending upon state changes, as describedbelow:

Condensation: vapor → liquid

Evaporation: liquid → vapor

Freezing: liquid → solid

Melting: solid → liquid

Sublimation: solid → vapor

Frost Formation: vapor → solid

Most liquids contract with decreasing temperature.This contraction also makes these liquids denser (i.e.,“heavier) as temperature decreases. Water is unique be-cause its density increases only down to approximately4°C, at which point it starts to be come less dense (Figure3.4). This is important because without this unique prop-erty, icebergs and other solid forms of water would sink tothe bottom of the ocean, displacing liquid water as they didso. Also, lakes and ponds would freeze from the bottom upwith the same effect.

The specific heat of water is the amount of energy re-quired to raise one gram of water, one degree C, and is usuallyexpressed as joules per gram-degree Celsius (J g�1°C�1).Specific heat values for the different phases of water are givenbelow.

26 Chapter 3 • Physical-Chemical Characteristics of Water

Figure 3.3 Structure and charge distribution of water. (http://faculty.uca.edu/~benw/biol/400/notes32.htm)

PHASE J G�1 °C�1

Vapor 2.02Liquid 4.18Solid 2.06

The latent heat of fusion is the amount of energy re-quired to change 1 gram of ice, at its melting point tempera-ture, to liquid. It is considered “latent” because there is notemperature change associated with this energy transfer,only a change in phase. The heat of fusion for water is �333J g�1 °C�1

The energy required for the phase changes of water aregiven in Table 3.1.

Earth is unique because it contains the necessarytemperatures and pressures for all three states of water toexist. Water, under the correct combination of tempera-ture and pressure, is capable of existing in all three states(solid, liquid, and vapor) simultaneously and in equilib-rium. This is referred to as the triple point, where in-finitesimally small increases or decreases in either pres-sure or temperature will cause water to be either a liquid,solid, or gas. Specifically, the triple point of water existsat a temperature and pressure of 273.16 Kelvin(0.0098°C) and 611.73 pascals (0.00603 atm) respec-tively. Figure 3.5 shows that decreasing temperature andincreasing pressure causes water to pass directly from a


Figure 3.4 The density of water at varying temperatures.(http://www.cyberlaboratory.com/library/basicsofdensity/whatisdensity.htm)

may evaporate directly from the plant, never reaching thesoil. Second, it may entrain materials settled on the plantsurfaces. Third, by slowing the momentum and reducing theenergy of falling rain, physical impacts on the soil andresulting erosion may be reduced.

Certain anthropogenic land use practices or naturalevents can lead to decreases in interception and subsequentincreases in sediment suspended within water. Often,sediment may have other pollutants attached to it therebypolluting the water as well. Certain mining practices, if notre-vegetated, can result in increased erosion resulting incontamination of streams. Natural events, such as wildfires,can also result in substantial erosion and contamination ofdownstream areas (see also Chapter 16).

Evaporation of water is another crucial part of thehydrologic cycle. The rate of evaporation from a body of

TABLE 3.1 Phase changes of water.

PROCESS FROM TO ENERGY GAINED ORLOST (J g�1 °C�1)

Condensation Vapor Liquid 2500Deposition Vapor Ice 2833Evaporation Liquid Vapor �2500Freezing Liquid Ice 333Melting Ice Liquid �333Sublimation Ice Vapor 2833 Figure 3.5 Phase diagram of the triple point of water. (http://

www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/96ClassProj/pics/trip_pt1)

gas to a solid. At pressures higher than the triple point, in-creasing temperature causes solid water (ice) to transforminto liquid and eventually gas (vapor). Liquid water can-not exist in pressures lower than the triple point and iceinstantaneously becomes steam with increasing tempera-ture. This process is known as sublimation.

3.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

3.3.1 Interception, Evaporation, Infiltration, Runoff

Precipitation in a nonpolluted environment provides a fairlypure form of water. However, today precipitation mayabsorb pollutant gases in the environment to form acid rain(see also Chapter 23). Precipitation can also pick up fineparticulates that were suspended in the air. As the forms ofprecipitation reach the surface, they are likely to fall uponand be intercepted by various types of vegetation. In manyregions, much of the precipitation may settle in or on trees,shrubs, or grasses and never actually reach the ground. Inothers, the plants may slow the rate of fall of raindrops, breakthem into smaller drops, or channel them more gently to thesurface. Interception leads to several factors that impact thewater and its role with later pollution events. First, the water

water, or mass of soil, is a function of the relative humidity,temperature, and wind speed. An important subcomponentof evaporation is transpiration, the active transport andevaporation of water from plants. Plants transport nutrientsin an aqueous solution and then dispose of the water throughtheir leaves by evaporation. As water evaporates, it leaves aconcentrated amount of compounds that were formerly dis-solved in that water. This applies to nutrients left in plants,as well as to pollutants that were introduced with the water.

Water that is not contained in oceans is often referred toas “freshwater,” implying that it is not saline. This is notalways the case, and some inland waters can be much moresaline than the world’s oceans. This is especially true in aridenvironments or enclosed basins that have limited or nodrainage. Often, salinity in inland waters reaches such highlevels that it supports little, if any, life. Salinity in inlandwaters, and in the world’s oceans, is largely a result of evap-oration. As water is vaporized and once again enters thehydrologic cycle, salts accumulate on the earth’s surface,and in lieu of adequate dilution and flushing, can often makewater increasingly saline (Figure 3.6).

Precipitation that reaches the soil surface either infiltratesthe ground or runs off the surface. Human uses of water alsodeliver enormous amounts of water onto soils or human-madestructures that can either infiltrate or contribute to run-off.

This is a major source of pollutants introduced into the envi-ronment. The infiltration rate of water into the ground is an im-portant measure used to determine how foundations and sewersystems are designed, how irrigation water should be applied,and how pollutants may migrate to a water supply.

How water runs off of surfaces is also a matter of inter-est to hydrology, fisheries, aquatic biology, and pollutionscience. Not only are pollutants entrained in flowing water,but erosion and flooding can also occur. Studies of run offand surface flow focus upon the amounts of soil and pollu-tants that are transported and their eventual fate as theyarrive into lakes or streams.

3.4 THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

One of the most unique properties of water is its ability todissolve other substances. It is this ability that can lead tolarge-scale landscape transformations (Figure 3.7), and the


Figure 3.6 This satellite image is of the Great Salt Lake in Utah.This is the largest lake in the U.S. west of the Mississippi Rivercovering some 1,700 square miles. It is also 3 to 5 times moresaline than the world’s oceans. It is a fishless lake with only themost saline-tolerant (“halophytic”) organisms capable of surviv-ing. The largest organisms inhabiting its waters are species ofbrine shrimp and brine flies. (http://ut.water.usgs/gov/greatsaltlake/)

Figure 3.7 The Grand Canyon of the Colorado River wasformed by the dissolution and erosion of material over eons.Historically, most of this material was deposited in the Gulf ofCalifornia. With the construction of large dams along the courseof the Colorado River, most of this material is now deposited instorage reservoirs. (http://www.kaibab.org/tr961/lg961110.jpg)


Examples of Why Small Numbers are Important

• An AIDS virus is only 10�8 meters in size, or 0.00001mm, yet it only takes one virus to have potentiallydevastating effects on the human immune system.

• From Science, 20 February 1991:

“In the end, after all the antibaryons had been consumed,one odd baryon out of 10 billion was left over. It was thistiny remnant that gave rise to all the planets, stars, andgalaxies.”

INFORMATION BOX 3.1EXAMPLE CALCULATION 3.1Using Concentration

Knowing the concentrations of constituents in water hasmany utilitarian uses. For example, a farmer may want toknow how much salt will accumulate in the soil on his prop-erty when using water where both sodium (Na) and chloride(Cl) concentrations are known.

• Suppose the water contained 35 ppm Cl and 23 pm Na(i.e., 58 ppm NaCl).

• How many pounds of Na, Cl, and NaCl are contained inan acre foot of water? (1 acre foot � 1 acre of land with awater depth of 1 foot).

To calculate this we assume the following:

• Water weighs 8.33 pounds�1 gallon.

• There are 7.5 gallons ft�3 and this therefore weighs 62.43pounds.

• One acre foot � 43,560 ft3

• So, 43,560 ft3 � 62.42 pounds ft�3 � 2,718,144 poundsof solution.

• Therefore, 2,718,144 � 0.000023 (or 23 ppm) � 62.5pounds of Na and 2,718,144 � 0.000035 (or 35 ppm) �95.1 pounds of Cl.

• 62.5 (Na)� 95.1 (Cl) � 157.7 pounds of NaCl.

Now that the farmer knows how much is in one acre foot,if the rate of water flow onto his crops is known, he cancalculate an accumulation rate. For instance, let’s say thefarmer wants to know how many tons day�1 and tons year�1

of NaCl flow onto his crops and into his soil if the flow isheld constant at 2 ft3 second�1 (commonly written as cfs for“cubic feet per second”).

• 2.0 cfs 3600 sec hour�1 � 24 hr day�1 � 62.4 pounds ft�3

� 0.000058 (58 ppm) � 625 pounds NaCl day�1.

• 2000 pounds ton�1 divided by 625 pounds � 0.313 tonsNaCl day�1.

• 0.313 tons/day � 365 days/year � 114 tons NaCl year�1.

ability to carry contaminants relatively long distances. If itwere not for the various substances dissolved in water, anorganism’s cells would quickly be deprived of essentialnutrients, salts, and gasses, leading to eventual death. Thedissolution of materials in water has shaped the nature of allliving creatures on the planet.

3.4.1 Concentration Terminology

It is important to quantify the amount of material dissolved inwater. Quantification require a range of values so that we candetermine high versus low concentrations for a given con-stituent. The values are always expressed as a ratio of soluteto water (Table 3.2). The importance of very small concen-trations should never be underestimated. This is especiallytrue in toxicological studies where very small concentrationscan lead to toxic impacts on organisms (Chapter 13).

There are two major expressions in concentration ter-minology.

– Mass/mass. An example would be parts per million(ppm), which equals parts of solution/parts of material� 106.

– Mass/volume. An example would be milligrams/liter(mg L�1), which equals milligrams of dissolvedsolid(s)/liter of solution.

Most of the time, mg L�1 and ppm will be the samenumber. Their relationship is that the specific gravity of so-lution � ppm � mg L�1. Note that this same relationshipholds true when using other concentrations such as parts perbillion (ppb) and �g L�1 or parts per trillion and ng L�1.

3.4.2. Oxygen and Other Gases in Water

Just like terrestrial counterparts, aquatic organisms (otherthan anaerobic microbes) need dissolved oxygen and othergases in order to survive. Additionally, the world’s oceans“absorb” an estimated 1/4 to 1/3 of carbon dioxide emitted byhuman activity. If it were not for the ocean’s ability to absorbcarbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, global warm-ing would proceed at an unprecedented rate (see also Chap-ter 24). The amount of gas that an aqueous solution can holdis dependent upon several variables, the most important ofwhich is atmospheric pressure. Simply stated, increasing

TABLE 3.2 Examples of typical concentrations ofsolutes in water.

Percent parts per hundred 102

Milligram mg L�1 parts per million 106

Microgram �g L�1 parts per billion 109

Nanogram ng L�1 parts per trillion 1012

atmospheric pressure causes a greater amount of gas to gointo solution at a given temperature (Figure 3.8). Generally,increasing water temperature will result in an increased sol-ubility of gas. This constant is otherwise known as “Henry’sLaw” and is written as:

� � K�c c (Eq. 3.1)

� � partial pressure of the gas in mmHgc � concentration of gas in mmoles, mL, or mg L�1 at a

constant tempK�c � the solubility factor, different for each gas

The constant K�c is specific for every gas and solute ata given temperature (see also Chapter 7). There is a direct,linear relationship between the partial pressure and theconcentration of gas in solution. For example, if the partialpressure is increased by 1/4, the concentration of gas insolution is increased by 1/4 and so on. This is because thenumber of collisions of gas molecules on the surface of thesolute (water in this case) is directly proportional to in-creases or decreases in partial pressure. Since the concentra-tion: pressure ratio remains the same, we can predict the con-centration of gas in water under differing partial pressures.This relationship can be written as:

Co

Pnc

reesnsturareti1on1

� Co

Pnc

reesnsturareti2on2

For example, 1 liter of water under 1 atmosphere of pressure,will contain 0.0404 grams of oxygen. What will the concen-tration of oxygen be if the partial pressure is increased to 15atmospheres?

C1 � 0.0404 g O2/1 liter solution

P1 � 1 atm

P2 � 15 atm

C2 � ?

.04

104

atgm

O2 �

15Ca2tm

C2 � (15 atm) (0.0404 g O2 per 1 liter/1 atm)

C2 � 0.606 g O2

In any body of water, there are sources and sinks ofdissolved oxygen. Sources include atmospheric re-aerationthrough turbulence; ripples and waves; and dams andwaterfalls. Another potential source of dissolved oxygen isphotosynthesis primarily by algae or submersed aquatic

vegetation. During photosynthesis, plants convert CO2 intooxygen in the process outlined below.

6CO2 � 12 H2O � Light Energy

→ C6H12O6 � 6O2 � 6H2O (Eq. 3.2)

All natural waters also have sinks of dissolved oxygen,which include:

Sediment Oxygen Demand (SOD): Due to decompositionof organic material deposited on bottom sediments.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): The oxygen requiredfor cellular respiration by microorganisms.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): The oxygen requiredfor all organic compounds. Note that BOD is a subset ofCOD.

Respiration is the metabolic process by which organiccarbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water with a net re-lease of energy (see also Chapter 5). Aerobic respiration re-quires, and therefore consumes, oxygen.

C6H12O6 � 6O2 → 6CO2 � 6H2O � energy (Eq. 3.3)

This is, essentially, the opposite of photosynthesis. Inthe absence of light, the CO2 collected by plants via photo-synthesis during the day, is released back into the water atnight, resulting in a net loss of dissolved oxygen. Dependingupon the amount of nutrients, algae, and available light, thisoften results in large daily fluctuations in dissolved oxygenlevels known as Diel patterns (Figure 3.9).

The implications of dissolved oxygen sinks and sourceson aquatic organisms and overall water quality are crucial indetermining whether or not a river, lake, or stream is pollutedand to what degree. If dissolved oxygen sinks are greaterthan sources for extended periods of time, it is safe to assumesome degree of contamination has occurred. Examples of an-thropogenic wastes that can cause dissolved oxygen impair-ment of receiving waters are sewage (raw and treated, humanand nonhuman), agricultural runoff, slaughterhouses, andpulp mills.

3.4.3 Carbon Dioxide in Water

Carbon dioxide only accounts for approximately 0.033% ofthe gases in earth’s atmosphere, yet is abundant in surfacewater. The biggest reason for the abundance of carbon diox-ide in water is due to its relatively high solubility; almost 30times that of oxygen. In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is re-leased when fossil fuels are burned for human uses, and as aresult of large worldwide increases in the use of fossil fuelsduring the last century or so, the amount of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere has steadily increased. Carbon dioxide iscurrently rising at a rate of approximately 1 mg L�1 year�1

or about 40% since the beginning of the Industrial Revolu-tion. Since carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas,changes in global climate may have long-term environmen-tal consequences (Chapter 24).

At room temperature, carbon dioxide has a solubility inwater of 90 ml3 of carbon dioxide per 100 ml3 of water.


Figure 3.8 The solubility of oxygen in water under differentatmospheric pressures.


1230

1400

1530

1700

1830

2000

2130

2300

0030

0200

0330

0500

0630

0800

0930

1100

1230

Time

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Leve

lsTemp (C)DO (mg/L)

Figure 3.9 Diel pattern of temperature and dissolved oxygen inRio de Flag, an effluent-dominated stream in Flagstaff, Arizona.A. Data was collected every 30 minutes over a 24-hour period on08/12/03. B. Profuse growth of attached algae (“periphyton”)growing in the stream at the time. Photosynthesis and respirationby these algae likely contributed to the large swings in dissolvedoxygen levels within the water over the 24-hour period. Photocourtesy D. Walker.

A

B

Carbon dioxide dissociates and exists in several forms in wa-ter. First, carbon dioxide can simply dissolve into water goingfrom a gas to an aqueous form. A very small portion of carbondioxide (less than 1%) dissolved in water is hydrated to formcarbonic acid, (H2CO3). Equilibrium is then establishedbetween the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid.

CO2 � H2O ↔ H2CO3 (Eq. 3.4)

Carbonic acid, a very weak acid, is then dissociated intwo steps.

H2CO3 ↔ H� � HCO3� (Eq. 3.5)

HCO3� ↔ H� � CO3

2� (Eq. 3.6)

As carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, equilibrium iseventually established with the carbonate ion (CO3

2�). Car-bonate, being a largely insoluble anion, then reacts withcations in the water, causing these cations to precipitate outof solution. As a result, Ca� and Mg2 often precipitate ascarbonates. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), otherwise knownas limestone, has resulted in large deposits as a result of thisprocess. As limestone is once again dissolved, carbon diox-ide is released back into the atmosphere. In addition, severalaquatic organisms, such as corals and shelled creatures suchas clams, oysters, and scallops, are capable of converting thecarbon dioxide in water into calcium carbonate.

Diel fluctuations in oxygen and pH levels can occurduring the day in waters where photosynthesis is takingplace (see Figure 3.9). Algae and plants convert carbon diox-ide into carbohydrates to be used in metabolic processes. Invery productive waters, this process can leave bicarbonate orcarbonate in excess, leading to increased pH levels. In theabsence of adequate light for photosynthesis, respirationpredominates, resulting in carbon dioxide once again beingrestored to the water resulting in decreased pH levels.

Calcium carbonate, while insoluble at neutral to basicpH levels, readily dissolves in acidic conditions. In the initialstep, carbonate acts as a base resulting in calcium ions andcarbonic acid. In the next step, carbonic acid is dissociatedreleasing carbon dioxide as a gas.

CaCO3 � 2 H� → Ca2� � H2CO3 (Eq. 3.7)

H2CO3 ↔ H2O � CO2 (Eq. 3.8)

Rain is often slightly acidic due to the dissolution of at-mospheric carbon dioxide. Recently, due to the burning offossil fuels, other gases can also be dissolved in rain result-ing in “acid rain.” Atmospheric pollutants responsible foracid rain include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrous oxides(NOx). More than 2/3 of these pollutants come from burningfossil fuels for electrical power generation, and prevailingwinds can result in acid rain being deposited far from origi-nal source. Acid rain has far-reaching environmental conse-quences including acidification of lakes and streams, makingthem uninhabitable by aquatic life; extensive damage toforests, plants, and soil; damage to building materials andautomotive finishes; and human health concerns. Howeveran amendment to the Clean Air Act, the Acid Rain Pro-gram, whose goal is to lower electrical power emissions ofthe pollutants causing acid rain, shows recent evidence ofsuccess, and lakes, rivers, and streams have responded fa-vorably (see also Chapters 4 and 23).

In lieu of any anthropogenic acidification of rain or sur-face water, conditions often exist that can result in the disso-lution of limestone:

CO2 � H2O � CaCO3 ↔ Ca2� � 2 HCO3� (Eq. 3.9)

The remaining reaction is a 3-step process:

CaCO3 ↔ Ca 2� � CO32� (Eq. 3.10)

CO2 � H2O ↔ H2CO3 (Eq. 3.11)

H2CO3 � CO32� ↔ 2 HCO3

� (Eq. 3.12)

This reaction can result in the formation of caves whennaturally acidic rainwater reacts with a subterranean layer oflimestone, dissolving the calcium carbonate and formingopenings. As slightly acidic water reaches the cave ceiling,the water evaporates and carbon dioxide escapes. It is thisreaction that is responsible for the many elaborate forma-tions in cave ecosystems (Figure 3.10).

Total alkalinity is the total concentration of bases, usu-ally carbonate and bicarbonate, in water and is expressed asmg/L of calcium carbonate. Analytically, total alkalinity isexpressed as the amount of sulfuric acid needed to bring a so-

lution to a pH of 4.2. At this pH, the alkalinity in the solutionis “used up,” and any further addition of an acid results indrastic decreases in pH levels. Total alkalinity, by definition,is the ability of a water body to neutralize acids. In otherwords, it is the “buffering capacity” of a water body, and itis influenced by the minerals in local soils. In areas of thenortheastern U.S., where parent material contributes little tothe total alkalinity in the water, the cumulative effects of acidrain have been most devastating and have extirpated aquaticlife from several streams. Mining activity and pulp mills canalso add to reductions in total alkalinity and subsequentdecreases in pH. Stopgap measures in watersheds, lakes, orstreams where alkalinity has been depleted include suchdrastic actions as dropping lime from helicopters to increasethe buffering capacity for aquatic life.

3.5 OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS

Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of elec-trons from one atom to another. Oxidation is defined as theloss of an electron from an atom, and reduction is the gain ofan electron from an atom.

Zn(s) � 2 H� (aq) ↔ Zn2�(aq) � H2(g) (Eq. 3.13)

In the above example, the oxidation number of Zn haschanged from 0 to �2, producing Zn2�, and the oxidationnumber of H� has changed from �1 to 0, producing H2.

In this reaction, Zn has been oxidized and H� has beenreduced. Since Zn(s) was oxidized, it caused the reduction ofH�(aq) and is therefore the reducing agent. Likewise H�(aq)caused the oxidation of Zn(s), making H� the oxidizingagent.

Loss of electrons from one substance must simultane-ously be accompanied by the gain of electrons from another.Electrons are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reac-tions, and we can envision oxidation-reduction pairs. These

oxidation-reduction reactions are often referred to as redoxreactions (see also Chapter 7). Just as the transfer of hydrogenions determines the pH of a solution, the transfer of electronsbetween species determines the redox potential of an aqueoussolution. Redox potential is also referred to as “ORP” foroxidation-reduction potential, and is measured in volts or Eh(1 volt � 1 Eh). ORP specifically measures the tendency for asolution to either gain or lose electrons when it is subject tochange by the introduction of a new species. A solution with ahigher ORP will have a tendency to gain electrons (i.e., oxi-dize them) and a solution with a lower ORP will have atendency to lose electrons to new species (i.e., reduce them).

Whether a chemical species in solution is oxidized orreduced has a profound influence on biogeochemical cyclingof metals, nutrients, salts, organic compounds, and so on.Examples of redox couplings of interest to water qualityinclude the following (after Cole 1994):

REDOX COUPLE VOLTS DISSOLVED O2 (MG/L)

NO3� to NO2

� 0.45–0.40 4.0NO2

� to NO3� 0.40–0.35 0.4

Fe�� to Fe�� 0.30–0.20 0.1SO4

� � to S� � 0.10–0.06 0.0

Redox reactions have an effect on bioavailability ofnutrients. For example, iron exists either as particulate andoxidized ferric (Fe��), or the reduced and soluble ferrous(Fe��). Phosphorous is an essential nutrient for plant andanimal growth and under oxidizing conditions, is bound toferric iron forming a ferro-phosphate complex that is bio-logically unavailable. If pollutants enter into a water body,dissolved oxygen may be depleted and reducing conditionsprevail. Under these reducing conditions, iron loses itsnormally close association with phosphorous, with the lat-ter becoming biologically available for algal growth some-times forming noxious, and potentially toxic, blooms.Reducing conditions often prevail in the bottom of ther-mally stratified lakes and reservoirs, and phosphorous canaccumulate leading to large growths of algae when the lakede-stratifies.

Methylation of mercury (addition of CH3) also reliesupon physical-chemical characteristics such as dissolvedoxygen, pH, and ORP. Mercury is a metal that occurs nat-urally in the environment and has many different chemicalforms. Methylmercury is the form of mercury that bioaccu-mulates (increases from one trophic level to the next byingestion or absorption) and can cause mercury poisoningin wildlife and humans. Methylation of mercury can occurboth abiotically and biotically by sulfate-reducing bacteria(SRB’s) of the genera Desulfovibrio and Desulfotomacu-lum. SRB’s require anaerobic and reducing conditions intheir environment in order to reduce sulfate to sulfide.Specifically, they use sulfate as a terminal electron accep-tor to break down molecular hydrogen or organic matter formetabolism through the following processes (see alsoChapter 5).

3H2SO4 � C6H12O6 → 6CO2 � 6H2O � 3S�2 (Eq. 3.14)


Figure 3.10 Cave formation in the Big Room, Carlsbad CavernsNational Park, New Mexico. (http://www.nps.gov/cave/home.htm)


Mercury (Hg) normally binds very tightly to organicmatter. The above process is the method in which mercurycan become de-coupled from organic matter and subse-quently methylated via methyl transfer from cobalamin(vitamin B12) to Hg2�.

3.6 LIGHT IN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS

Just as in terrestrial systems, light at the water’s surfacemarks the beginning of photosynthesis or “primary produc-tion.” Light is the driving force behind almost all metabolicprocesses in aquatic ecosystems. Light carries heat energy tobe used in many chemical and biological processes, and cansimultaneously regulate and/or damage, aquatic biota. Pollu-tants, especially suspended and dissolved substances, canhave profound effects on both the amount of light availablefor photosynthesis and the heat energy needed for theseprocesses.

3.6.1 Light Energy

Light contains differing amounts of energy, depending uponfrequency and wavelength. Quantum theory states thatelectromagnetic energy, such as light, is transmitted indiscrete amounts or “packets” called quanta. A singlequanta (i.e., “quantum”) of electromagnetic energy is alsoreferred to as a photon, and the energy carried by eachphoton is proportional to its frequency. The quantity ofelectromagnetic energy flow over time is measured as a rate,i.e., quanta second�1 known as the radiant flux of light.

The arrangement of light based upon differing wave-lengths, frequencies, and energies is described by spectra.For example, the spectrum formed by white light contains allcolors and is therefore said to be continuous (Figure 3.11).Certain biological, chemical, and physical processes occuronly at specific frequencies of spectra, some of which can beseen with the human eye and several of which cannot. Lightthat is divided over a certain range of spectra is divided bycolor and measured by its frequency in nanometers.

Light travels at 299,792 km second�1. It takes approxi-mately 400 trillion waves of red light at 750 nm to span thedistance light travels every second. It takes almost twice asmany violet waves, at 380 nm, to fill the same volume of alight second. The amount of radiation emitted by the sun that

reaches the earth’s outer atmosphere is 1.94 calories cm�2

minute�1 and is known as the solar constant. The mostcommon wavelength that makes it to our outer atmosphere is�480nm.

Light wave frequency and energy are interrelated as ex-plained by Planck’s equation, which is expressed as:

E � hv (Eq. 3.15)

where:E is the energy in a photon of lighth is Planck’s constant of 6.6255 � 10�34 joules

second�1

v is the wave frequency

Frequency of a light wave is given by v � c/where:

c is the speed of light (3 � 108 m/second), and is the wavelength

For example, the frequency of red light (750 nm) is calcu-lated from

v � 7.

35

��

1100

8

�7 �

Substituting this number into Plancks equation (E � hv),26.5 � 10�20 joules are contained in a single photon of light.Compare this with the fact that it takes 6.024 � 1023 photonsjust to initiate a photosynthetic reaction (otherwise known asAvogadro’s number). Thus, it can be seen that it takes a largeamount of light energy to perform what we would consider asimple biological process. Photosynthetically active radiation,the spectrum of light needed for photosynthesis by most plants,is approximately 400 to 700 nm. Specific types of chlorophyllsand accessory pigments in plants have narrowed the require-ments of wavelength ranges. For example, chlorophyll a, aphotosynthesizing pigment common to all algae, absorbs lightin two peaks, 670–680 nm and again at 435 nm.

3.6.2 Light at and Below the Waters Surface

Several processes can affect both the intensity and quality oflight reaching the earth’s surface. One such process is simplescattering of light by particles in the atmosphere, includingwater vapor. Refraction of light occurs when the speed oflight changes going from one medium, such as air, intoanother, such as water. Light can also be reflected off of awater surface due to several factors such as the incidentangle of light, wave height and frequency, or the presence ofice. Another factor affecting light intensity is absorption dueto the decrease in light energy by its transformation into heat.Both atmospheric gases and water can cause absorption.

Absorption (i.e., “quenching”) of light entering a bodyof water can be quantified using a vertical absorptioncoefficient expressed as:

k � ln Io �

zln lz

4.00 � 1014

second�1 wavelengths light

Figure 3.11 Wavelengths of light and associated spectra.(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/specol.html)

where:Io is the natural log of the initial amount of light

entering the waterIz is the natural log of light remaining at any given

depthz is the thickness of the water in meters

The vertical absorption coefficient is somewhat analogous tothe coefficient of extinction, except that the latter uses thebase10 logorithm. The vertical coefficient of absorption istherefore 2.3 times the coefficient of extinction. Anotherimportant variable when considering the fate of light inwater is the total coefficient of absorption, which is thesum of all factors leading to the intensity (or “extinction”) oflight at any given depth. The total coefficient of absorptioncan be expressed as:

Iz � Io��kw � Io�

�kp � Io��kc

where:kw � the coefficient of absorption in pure waterkp � suspended particulate matterkc � dissolved substances

Note that kp or kc can only be determined after filtrationor centrifugation. The total coefficient of absorption isdifferent for each body of water and is dependent upon theamount of dissolved or suspended material in the water. Dis-solved substances are normally humic or fulvic acids, tan-nins, lignins, or anything that constitutes colored, dissolved,organic matter absorbing light strongly at relatively shortwavelengths (e.g., blues and ultraviolet radiation � 500 nm).Suspended material includes fine clays, and phytoplankton,which absorb light evenly over the entire spectrum.

In standing water, vertical light penetration can beroughly estimated using a secchi disk which is standardized,20-cm diameter, black and white, weighted disk lowered intothe water using a calibrated line. The depth at which the diskalmost, but not quite, disappears is recorded. This is knownas the secchi disk transparency expressed as Zsd. To becomparable, this has to be done between 10 am and 2 pm onany given day. Secchi disk depth is often mistakenly used as aproxy for primary production (the amount of standing algalbiomass) in a water body. In reality there are many other mit-igating factors besides algae that can cause either increases ordecreases in transparency. The photic zone is the volume ofwater from the surface to where 99% of the light needed forphotosynthesis has been extinguished. A very rough estimateof photic zone depth is anywhere from 2.7 to 3 times Zsd.

3.7 OCEANS

3.7.1 Salts

The oceans are saline due to the constant input of dissolvedsalts leached from rocks and soils on land surfaces. These dis-solved solids consist of many salts including sodium, calcium,and magnesium salts. There are several common methods of

determining total dissolved solids and/or salinity includingelectrical conductivity, density, light refraction, silver titra-tion, and simple evaporation of a known volume. Each ofthese methods will provide a result that can be converted to apercentage, or more commonly parts per thousand, of salinity.Open ocean seawater will vary from 33 to 35 parts per thou-sand (ppt), while coastal waters may have less than 1 ppt.

3.7.2 Transport and Accumulation of Pollutants

The oceans tend to become the repository of many pollutants.Air pollution and water pollution often transport the com-pounds to the ocean through rain events or runoff. Histori-cally, one of the most common mindsets was that the “solutionto pollution is dilution.” Over time we have discovered thateven the oceans are not vast enough to handle the volume ofpollutants that can be discharged by human activities. In manycases, the effects of pollutants are so toxic that even vast dilu-tion is not effective. In other instances we have found thatfilter-feeding organisms bioaccumulate toxic compounds thatascend food chains and can affect grazers and top carnivores,as well as humans consuming various seafoods. Mercury inswordfish and certain sharks is such an example.

3.7.3 Wave Morphology and Currents

Waves and currents move pollutants within surface water.This is especially critical in marine systems as we attempt tocontrol and/or track pollution movement. Waves are typicallythe result of winds blowing across the surface of a body ofwater. As the air friction pushes against the water, smallripples form. Continued breezes push against the sides of eachripple providing additional energy. The tops of the ripples mayblow off, forming whitecaps. This releases some of theenergy, but more will continue with the bulk of the waterbelow. Continued wind energy transferred to the waves canstore enormous amounts of energy. The size of a wave is afunction of the average velocity of the wind, the period of timeit blows, and the distance of open water across which it blows.The distance over which blowing winds creates waves iscalled the fetch. Waves are usually described by the period(the time between two crests passing the same point), thewavelength (distance between two crests), and the waveheight (vertical distance between a trough and the next crest).

Waves are important factors in the dispersion of pollu-tants, especially oil spills. Calm waters facilitate the recov-ery of oil and other floating pollutants. However, in caseswhere it cannot be collected, wave action can break up thethick mats of oil and spread the material so that bacterialdegradation can break down the organic molecules. It willalso allow the lighter fractions to volatilize.

Water motion in the oceans is a function of waves, whichare wind driven, and currents, which are driven by a numberof factors. The most important is the Coriolis effect caused bythe spinning of the earth (see Chapter 4). However, wind,runoff from rivers, density differences from temperature orsalinity extremes, and tidal fluctuations can all drive currents.



Currents are often compared to the circulatory system of aliving organism. Trade winds will power currents that trans-port water and its constituents across vast distances along thesurface. Cooling of surface waters in the high latitudes causescold, dense water to sink into the depths, where it flows alongthe bottom until it upwells in lower latitudes to replace warmersurface waters that are blown away from coastlines. Tidalaction will also drive currents in local situations.

Currents and waves effectively mix surface waters on ashort time scale. Deep-water currents mix water on a muchlonger time scale. Together they effectively spread pollu-tants to every corner of the ocean. Water motion can beeffectively measured in two ways. If the motion is fairlyconsistent in one direction, a current meter can be used todetermine velocity. A more common situation is when watermotion is not consistent, but varies in direction and speed inthree dimensions over short periods of time. In this case, abetter measure is to use a clod card. Clod cards consist of ablock of calcium sulfate that slowly dissolves in water. Theblock is mounted on a card stock for easy attachment andhandling. Its rate of dissolution can be measured by record-ing initial and final dry weights. These are normally used tocompare two or more environments. The clod cards can becalibrated, if necessary, by placing controls in waters ortanks with known velocities of water motion.

3.8 LAKES AND RESERVOIRS—THE LENTICSYSTEM

Lentic systems are closed ecosystems such as lakes. How-ever, while lakes and reservoirs are relatively more “closed”than rivers and streams, they are far from isolated. Althoughsome lakes and reservoirs have subterranean groundwaterinputs, the majority of water entering them is a result of over-land flow; therefore, lakes and reservoirs are reflections ofall processes that have occurred in the watershed up to thatpoint. Both natural and anthropogenic watershed influencescan have profound effects on both water quality for humanuse and aquatic communities living within lentic systems.

3.8.1 Lentic Typology

There are several ways to classify lakes and reservoirs: byorigin, ecoregion, shape and size, regimen of mixing, andstratification. Detail about every different type of lake orreservoir is beyond the scope of this chapter, and the readeris instead referred to any of several available limnologicaltexts. Rather, this section will discuss the differences be-tween two main types of lentic systems: lakes and reservoirs.

The main difference between lakes and reservoirs is thatthe former have natural origins, while the latter are manufac-tured by humans for anthropogenic needs. Both are lenticsystems and therefore share some common attributes. Lakesare dominant where glaciers have scoured the landscape, as,for example, around the Great Lakes. In other cases, tectonicactivity has formed rifts, allowing for the African Rift Lakes,

or some other depression has been made through naturalcauses and there is adequate ground or surface water inputs tofill these depressions. Reservoirs, on the other hand, areconstructed where lakes are not in abundance and water isneeded for human use. Reservoirs are often found in greaterabundance in arid and semi-arid regions such as in the westernU.S., where large natural lakes are not abundant. The largenumber of reservoirs built in arid regions often means sacri-ficing lotic habitats through either direct impoundment orsome change in water chemistry caused by impoundment.Endemic aquatic organisms living in streams and rivers of thewestern U.S. are among the most endangered species on theplanet due to impoundment of habitat and changes in environ-mental conditions below large dams.

Some of the major differences between lakes and reser-voirs are given in Table 3.3. The arrows are either increasingor decreasing as they relate to either lakes or reservoirs. Forexample, lakes generally have a much smaller watershedarea than reservoirs.

3.8.2 Trophic State

Material within lentic systems are generally classified aseither autochthonous or allochthonous in origin. Al-lochthonous (from the Greek, meaning “other than from theearth or land itself”) material is everything that has been im-ported to the lentic system from somewhere else in the wa-tershed. This material can be thought of in terms of loading.Autochthonous (from the Greek, meaning “of or from theearth or land itself”) material is that which is recycled withinthe lake or reservoir. Both sources play a role in a lentic sys-tem’s trophic state.

The trophic status of a lake or reservoir is largely ameans to communicate the ecological condition of a waterbody. Trophic state is based upon the total weight of livingbiological material or biomass in a water body at a specificlocation and time. Time and location-specific measurementscan be aggregated to produce waterbody-level estimations oftrophic state. Trophic status is not equivalent to primaryproduction, which is the rate of carbon fixed (usually ex-pressed as g of C fixed day�1 m�3). Trophic state, being amultidimensional phenomenon, has no single trophic indica-tor that adequately measures its underlying concept. Com-bining the major physical, chemical, and biological expres-sions of trophic state into a single index reduces the

TABLE 3.3 Comparisons of natural lakes and reservoirs.

VARIABLE NATURAL LAKES RESERVOIRS

WatershedArea ↓ ↑MaximumDepth ↓ ↑MeanDepth ↑ ↓ResidentTime ↑ ↓

variability associated with individual indicators and pro-vides a reasonable composite measure of trophic conditionsin a water body.

Several trophic state indices have been devised. The se-lection of which one to use depends upon several differentchemical and physical parameters. One of the most-usedtrophic state indices for lakes is the Carlson’s TSI (Carlson,1977). Especially important are the nutrients phosphorousand nitrogen, both essential macronutrients for algal growthand primary production. Other variables used include mea-sures of chlorophyll a and secchi disk depth. Chlorophyll ais a pigment common to all algae and gives a measure ofstanding biomass. Phosphorous is often the nutrient that ismost “limiting” in natural waters (although nitrogen limita-tion also does occur). Carlson’s TSI relies upon threevariables—chlorophyll a, secchi disk depth, and total phos-phorous—to determine trophic status of any water body thatis phosphorous-limited. In the broadest sense, trophic statusof a lake or reservoir is often divided into the categories pre-sented in Table 3.4.

The advantage of a fixed boundary system is its easyapplication by managers and technical personnel with onlylimited limnological training. However, trophic terminologyhas a history of being mis-used. For example, deeming a lakeas eutrophic does not automatically mean it has poor waterquality. Although the concepts of water quality and trophicstate are related, they should not be used interchangeably.Trophic state is an absolute scale that describes the biologi-cal condition of a body of water. The trophic scale is a divi-sion of variables used in the definition of trophic state and isnot subject to change because of the attitude or biases of theobserver. An oligotrophic or a eutrophic lake has attributesof production that remain constant no matter what the use ofthe water or where the lake is located. For the trophic stateterms to have meaning, they must be applicable in any


TABLE 3.4 Trophic categories for lakes and reservoirs.

TROPHIC STATE CHLOROPHYLL A SECCHI DISK TOTAL P ATTRIBUTES(�g/L) DEPTH (m) (�g/L)

�30 �0.95 �8 �6 Oligotrophy: Clear water, dissolved oxygen throughoutthe year in the hypolimnion

30–40 0.95–2.6 8–4 6–12 Hypolimnia of shallower lakes may become anoxic40–50 2.9–7.3 4–2 12–24 Mesotrophy: Water moderately clear; increasing

probability of hypolimnetic anoxia during thesummer.

60–60 7.3–20 2–1 24–48 Eutrophy: Problems with excessive primary productionbegin. Anoxic hypolimnia in stratified lakes/reservoirs.

60–70 20–56 0.5–1 48–96 Cyanobacteria dominate the phytoplankton. Increasingproblems with anoxia.

�70 56–155 0.25–0.5 96–192 Hyper-eutrophy: Primary production limited only bylight. Dense growths of algae and/or aquatic plants.Increasing prevalence of anoxia throughout the watercolumn. Fish kills possible.

�80 �155 �0.25 192–384 Few aquatic plants or other forms of life. Sustained periods of anoxia.

situation and location, while keeping in mind that trophicstatus is just one of several aspects of the biology of the wa-ter body in question. Water quality, on the other hand, is aterm used to describe the condition of a water body in rela-tion to human needs or values. Quality is not an absolute; theterms “good” or “poor” water quality only have meaning rel-ative to the attitude of the user. An oligotrophic lake mighthave “good” water quality for swimming, but have “poor”water quality for fishing. Confusion can ensue when trophicstate is used to infer water quality.

3.8.3 Density and Layering

As light enters the water, different wavelengths arequenched exponentially (see 3.6.2). Wavelengths in the 620-to 740-nm range are absorbed first. This range also containsthose wavelengths of light that carry the most amount ofheat energy. The relative density of water is temperature-dependent. Water becomes increasingly dense down to about4°C, at which point it becomes less dense (see 3.2.2). Thus,differential heating leads to differential vertical layering ofthe water column usually beginning in spring and earlysummer. The definitions of the various layers are given inInformation Box 3.2. An example of thermal stratification ina lake is presented in Figure 3.12.

Interaction between the epilimnion and hypolimnionoften results in the formation of autochthonous feedbackmechanisms. In almost every case, anoxia within the hy-polimnion mirrors epilimnetic production so that increasesin trophic state result in increased hypolimnetic anoxia.Prolonged anoxia within the hypolimnion often results in theprevalence of reducing conditions (see Section 3.5). Underthese reducing conditions, nutrients that would otherwise bebound to material within sediments become unbound andonce again available for biological uptake. The density

37D.B. Walker, M.L. Brusseau, and K. Fitzsimmons 37

Stratification of Lakes and Reservoirs

The uppermost layer is called the epilimnion, and ischaracterized by relatively warm water where mostphotosynthesis occurs. Depending upon environmentalconditions, it is more oxygenated than layers below it.The middle layer is called the metalimnion and containsan area known as the thermocline. The thermocline is thatarea within the water column where the temperaturegradient is the steepest. The metalimnion is that regionsurrounding the thermocline where the temperature gra-dient is steep compared to the upper and bottom layers.Due to the temperature gradient becoming increasinglysteep within a correspondingly smaller volume of water,the thermocline becomes an infinitesimally small plane,whereas the metalimnion is a larger region encompass-ing the mean of the greatest rate of change. The hy-polimnion is the bottom layer and is colder and denserthan either the epilimnion or metalimnion. When a lakeor reservoir is thermally stratified, the hypolimnionbecomes largely isolated from atmospheric conditionsand is often referred to as being stagnant. Additionally,the hypolimnion receives organic debris from the epil-imnion, and as respiring bacteria begin the process ofdecomposition of this received material, consumption ofdissolved oxygen (e.g., respiration) usually exceeds eitherproduction of oxygen from photosynthesis oratmospheric re-aeration. The eplimnion is often referredto as the trophogenic area of lentic systems, where mix-ing through wind and wave action as well as photosyn-thesis exceeds respiration, whereas the hypolimnion isreferred to as the tropholytic region, where organicmaterial is synthesized and mineralization by bacteriaoccurs.

INFORMATION BOX 3.2

differences between the epilimnion and hypolimnion meansthat relatively few of these nutrients are available for uptakeby phytoplankton until the lake or reservoir de-stratifies or“turns over,” which occurred when the epilimnion cools to atemperature similar to the hypolimnion (usually during thefall). Algal “blooms” or sudden increases in biomass of al-gae are common during this time.

Recycling of nutrients through the thermocline fromthe hypolimnion to the trophogenic epilimnion does occur,although this is relatively small compared to overall nutri-ent levels within the hypolimnion. Increases in algalbiomass means that more organic material is available fortransport back through the thermocline into the hy-polimnion, adding to anoxia and the potential release ofmore nutrients from sediments, so that a positive feedbackloop is established. This autochthonous cycling of nutrientscan keep a lake or reservoir locked into a eutrophic stateeven after other sources of pollutants from the watershedhave been reduced.

3.9 STREAMS AND RIVERS—THE LOTICSYSTEM

Lotic systems consist of running water such as rivers orstreams and are the great transporter of material to oceans,lakes, and reservoirs. Rivers and streams are also vulnerableto both natural and anthropogenic sources of pollution, andhave a history of being used and misused.

3.9.1 Stream Morphometry

Stream morphometry was initiated by R.E. Horton and A.E.Strahler in the 1940s and 50s to find suites of holistic streamproperties from the measurement of various attributes. Thiswas designed to allow some type of classification systemthat could be used as a communicative tool for hydrologists(Figure 3.13).

The original idea was to develop a hierarchical classifi-cation system of stream segments. These segments wereordered numerically from headwaters so that individualtributaries at the headwaters were given the order of “1.”The joining of two 1st order streams were given the order of

Epilimnion

Metalimnion

Hypolimnion

Temp ˚C30252015

-25

-20

-15

-10

Dep

th_m

Epilimnion

Metalimnion

Hypolimnion

Dissolved Oxygen DO mg/L86420

-30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

0

Dep

th_m

-5

0

Figure 3.12 Thermal stratification in Lake Pleasant, Arizona.Data collected on 08/05/2003. The upper graph plots depth andtemperature and the bottom graph depth and dissolved oxygen.

channel per unit area of drainage basin expressed as:

Drainage density (Dd) � str

beaasmin

laernegath

Drainage density is useful numerical measure of landscapedissection and runoff potential.

Rivers are often divided into relatively homogenousunits or reaches. A river has distinct chemical, physical,and biological attributes, depending upon stream order andoverall size of the channel. General physical characteristicsbased upon channel size are given in Table 3.5.

3.9.2 Stream Hydraulics

The flow of fluids is generally classified into two types: lam-inar and turbulent. For laminar flow, which occurs at lowervelocities, the individual fluid (e.g., water) molecules moveuniformly in the direction of the mean gradient, with minimalmixing. Conversely, at higher velocities, the fluid moleculesdo not always move uniformly; instead, they may also crossthe paths of other molecules, mixing and forming eddies. Thisis refereed to as turbulent flow. The Reynolds number, a di-mensionless parameter, is used to characterize conditions forwhich flow will be laminar or turbulent.

The volume of water flowing in a stream at a giventime is referred to as the stream discharge. Discharge hasunits of volume per time (e.g., cubic meters per second). Itis calculated as: Q � A * v, where Q is discharge, A iscross-sectional area and v is velocity. The cross-sectionalarea of the stream, which has units of length squared, iscontrolled by the shape and size of the channel and theheight of water in the channel. This latter term is often re-ferred to as the stream stage. The velocity (units of lengthper time) of water in a stream is controlled by the gradient(slope) of the stream and roughness of the stream channelsurfaces. Water velocities are generally not uniform acrossthe stream cross-section. Rather, the highest velocitiestypically occur in the center of the channel just below thesurface, and the lowest velocities occur along the channelsurfaces (where friction is greatest).

3.10 GROUNDWATER—WATER IN THE SUBSURFACE

Water in the subsurface serves as a critical resource for hu-man consumption, both directly and indirectly (see Chapter17). Groundwater resources serve as one of the two primarysources of potable water supply in the world (the other beingsurface water). In addition, water in the soil profile supportsplant life, upon which humans are dependent in severalways. Water is also central to the transport and fate of con-taminants in the subsurface. We will examine the distribu-tion and movement of groundwater in this section. Theimpact of water flow on transport of contaminants in the sub-surface is discussed in Chapters 6 and 17.


Stream O

rdering

1

11

1 1

1

1

2

2

2

2 3

3Figure 3.13 Example of stream ordering. Notice that it takes 2stream orders of the same magnitude to increase downstreamranking. For example, the confluence of a 2nd order and a 1st

order stream does not equal a third order, but the joining oftwo 2nd order streams does. (http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/waterq/streamorder.html)

“2” and the joining of two 2nd order streams, the order of “3,”and so on.

Horton found that the ratio between number of streamsegments in one order and the next was consistently aroundthree. This is called the bifurcation ratio. This ratio hasalso been discovered in the rooting system of plants, thebranching structure of woody plants, leaf venation, and thehuman circulatory system.

ORDER # OF SEGMENTS BIFURCATION RATIO

1 30 3.02 10 3.33 3 3.0

Horton called this association the Law of StreamNumbers, which is defined as the “morphometric relationshipobserved in the number of stream segments of a particularclassification order in stream order branching.” Horton com-bined the information that he obtained to define the Lawsof Stream Lengths and Basin Areas. The Law of StreamLengths states that a geometric relationship exists betweenthe numbers of stream segments in successive stream orders,whereas the Law of Basin Areas indicates that the meanbasin area of successively ordered streams form a linearrelationship.

A quantifiable measure of the morphometry of drainagenetworks is drainage density, which is the length of stream


TABLE 3.5 Properties of stream channels.

CHANNEL SIZE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ORDER

Small Cobbles (�64 mm dia.) And boulders (�256 mm Lowdia.) Dominate the substrate.

Pools form behind rocks or logs (step-poolformations)

Relatively steep gradients (2° to 20°)Banks composed of bedrock, boulders, and roots.Highly erosional areas.

Intermediate 20–30 m max. width IntermediateDominated by pool-riffle-bar unitsRiffles are zones of relatively shallow, rapid flowRapids, cascades, and glides (extended riffles) may

be prominent.Major pool types include backwater (formed from

either obstructions in the main channel or fromperiodic flooding of banks), dammed (foundupstream of boulder lies and gravel bars), andscour (where flow converges past an obstruction).

Large Dominated by pool-riffle sequences, bar Highformations, and meanders.

Reach gradient largely determined by valleygradient.

Transport of sediment may increase sinuosity.Sinuosity is defined as river length/valley length.Braided channels may form when the river can no

longer carry its sediment load.Increased deposition of sediment in large channels.

From Callow & Petts, 1992.

3.10.1 Water in the Subsurface

We can observe a cross-section of water distribution in thesubsurface by drilling a borehole or excavating a pit. Aschematic of a typical subsurface profile was presented inFigure 2.1. The vadose zone, also known as the zone of aer-ation or unsaturated zone, represents a region extendingfrom near the ground surface to a water table. The watertable is defined as a water surface that is at atmospheric pres-sure. In the soil and vadose zones, all pores are usually notfilled with water; many pores will also contain air. In suchcases, the porous medium is considered to be unsaturated.Water pressure in the soil and vadose zones is less than at-mospheric pressure (P�0). The thickness of the vadose zonevaries from a meter or less in tropical regions to a few hun-dred meters in arid regions, depending upon the climate(e.g., precipitation), soil texture, and vegetation (see alsoChapter 2).

Water stored in the soil and vadose zones is retained bysurface and capillary forces acting against gravitationalforces. Molecular forces hold water in a thin film around soilgrains. Capillary forces hold water in the small pores be-tween soil grains. Gravity forces are not sufficient to forcethis water to percolate downward. Thus, there is very littlemovement of water in the vadose zone when water contentsare relatively low. For higher water-content conditions,

some of the water is free to move under the influence ofgravity. When this occurs, water movement would generallybe vertically downward. If this water moves all the way tothe water table, it serves to replenish (or recharge) ground-water. The capillary fringe is the region above the watertable where water is pulled from the water table by capillaryforces. This zone is also called the tension-saturated zone.The thickness of this zone is a function of grain-size distri-bution and varies from a few centimeters in coarse-grainedsoils to a few meters in fine-grained soils. The water contentin this zone ranges from saturated to partially saturated, butfluid pressure acting on the water is less than atmosphericpressure (P�0).

The region beneath the water table is called the satu-rated or phreatic zone. In this zone, all pores are saturatedwith water and the water is held under positive pressure.Because all pores are filled with water, soil-water content isequal to porosity, except when liquid organic contaminantsare also present in the pore spaces (see Chapter 17). Thewater in the saturated zone is usually referred to as ground-water. Water movement in the saturated zone is generallyhorizontal. Specific sections of the saturated zone, particu-larly those comprised of sands and gravels, are calledaquifers, which are geologic units that store and transmitsignificant quantities of groundwater.

3.10.2 Principles of Subsurface Water Flow

Water at any point in the subsurface possesses energy inmechanical, thermal, and chemical forms. The energy sta-tus of water, for example the effort required to move waterfrom one point to another, is a critical aspect of quantifyingwater flow. For groundwater flow, the contributions ofchemical and thermal energies to the total energy of waterare generally relatively minor and thus are usually ignored.Therefore, we consider water flow through porous media tobe primarily a mechanical process. Fluid flow throughporous media always occurs from regions where energy perunit mass of fluid (fluid potential) is higher, to regionswhere it is lower.

From fluid mechanics, the mechanical energy of waterat any point is composed of the kinetic energy of the fluid,the potential (or elevation) energy, and the energy of fluidpressure. For water flow in porous media, kinetic energy isgenerally negligible because pore-water velocities are usu-ally small. Thus, total energy of water is considered toconsist of potential and pressure energies.

The potential or elevation energy results from theforce of gravity acting on the water. In the absence of pres-sure energy considerations, water always flows from re-gions of higher elevation potential to lower. This is whysurface water flows “downhill.” Similarly, groundwaterusually flows downward from higher elevations (under-neath mountain peaks) to lower elevations (underneath thevalley floor).

In the vadose zone, the pressure potential is negative,indicating that energy is required to “pull” water away fromthe soil surfaces and small pores. In the saturated zone, thepressure potential is positive due to the pressure exerted by

overlying water. The water pressure increases with depth inthe saturated zone. This condition occurs in all waterbodies—including swimming pools—which is manifestedby the increasing pressure one feels on their sinuses andeardrums, as one swims deeper below the surface.

The energy potentials are commonly expressed interms of length to simplify their use. In length terms, theenergy potentials are referred to as “heads.” The totalenergy potential head for water is called the hydraulichead; sometimes, particularly for vadose-zone applica-tions, it is called the soil-water potential head. The equa-tion we use to relate the hydraulic head (h) to its two parts,elevation head (z) and pressure head ( ), is: h � � z.Each head has a dimension of length (L) and is generallyexpressed in meter or feet.

Hydraulic head measurements are essential pieces ofinformation that are required for characterizing groundwa-ter flow systems (i.e., direction and magnitude of flow), de-termining hydraulic properties of aquifers, and evaluatingthe influence of pumping on water levels in a region.Piezometers are used to measure the hydraulic head at dis-tinct points in saturated regions of the subsurface. Apiezometer is a hollow tube or pipe drilled or forced into aprofile to a specific depth. Water rises inside the tube to alevel corresponding to the pressure head at the terminus.The level to which water rises in the piezometer with ref-erence to a datum such as sea level is the hydraulic head(Figure 3.14).

The relationship between the three head components isillustrated in a piezometer in Figure 3.14. The value of zrepresents the distance between the measurement point in theprofile and a reference datum. Sea level is often taken as


Ground surface

Sea level

zPoint of measurement

h

Figure 3.14 Concept of hydraulic head (h), elevation head (z) and pressure head ( )in a piezometer. The cross-hatched section at the bottoms of the tube (terminus) repre-sents the screened interval, which allows water to flow into the piezometer. Water levelis denoted by the “�” symbol. From Yolcubal et al., 2004.


Sea level

(1) (2) (3)No verticalgradient

Downwardgradient

Upwardgradient

Figure 3.15 Three hypothetical situations for vertical hydraulic gradient water level is denotedby the “∇ ” symbol. From Yolcubal et al., 2004.

the reference point where z � 0, although some people usethe elevation of land surface as the reference datum. Thevalue of represents the distance between the measurementpoint and the water level in the well. The value of hrepresents the elevation of water from the reference datum.This basic hydraulic head relationship is essential to an un-derstanding of groundwater flow. Water flow in porous me-dia always occurs from regions in which hydraulic head ishigher to regions in which it is lower.

Water level measurements in a network of productionor monitor wells are used to define the potentiometric (orwater table) surface of regional ground water. Knowledgeof this surface is required to define hydraulic gradients andflow directions. Data from piezometers terminating indepth-wise increments provide information about the verti-cal flow direction of water in saturated regions (Figure3.15). In the first (left side) diagram, the water level isuniform, indicating no vertical flow. In the second (middle)diagram, the water level is highest in the shallowestpiezometer and lowest in the deepest one, indicatingdownward flow. The reverse is true for the third (right side)diagram.

3.10.3 Darcy’s Law

In 1856, a French hydraulic engineer, Henry Darcy, estab-lished a relationship that bears his name to this day. Therelationship is based on studies of water flow throughcolumns of sand, similar to the schematic shown in Figure3.16. In Darcy’s experiment, the column is packed with sandand plugged on both ends with stoppers. Water is introducedinto the column under pressure through an inlet in the stop-per and allowed to flow through it until all the pores are fullysaturated with water and inflow and outflow rates are equal.Water pressures along the flow path are measured by themanometers installed at the ends of the column.

In his series of experiments, Darcy studied the relation-ship between flow rate and the head loss between the inletand outlet of the column. He found that:

1. The flow rate is proportional to the head loss betweenthe inlet and outlet of the column:

Q � (Ha � hb)

The flow rate is inversely proportional to thelength of flow path:

Q � d1l

2. The flow rate is proportional to the cross-sectional areaof the column:

Q � A

Mathematically, these experimental results can be writ-ten as:

Q � KA �ha

�- h

lb� � KA �

��

hl

�where:

Q � flow rate or discharge [L3 T�1]A� cross-sectional area of the column [L2]

ha, b � hydraulic head [L]dh � head loss between two measurement points [L]dl � the distance between the measurement loca-

tions [L]dh/dl � hydraulic gradient []

K� proportionality constant or hydraulic conduc-tivity [L T�1]

We can rewrite Darcy’s Law as:

QA

� q � K

ddlh

where q is called specific discharge or Darcy velocitywith units designated as [L T�1]. This is an apparent velocitybecause Darcy velocity represents the total discharge overa cross-sectional area of the porous medium. Cross-sectionalarea includes both void and solid spaces; however, water flowoccurs only in the connected pore spaces of the cross sectionalarea. Therefore, to determine the actual mean water velocity,specific discharge is divided by the porosity of the porousmedium: v � q/n, where v is the pore-water velocity or aver-age linear velocity. Pore-water velocity is always greater thanDarcy velocity.

3.10.4 Hydraulic Conductivity

The proportionality constant in Darcy’s law, which is calledhydraulic conductivity (K) or coefficient of permeability,is a measure of the fluid transmitting capacity of a porousmedium and is expressed as:

K � k�

�g

where:

k is the intrinsic or specific permeability [L2]� is the fluid density [M L�3]g is the acceleration due to gravity [L T�2]� is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid [M T�1 L�1]

Hydraulic conductivity has a dimension of velocity [L T�1],and is usually expressed in m s�1, cm s�1, or m day�1 in SIunits, or ft s�1, ft day�1, or gal day�1 ft�2.

As indicated by the equation above, hydraulicconductivity depends on properties of both the fluid andporous medium. The two fluid properties are density and dy-namic viscosity. Intrinsic permeability is a property that inmost cases depends solely on the physical properties of theporous medium. This relationship can be illustrated using theexpression called the Hazen approximation:

k � C(d10)2

where:C is a shape factor [dimensionless]d10 is the effective grain diameter [L]

C is a constant that represents the packing geometry, grainmorphology (size and shape), and grain-size distribution ofthe porous medium. The value of C ranges between 45 forclays and 140 for sand. A value of C � 100 is often used asan average. d10 is the diameter for which 10% (by weight) ofthe sample has grain diameters smaller than that diameter, asdetermined by sieve analysis. The Hazen approximation isapplicable to sand with an effective mean diameter between0.1 and 3.0 mm. Intrinsic permeability (k) has dimensions ofsquare feet (ft2), square meter (m2), or square centimeter(cm2).


Datum z = 0

ha-hb

Q

Q

hahb

dl

b

a

A

Figure 3.16 Schematic of Darcy’s experimental apparatus (original apparatus was verticallyoriented). From Yolcubal et al., 2004.


Figure 3.17 Hydraulic conductivity and permeability at saturation. (Adapted from Klute, A., andDirksen, C. [1982] Methods of Soil Analysis. Part I— Physical and mineralogical methods. Soil ScienceSociety of America, Madison, WI).

As noted above, porous-media properties that control Kinclude pore size, grain-size distribution, grain geometry,and packing of grains. Among those properties, the influenceof grain size on K is dramatic, since K is linearly propor-tional to the square of grain diameter. The larger the grain di-ameter, the larger is the hydraulic conductivity. For example,hydraulic conductivity of sands ranges from 10�4 to 10�1

cm s�1, whereas the hydraulic conductivity of clays rangesfrom 10�9 to 10�7 cm s�1. The values of saturated hydraulicconductivity vary by several orders of magnitude, dependingon the material. The range of values of hydraulic conductiv-ity and intrinsic permeability for different media is illus-trated in Figure 3.17.

In the vadose zone, hydraulic conductivity is not only afunction of fluid and media properties, but also the soil-watercontent (�), and is described by the following equation:

K(�) � K kr(�)

where:

K(�) is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivityK is the saturated hydraulic conductivitykr(�) is the relative permeability or relative hydraulic

conductivity

Relative permeability is a dimensionless number thatranges between 0 and 1. The kr(�) term equals 1 when all thepores are fully saturated with water, and equals 0 when theporous medium is dry. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity isalways lower than saturated hydraulic conductivity.

Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity is a function of soil-water content. As the soil-water content decreases, so doesK(�). In fact, a small drop in the soil-water content of a porousmedium, depending upon its texture, may result in a dramaticdecrease (e.g., 103,106) in the unsaturated hydraulic conduc-tivity. As we discussed earlier, the hydraulic conductivity of

sands is always greater than that of clays for saturated porousmedia. However, in the vadose zone, this relationship maynot always hold true. For example, during drainage of a soil,larger pores drain first and the residual water remains in thesmaller pores. Since sand has larger pores than clay, it willlose a greater proportion of water for a given suction. Conse-quently, at relatively low soil-water contents (high suctions),most of the pores of a sand will be drained, while many for aclay will remain saturated. Therefore, the unsaturated hy-draulic conductivity of a clay unit may become greater thanthat of a sand unit at lower soil-water contents.

Hydraulic conductivity is a critical piece of informa-tion required for evaluating aquifer performance, charac-terizing contaminated sites for remediation, and determin-ing the fate and transport of contaminant plumes insubsurface environments. For example, for water manage-ment issues, one needs to know the hydraulic conductivityto calculate the water-transmitting and storage capacities ofthe aquifers. For remediation applications, knowledge of Kdistribution of contaminated soils is necessary for calculat-ing plume velocity and travel time, to determine if theplume may reach a downgradient location of concern. Hy-draulic conductivity can be measured in the laboratory aswell as in the field. Laboratory measurements are per-formed on either disturbed or undisturbed samples that arecollected in the field. Laboratory measurements are rela-tively inexpensive, quick, and easy to make compared tofield measurements. They are often used to obtain an initialcharacterization of a site before on-site characterization isinitiated. However, measurements made for a sample rep-resent that specific volume of media. A single sample willrarely provide an accurate representation of the field be-cause of the heterogeneity inherent to the subsurface.Thus, a large number of samples would usually be requiredto characterize the hydraulic conductivity distribution

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. A. Determine pressure head ( ), elevation head (z), and hy-draulic head (h) for both wells.

B. Calculate the hydraulic gradient.

C. Does groundwater flow from well #1 to #2, or from #2 to #1?


Well #1Well #2

Datum (mean sea level)

Well 2. The elevation at the ground surface is 115 m;the measured water level in the well is 50 meters belowthe ground surface. The well casing length is 80 m.

2. Why is hydraulic conductivity a function of the fluid as well asthe porous medium? Is the conductivity for water greater than orless than that for air (for a given porous medium)?

3. Water has been described as a universal solvent. Describe threeproperties of water that account for its ability to dissolve somany types of compounds.

4. Describe some physical, chemical, and biological characteris-tics within the epilimnion and hypolimnion of a thermally strat-ified lake.

5. For the temperatures and pressures given below, determine ifwater will be in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state (or some combi-nation thereof).

a. 219 ATM and 0.0000098°C

b. 100 ATM and 100°C

c. 1 ATM and 373°C

d. 0.006 ATM and 0.01°CThe horizontal distance between the wells is 250 meters.

Well 1: The elevation at the ground surface is 100 m;the measured water level in the well is 40 meters belowthe ground surface. The well casing length is 60 m.

present at the site. Thus, field tests, while more expensive,are generally preferred to characterize large sites.

3.11 A WATERSHED APPROACH

Strictly defined, a watershed is a bound hydrologic unit whereall drainages flow to a common water source. Referring backto the section on stream order, we can see that a watershed en-compasses all stream orders from beginning to end. No matterwhere one goes on the earth (excluding the oceans), that per-son would be in a distinct watershed. Watersheds are usuallydelineated by sharp gradients and precipitation or snowmeltflows along one side of the gradient or the other, dependingupon local topography and natural hydrology.

Increasingly, resource managers are using watershedsas the unit of measure for management and delineation pur-poses on a landscape scale. In hydrologic terms, it makesperfect sense to focus management efforts in these terms, be-cause a land use activity in one part of a watershed often hasan effect on downstream areas. The more traditional ap-proach of addressing specific sources of pollution in a spe-cific area has been successful in addressing problems that arereadily noticeable; however, this approach has met with lim-ited success in addressing the chronic and subtle stressorsthat often contribute to impairment within a watershed. Awatershed framework is better able to capture these subtlechanges over time.

It’s important to understand that watersheds, and the or-ganisms they contain, pay no attention to human-imposed

political boundaries. Natural physical, chemical, and biolog-ical processes within watersheds provide civilization-sustaining benefits when functioning properly. Unfortu-nately, the same civilization to which watersheds providethese benefits is often the source of impairment and disrup-tion of natural processes within them. Acknowledging thisfact while understanding that political boundaries do exist isa necessary prerequisite toward cooperative management ofthe world’s most precious natural resource.

While water within watersheds follows the physico-chemical “laws” previously described in this chapter, water-shed management is equal parts hydrology and social sci-ence. Watershed management acknowledges that humansare a part of, not separated from, watershed processes andfunctioning. Watershed management, as a component ofecosystem management, tries to unify communities, man-agers, water quality experts, and as many stakeholders aspossible, with the overall goal of increasing or sustainingwater quality over large geographic areas for the commongood of not only affected communities, but also of the wa-tershed itself.

This ideology is far from revolutionary, and perhaps thebest definition of a watershed was by the geologist, explorer,and teacher John Wesley Powell, who stated over 100 yearsago that:

“A watershed is that area of land, a bounded hydrologicsystem within which all living things are inextricably linkedby their common water course and where, as humans set-tled, simple logic demanded that they become part of acommunity.”


REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL READING

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Brezonik P.L. (1994) Chemical Kinetics and Process Dynamics inAquatic Systems. Lewis-CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. 754 pp.

Callow P. and Petts G.E. (1992) The Rivers Handbook. Vol. 1.Blackwell Sci. Publ., Cambridge. 526 p.

Carlson R.E. (1977) A trophic state index for lakes. J. LimnolOcean. 22:361–369.

Clesceri L.S., Greenberg A.E. and Eaton A.D. eds. (1999) Stan-dard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th

Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.

Cole G.A. (1994) Textbook of Limnology. 4th ed. Waveland PressInc., Prospect Heights, Illinois.

Edmondson W.T. (1994) What is limnology? In Limnology Now:A Paradigm of Planetary Problems, R. Margalef, ed. Elsevier,New York, New York.

Frey D.G. (1963) Wisconsin: The Birge and Juday years. Chapter1 in Limnology in North America, D.G. Frey, ed. University ofWisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin. 734 pp.

Horton R.E. (1931) The field, scope, and status of the science ofhydrology. pp. 189–202 in Reports and Papers, Hydrology,Trans. AGU. National Research Council, Washington, DC.

Hutchinson G.E. (1957) A Treatise on Limnology, Vol. I. JohnWiley & Sons, New York.

Hynes H.B.N. (1970) The Ecology of Running Waters. Universityof Toronto Press, Toronto.

Kelly C.A., Rudd J.W.M., Hesslein R.H., Schindler D.W., DillonP.J., Driscoll C.T., Gherini S.A. and Hecky R.E. (1988) Predictionof biological acid neutralization in acid sensitive lakes. Biogeo-chemistry 3:129–140.

Klute A. and Dirkson C. (1982) Methods of Soil Analysis. Part I—Physical and mineralogical methods. Soil Science Society ofAmerica, Madison, Wisconsin.

Mitsch W., and J.G. Gosselink. (1993) Wetlands, 2nd ed. VanNostrand Reinhold, New York, New York. 722 pp.

Reynolds O. (1883) An experimental investigation of the circum-stances which determine whether the motion of water shall be di-rect or sinuous, and of the law of resistance in parallel channels.Royal Society, Phil. Trans.

Schlesinger W.H. (1991) Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of GlobalChange. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida.

Streeter H.W. and Phelps E.B. (1925) A study of the pollution andnatural purification of the Ohio River. III. Factors concerned inthe phenomena of oxidation and reaeration. U.S. Public HealthServ. Public Health Bull. 146.

Swain E.B., Engstrom D.R., Brigham M.E., Henning T.A. andBrezonik P.L. (1992) Increasing rates of atmospheric mercurydeposition in midcontinental North America. Science257:784–787.

van der Leeden F., Troise F.L. and Todd D.K. (199) The WaterEncyclopedia. Lewis Pubs. Chelsea, Michigan.

Vannote R.L., Minshall G.W., Cummins K.W., Sedell J.R. andCushing C.E. (1980) The river continuum concept. Can. J. Fish.Aquat. Sci. 37:130–137.

Vollenweider R.A. (1975) Input-output models with special refer-ence to the phosphorous loading concept in limnology. Schweiz.Z. Hydrol. 37:53–84.

Wetzel R.G. and Likens G.E. (1991) Limnological Analyses.Springer-Verlag, New York, New York.

Williams J.E., Wood C.A. and Dombeck M.P. eds. (1997) Water-shed Restoration: Principles and Practices. American FisheriesSociety, Bethesda, Maryland.

Yolcubal I., Brusseau M.L., Artiola J.F., Wierenga P. and WilsonL.G. (2004). Environmental physical properties and processes. InEnvironmental Monitoring and Characterization (J.F. Artiola, I.L.Pepper, and M. Brusseau, eds.). Elsevier Academic Press, SanDiego, California. pp. 207–237.

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PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER