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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE:
FOUNDATION OF THEORY
CONSTRUCTION(LECTURE I)
Instructor
M. Saleh S.Ali
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WELCOME TO
THE CLASS OF THEORY CONSTRUCTION
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MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Philosophy of scienceis the branch ofphilosophythat studies the philosophicalassumptions, foundations, andimplications of science.
Philosophy of science is the attempt tounderstand the meaning, method, andlogical structure of scienceby means of a
logical and methodological analysisof theaims, methods, criteria, concepts, laws,and theories of science (Klemke et.al.1998).
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy8/11/2019 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE (Kuliah 1).ppt
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE S NOT
Philosophy of science is notthe history
of science.
Philosophy of science is notmetaphysical cosmology or philosophy
of nature.
Philosophy of science is notthepsychology or sociology of science
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SCIENTISTS VS PHILOSOPHERS OF
SCIENCE
Scientists:
Observe what happens in the world and note regularities.
Experiment manipulate some things.
Discover or postulate laws of nature to explain regularities. Combine laws of nature into theories
Philosophers of science:
Do none the scientists do
They ask questions such as What is a law of nature? What
is a scientific theory? What are the criteria to distinguish or
to demarcate a scientific theory and nonscientific theory?
They clarify the existence of a law of nature.
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THINK PHILOSOPHICALLY
1. Holistic; understand a science from many
different perspectives; the essence of
science in relation to others.
2. Fundamental; understand foundations of
facts. Sceptism of facts.
3. Speculative; understand the essence of a
reality/fact through jumping of thinking.
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KNOWLEDGE
Philosophy and Science, dealt with
knowledge.
Knowledge is justified true belief(OBrien, 2006)
Scientific Knowledge is an organized
and systematic knowledge by ascientific method.
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SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Belief/ReligionReligious Knowledge
Intuition/ThinkingPhilosophical
KnowledgeExperienceCultural Knowledge
ResearchScientific knowledge
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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
a prioriknowledgeWhat one knows beforetaking into account
observations or evidence (Knowledge is notjustified by experience, it is accepted as a given
truth, it is innate knowledge)May include necessary/analytic truths,
assumptions, given facts, etc.
Exp. * All men die
*All bachelors are unmarried man* Everything has a cause
* Murder is wrong
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TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
a posterior knowledgeWhat one knows aftertaking into account
observations and evidence (knowledge is
justified by experience)
May include laws and explanations of natural
or social phenomena.
Exp. *Stress leads to cardiovasculer
deseases.*Fertilizers increase paddy production
*If there is no conflict, there is no change
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HOW TO ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE
Rationalism
Empiricism
Constructionism
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RATIONALISM
Knowledge arises from reasoning, a priory knowledge The way to knowledge is from the generalto the
particular
Requires some general a prioritruths which it views asnecessarycondition
Characterised by deduction The general principles gives meaningto the
observations by relatingthem
Theory-driven
Exp.
All men are mortal;
Socrates is a men;
Therefore, Socrates is mortal
We know this is true because rationallyit makes sense
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ILLUSTRATION
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PREMIS MAYORPREMIS MINOR
KNOWLEDGE/
THE TRUTHDEDUCTIVE
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CRITIQUES OF RATIONALISM
Difficulties to set a standard of
evaluating.
Idea is difficult to catch, it is abstractDifficult to actualize in practical
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EMPIRICISM
Knowledge arises from observation,a posterior knowledge The way to knowledge is from theparticularto the general
Requires some particular a posteriortruths (perceptions)which are contingent
Characterised by induction
The general principles arise from the process of relatingobservations
Data-driven
Exp.
It has been observedthrough the years that allhumans die;
Therefore, Socrates will die.
We know this is true because empiricallyit is supported
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ILLUSTRATION
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EMPIRICALFACTS
KNOWLEDGE/THE TRUTHINDUCTIVE
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CRITIQUES OF EMPIRICISM
Limitation of our sensory and
perception.
Object sometimes is not real
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RATIONALISM, EMPIRICISM AND
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Illustration
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PROBLEMS HYPOTHESISKNOWLEDGE/THE TRUTHDEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE
RATIONALISM EMPERICISM
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FOUNDATION OF SCIENCE
Ontology
(what is the nature of phenomena we seek to know?)
Epistemology
(How do we know what we claim to know?)
Axiology
(What is the role of values in inquiry)
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SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Problem/Question
Observation/Research/Developing aTentative Theory
Formulate a Hypothesis Experiment
Collect and Analyze Results
Conclusion Communicate the Results
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Problem/Question: Develop a
question or problem that can besolved through research or
experimentation.
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2. Observation/Research/ Developing
a Tentative Theory: Makeobservations and research your topic
of interest and developing a tentative
explanation of the problems.
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3. Formulate a Hypothesis: Predict a
possible answer to the problem orquestion.
Example:If soil temperatures rise, then
plant growth will increase.
If the insulin decrease then diabetic
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
4. Experiment: Develop and follow a
procedure.
Include a detailed materialslist.
The outcome must be measurable andexplanable
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
5. Collect and Analyze Results: Modify
the procedure if needed.
Confirm the results by retesting.
Include tables, graphs, andphotographs.
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
6. Conclusion:
Include a statement that accepts or
rejects the hypothesis.
Make recommendations for furtherstudy and possible improvements to
the procedure.
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STEPS OF THE
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
7. Communicate the Results:
Be prepared to present the project to
an audience.
Expect questions from the audience.Publishing
(University without research is not a university, but research
without publication is nothing
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EXAMPLE
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Scientific Method
Observation A patient has fever
Hypothesis(prediction)
The patient may has influenza
Test The patient is given a drug(decolgen)
Observe result The patient is still has fever
Revise
hypothesis?
The patient may has typhus.
New test? Re-run medical test (giving a drugfor typhus). Observe results (thepatients temperature is normal)
Scientific Theory Fever is caused by typhus.
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PARADIGM
Thomas Kuhn(1962)The Structure of ScientificRevolution.
According Kuhn, development of science is not alwaysgradual and cumulative, but it can be revolutionary (jumpdrastically) to produce a new perspective.
Kuhn divide science into (a) normal science, dan (b)extraordinary or revolutionary science, Normal scienceadalah pengetahuan yang terakumulasi
secara gradual dan telah diakui oleh masyarakat ilmuansebagai dasar untuk pengembangan pengetahuanselanjutnya. (pengetahuan berkembang secara linier)
Extraordinary atau revolutionary scienceadalahpengetahuan yang berkembang yang secara revolutioneryang bisa saja berbeda dengan pengetahuan yangmendasarinya. Hal ini bisa terjadi melalui criticalimagination, empiricalobservationatau konklusi-konklusilogik.
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DEFINITIONS OF PARADIGM
Paradigm is a framework of basic assumptions including standards for determining the validity ofknowledge, rules of evidence and inference, andbasic principles of cause and effectsshared by a
scientific community. (Kuhn, 1970: 111-35).Paradigm is not only a set of an achievement, anew, accepted way of solving a problem which thenis used as a model of future work, but also a set ofshared values, the methods, standards and
generalizations shared by those trained to carry onthe scientific work modeled on that paradigm(Kuhn, 1970)
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INGREDIENTS OF PARADIGMS
1. Paradigm as a value systemwhich is standards or rule ofthe game.
2. Paradigms as research interest, It tells what is importantand intresting to be studied.
3. Paradigm as theory, a set of axiom, construct andpreposition that explain the object.
4. Paradigm as model, representation of reality based ontheoretical formulations.
5. Paradigm as bodies of facts, it is a collection of facts thatneed theoretical explanations.
6. Paradigm as theoretical framework, It is a theoreticalapproach th built from a construct, statements orprepositions.
7. Paradigm as observational frameworks, There is a set ofconcept where observable prepositions formulated.
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SCIENTIFIC DEVELOPMENT(KUHN)
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Paradigm I Normal
ScienceAnomalies
CrisisRevolution
Paradigm II
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NORMAL SCIENCE
MAIN PRINCIPLES
Science develops gradually
Search the relationships between facts and
existing theories
Articulation of theory (in research)
ALMOST ALL SCIENTISTS FOLLOW THISMAIN PARADIGM
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ANOMALIES
DISCOVERY OF NEW FACTS AND
THEORY
The new facts unexplainable with existing
theories.
Invention of a new theory which is not fit
the existing paradigm (main)
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CRISIS
Many scientists doubt the truth of existing
paradigm.
Many theories based on different paradigms.
Unclear paradigm of a science.
Arise fundamental critics toward existing
theories.
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REVOLUTION
OLD PARADIGMS LEAVED BY ITS
FOLLOWERS
NEW TEORIES BASED ON A NEW
PARADIGM
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PARADIGM SHIFT
Paradigm shift, because:
Anomali
Crisis
Change of thinking
Paradigm shift is a must.
The prison of paradigm
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