Philosophical Foundations of Science and Technology

Philosophical Foundations of Science and Technology

in The Historical ContextProf. Dr. Durmuş GünayMaltepe University, Istanbul, Turkey

1

International Conference on New Horizonsin Education (INTE 2016), July 13-15, 2016, Vienna, Austria

13 July, 201614.15-15.30

PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay

Content2

1 Introduction

2 Science and Technology: Historical Timeline

3 What is Science? Philosophy of Science

4 What is Technology? Philosophy of Technology

5 Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology andEngineering

6 Conclusion


INTRODUCTION


Science and Technology

From past to present, to understand philosophicalfoundations, meaning and transformations of science andtechnology, history journey of them must be considered withtogether.

Initially, road of technic based on experience and road of science crossed at the begining of the 19th century (1820s). After that, technic became technology. Since, then, sciencehas encouraged technology and vice versa. Besides, both of them have proceeded in the same way by accelerating theirdevelopment speeds.

4


Crossing the Point B of Science and Technology5



v To be understood more correctly of the essence of science and technology, it needs to be looked at therelated concepts casuing their existence andtransformation of meaning.

v These concepts/Related concepts are like pure science, applied science, engineering science, technology, industry and university.

6



v We will try to understand the essence of science andtechnology by taking into account the historical process.

v But it is important to note that all efforts for understandingof the essence of science and technology needs a philosophical approach.

v As a summary, to understand concepts of science andtechnology; history of science and technology; philosophyof science and tecnology and also related conceptsshould be taken into account under the philosophicalperspective.

7


Science vs. Technologyv Science serves two human purposes:

• “to know”: a matter of understanding• “to do”: a matter of action

v Science,• discovers the rules of nature

v Technology, which began as the attempt to satisfy a practical need without the use of science.

v Technology is • the handmaiden of science

• the child of the doing of science

8

Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961), Source: Kimono


Science vs. Technology9

v Science explains, • why things work

v Technology is how things work, • how to do

Theory

Know how

ToolsSource: Kimono


7/15/16

D.Günay

10 Globalization, Competition and Technology

v We live in a technosphere inevitably.v Trio of Globalization, Competition and Technology known as “An

Unholy Trinity, Three Forces for Change” has been expressed as factors of change since the last 30 years.

v These three factors not only have an effects on public and culturebut also they have interacted with each other.

v Competition power of an economy substantially has beendetermined by its technological level

v Nowadays, fundamental dynamic of globalization phenomenon is technology

Source: Gunay (2006)


SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY:HISTORICAL TIMELINE

11


History of Science

v It should be included both the natural sciences and social sciences in the study of the historical development of science and scientific knowledge

12

Source: Barrameda


History of Science

v Science is a human activity, and not a purely logical or theoretical process

v To know about scientific change, one must look at how science was actually conducted.

v Philosophy is not enough. History of science provides important sources for analyzing philosophical issues like confirmation, justification, theory choise, discoveries, controversies, etc.

13

Source: Claus Emmeche


History of Science

“history of science without philosophy of science is blind, and philosophy of science without history of science is empty”

Norwood Russell Hanson

14

Source: Claus Emmeche


History of Science

v History of science developed in between 1900’s and 2000’s , largely in tandem with the philosophy of science. Most practitioners are scientists themselves, reflexively interested in their fields. One goal is to define the nature of science.

v Science is widely presented as the enterprise of producing universal truth. Assumption that the stock of known truth is, by definition, generally agreed on, and always increases whenever worthwhile research happens.

v According to this vision, history of science is a tale of upward, cumulative progress.

15

Source: James Summer


Historical Timeline for Science and Philosophy16

] 40 000-12 000 BC : Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) period

] 12 000-5 000 BC : The Neolithic (New Stone Age) period (3500 BC= invention of writing)

] 5 000 BC - 0 : Mining Period (on the coats of Nile, Tigres, Euphrates and Yellow River)

] 4 000 BC - 476 AD : The First Era/Age

Ancient Age7th century BC to AD 476: (Classical Era)

Philosophy and Science

7th century BC- 323 BC = Hellenic (Greek) Philosophy(323 - 31) BC = Hellenistic Philosophy31 BC – 476 AD = Rome Philosophy

(476 - 1453) AD : The Middle Ages

(1350 - 1600) AD : The Renaissance

(1453 - ...) AD : New Age (Renaissance+Enlightenment+Industrial Revaluation+Contemporary Period)Source: Gunay (2015)


17 History of Philosophy and ScienceÜ Ancient Age/ Ancient Philosophy: 7th century BC to AD 476 [including 5 th

century after AD ]ü Natural philosophers or pre-Socrates period : 650-450 BC.ü Socrates (469-399), Platon (427-347), Aristoteles (384-322)

Greek Philosophy (including Epicurean and Stoic Philosophers): 450-300 BCü Hellenistic Period: 300-100 BCü Greco-Romen Period: 100 BC – 500 AD

Ü Medievel Philosophy: 500(476) ile 1500(1453): [500-1500]

Ü Modern Philosophy: 16 th century (including) and 19th century (including): [Between 1500(1453) and the end of 1800s (1900):[1500-1900]

Ü Postmodern veya Contemporary Philosophy: From 20 th century (1900 s) tonowadays (…and continuous): [1900-…]



History of Science and Technology

] The history of technology starts with the use of stone tools. ] History of the technology field is divided into four major

periods:- The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) period which started approximately 2.5 million years ago. - The Neolithic (New Stone Age) period which began around 9000 BC. - Agricultural civilization begins with the invention of the plow in 4000 BC. - The Industrial civilization covers only the last 250 years.

18

Source: Gunay, D. (2013)


History of Science and Technology(40 000 BC – 0)

] In Mesopotamia, between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, the Assyrians and the Babylonians constructed buildings and water structures in 2500 BC. They built temples and pyramids that had a height of 23 m. In order to build these structures, they used sun-dried bricks.

] In 3,000 BC, Egyptians built royal tombs with stones that ranged from 2.5 to 30 tons of continuous curved weights. The maximum height of these buildings reached as tall as 152 m.

] Mesopotamians had a large amount of mud and sun. Therefore, they used sun-dried bricks as a building material.

] In the 600s BC, the Greeks built elegant buildings with the help of mathematics and theoretical sciences.

19



History of Science and Technology(40 000 BC – 0)

] In the 400s BC, the Romans built aqueducts, bridges and roads.

] Unlike the Greeks, Romans were the people that used technological applications rather than invented the technology themselves. They had abundant labor force (because they had slaves), materials and simple principles of construct .

20



MAJOR INVENTIONS (40 000 BC – 0)

a TOOLS• The birth of ‘technology’ was when the first human-like species, Homo habilis (‘skilful person’

2.6 million years BC) made sharp cutting edges from stone. Later, Homo neanderthalis or cave men (200 000 – 30 000 years BC) used tools and weapons and were the very successful ancestors of Homo sapiens, the species we recognise as our ancestors today.

a METALS• lead (Pb), one of the softest metals, was being extracted from rock in 6500 BC in Anatolia

(now Turkey) followed by copper (Cu) three thousand years later in Mesopotamia. The Iron Age was built on a hard, strong and versatile metal, iron (Fe).

a THE WHEEL• Around 4500 BC the wheel and axle combination became the most important invention of all

time. Carts came into common use. By 2000 BC wheels had spokes, and then rapid development occurred with waterwheels and windmills to provide power.

21

Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007.


History of Science and Technology(9th – 18th Century)

] Many ‘inventions’ claimed after the 11th century in fact dated back to the Greeks and Chinese many centuries before.

] Scientific information proposed by the many philosopherswas lost in the dark ages in Britain and Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire.

] Some historians of technology believe that the Renaissance was the starting point of the continuous technical invention capacity of the western culture.

22

Source:JanDosoudil,NigelHaward,(2006)ScienceAndTechnologyHistoricalTimeline,Bridge,06/2006–2007;Gunay (2013)


MAJOR INVENTIONS (9th – 18th Century)

õ MUSLIM/ARAB ALCHEMY• Turning common metals into precious metals, proved to be a dead end

around the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, Muslims were clever chemists and discovered many chemicals that we use today.

õ GUNPOWDER• The recipe for making gunpowder appeared in a book in Europe in

1242. Roger Bacon (1214 – 1294), an English friar and philosopher, was the first to describe its formula. Guns soon followed.

õ PRINTING• Spreading knowledge and information was a very slow process before

the invention of typography. Johannes Gutenberg (1398 – 1468) developed the first mechanical printing machine in the 1440s. The first printed book was the Bible in 1456 with a run of 150 copies. Each Bible previously took three years to make by hand.

23



MAJOR INVENTIONS (9th – 18th Century)

] THE TELESCOPE• The telescope was invented by Dutchman Hans Lippershey (1570 – 1619). In 1610, using

his improved design, Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) was able to prove that the Earth revolved around the Sun. This confirmed the ideas of the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) but it angered the Catholic Church who had adopted the idea that the Earth was at the centre of everything.

] THE MICROSCOPE• Looking at small things became possible when a Dutch maker of spectacles, Hans Janssen

and his son, put glass lenses together in 1590 to make a primitive microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723) took this invention a step further in 1676 with a magnification of 270 times and discovered tiny single-celled creatures in pond water. Ultimately, this helped our understanding of microorganisms and disease.

] LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR• In 1752, Benjamin Franklin (1706 –1790), the American statesman, philosopher and scientist

proved that lightning was a form of electricity when he flew a kite in a thunderstorm. Around 1754, Franklin and the Czech scientist, Prokop Diviš (1698 - 1765) independently developed the lighting conductor to protect buildings from being hit and damaged by lighting.

24



INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 - )

Industrial Revolution period might be divided into three parts:

§ The first industrial revolution (1760 – 1840)§ The second industrial revolution (19th Century – 1945)§ The third scientific-technical revolution (1945 - )

25



MAJOR INVENTIONS DURING THE FIRST INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (1760 – 1840)

v STEAM POWER• This era saw the development of steam engines to power factory machinery.

Heating water in a boiler to make steam to power a vehicle was a major technological advance. James Watt (1736 – 1819) is recognised as the inventor of the steam engine in 1765. Water could be pumped out of mines and industrial processes speeded up.

• George Stephenson’s (1781 - 1848) Rocket was the first locomotive to pull heavy loads a long distance. This led to the rapid expansion of railways throughout Britain and the world. The combination of iron and steam paved the way for the great Victorian engineering projects of Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806 - 1859). He designed bridges, tunnels, viaducts and ships.

v PHOTOGRAPHY• In 1826, after years of experiments, the French inventor Joseph Nicéphore

Niépce (1765 - 1833), using ‘bitumen of Judea’ spread on a pewter plate and an exposure of eight hours in bright sunlight, produced the first permanent picture. His technique was improved upon by his colleague Louis Daguerre (1787 - 1851) by using compounds of silver, the basis of modern photography.

26



MAJOR INVENTIONS THE SECOND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION (19TH CENTURY – 1945)

a THE ELECTRIC LIGHT• After many refinements, Thomas Edison’s (1847 – 1931) electric light bulbs were the best and by 1879

they would last for hundreds of hours, much longer than any of their rivals. They were also cheap. To sell bulbs, energy was needed, so Edison’s Electric Illumination Company built their own power station in New York. After many decades he successfully persuaded the public to opt for clean, convenient electric light rather than gas lights.

a THE TELEPHONE• This is an invention that made money. Alexander Graham Bell (1847 – 1922) was the first in the race to

patent a machine in 1876 that you could use to talk to someone on the other side of the world. admittedly, it was initially from one room to another. The message was “Mr. Watson, come here, I want you”. A year later in 1877 he set up his company and demonstrated long distance calls.

a THE MOTOR CAR• Until the 1860s all prototype motor cars were steam driven. German inventor Nicolas Otto (1832 - 1891)

created an improved internal combustion engine in 1876 and this is still the way cars work today. In 1885, the first car, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, was developed by Karl Benz (1844 - 1929). It was a long time before cars became common. petrol, a cleaning fluid, was only available from the chemist. Famous names such as Rolls Royce and Henry Ford developed the technology; Rolls Royce for the rich and Henry Ford for the man in the street.

27




õ THE MOVIES• It has been only just over one hundred years since the first movie, or film, was shown by the

brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière (1862 - 1954 and 1864 - 1948) in 1895 at the Grand Café in Paris. The terrifying film was entitled The Arrival of a Train at Ciotat Station. Surprisingly, the brothers decided that films didn’t have much of a future and went back to photography. In 1889, George Eastman (1854 - 1932) pioneered celluloid film with holes punched in the side so that the movie camera could show the film precisely frame by frame.

õ X-RAYS• Science is impressive when something is discovered that cannot be seen. German physicist

Wilhelm Rontgen (1845 – 1923) working with electrical discharges in glass tubes noticed in 1895 that there was a faint glow on a nearby screen. These rays were invisible and could pass through most materials. He also recorded them on photographic paper and thus the first X-ray image was developed. He quickly realised the medical potential of his discovery. Henri Becquerel (1852 – 1908) discovered radioactivity in 1896 while trying to find more out about X-rays. Marie Curie (1867 – 1934), a Polish born French chemist and physicist and two times Nobel Prize winner, is best remembered for her research into radioactivity and new radioactive elements.

28




] COMMUNICATIONS• Radio waves travel in all directions at an incredible 300 000 km per second.

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 – 1854) was the first to prove they existed but it was Guglielmo Marconi (1874 – 1937) who set up the world’s first radio stations to transmit and receive Morse code. In 1896, he sent the first message across the Atlantic from Cornwall to Newfoundland. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1909. It was not until 1915 that engineers were able to transmit sound effectively. The first clear television pictures to be transmitted were sent by Scottish-born John Logie Baird (1888 – 1946). He founded the Baird Television Company Limited and worked on programmes for the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation).

] FLIGHT• At the turn of the century, in 1903, two bicycle repairmen from Ohio, Wilbur and

Orville Wright (1867 – 1912 and 1871 – 1948) built and flew the first really successful aeroplane near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. From that time progress was rapid and the military advantages of flight were realised in WWI.

29




v ROCKETS AND SPACE FLIGHTS• The earliest rockets were used in China in the 11th century but by the 19th century speed and accuracy

were much improved. Knowledge of astronomy meant that scientists knew the relative movements of the planets in relation to the Earth. A Russian mathematics teacher, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857 – 1935), was the first person to draw up plans for space stations and air locks to allow space walks. He correctly calculated that a rocket would have to travel at 8 km per second to leave the atmosphere and that liquid rocket fuel would be essential. American scientist Robert Goddard (1882 – 1945) not knowing of Tsiolkovsky’s ideas, independently developed liquid fuelled rockets from 1926. Ultimately, NASA took up the challenge but the Russians eventually won the race to put a man into orbit. Yuri Gagarin (1934 –1968) orbited the earth in 1961. In the US, NASA scientists redressed the balance in the space race with their moon landing in 1969.

v THE ATOMIC BOMB• Science and technological advances can be seen as good or bad. The invention of gunpowder must

have seemed like that. In 1932, physicists John Cockcroft (1897 – 1967) and Earnest Walton (1903 –1995) did the impossible. They split the atom. They proved Albert Einstein’s (1879 – 1955) theory of relativity (E=mc²) and unlocked the secrets of the atomic nucleus. Splitting the atom was a brilliant scientific achievement. However, having that knowledge allowed scientists to develop the atomic bomb. The use of an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan to end the WWII in 1945 was a political decision that was highly controversial. We now know that there is no turning back once scientific and technological discoveries have been made.

30



MAJOR INVENTIONS DURING THE THIRD SCIENTIFIC-TECHNICAL REVOLUTION (1945 - )

a After the WWII new discoveries and advances in science and technology came thick and fast.

a Plastics were developed for the first time. a In 1949, the first practical programmed electronic computer ran mathematical problems. It

fitted into one room! a In the 1960s, the electronic silicon chip was invented, computers became smaller and

more powerful. a In 1984, the CD was born and the digital revolution began. a The worldwide web has given us access to billions of documents with information and

images as well as online shopping and banking.a Mobile telephone technology means we have instant contact with friends and family.

During this period, there have also been huge advances in genetics since the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953.

a Today, Biotechnology and genetic engineering show fast growth trends and, also, are big business. It is interesting to wonder what next?

a Maybe space is the final frontier, as suggested in Star Trek!

31



History of Technology32

Source:RobertC.Allen (1994)

Generally, there is a difference between one process or invention of machine andapplication for producation. Starting point means first step of diffusion process.


WHAT IS SCIENCE?PHILOSOPHY of SCIENCE


Science

v Science is from the Latin word scientia, which means “knowledge.”

v It refers to both processes and outcomes of processes, such as general laws and observations.

v Laws are utilized in systematic ways to create a body of knowledge about a topic.

v “Science is the “why”; it is the study of why things happen.

Source: Butts, J. and Rich, K. (2014)


Science

v Science is the understanding or explaining of existence.

v Scientists put forward refutable hypothesis to explain the events [(natura facta +arte facta ]. He tests these hypothesis through experiment, observation and documents. Hence, he tries to reach scientific theories and laws.

35



Science

v Science is an organized, hierarchical activity that investigates nature and human nature by experiment and observation.

v Its goals are explanation, understanding, prediction, and control.

v It tests its theories by logical, mathematical, and technological means.

v Science is shaped by social forces and historical change.v While seeking objectivity, science also shapes culture.

36

Kaynak: http://www.colby.edu/sts/st112_2010


Science

v The need of knowing is the basis of science.v The driving force of science is the need. v The purpose of science is epistemic satisfaction.v Knowledge is the product of science; v Knowledge is existence in language.

37



Philosophy of Science

õ The purpose of philosophy of science is to understand thescience as only knowing activity.

õ Aristoteles said in Metapyhsics book “All men by nature desire to know. An indication of this is the delight we take in our senses; for even apart from their usefulness they are loved for themselves; and above all others the sense of sight. For not only with a view to action, but even when we are not going to do anything, we prefer seeing (one might say) to everything else”.

38


Philosophy of Science

v Philosophy of science is concerned with all the assumptions, foundations, methods, implications of science, and with the use and merit of science.

39

Source: Barrameda


Mechanism of Scientific Knowledge40

Event (Olay)= Fact (Vakıa/olgu)+ Case (Vak’a) Fact: Repeatable events are named as “fact”; like natural events. Case: Events happening one, non-repeateble events are called as ‘case’; like historical events.

S: Subject; E : Event

S: Scientist

E: Event=Fact + Case

Product: Scientific

Knowledge



TRADITIONAL (Science) VIEW (Validation)41

FACTS ACQUIRED THROUGH EXPERIMENT

and OBSERVATION

LAWSand

THEORIES

EXPLANATIONS and

PREDICTIONS

Induction Deduction



Birth of Modern Science42

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Galileo Galilei(1564-1642)

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Isaac Newton (1642-1727)


Modern Science Revolution Period: Birth of Modern Science43

8642

1543

1572

1620

1632

1687

1580

1627

1637

Tycho Brahe’ıngözlemleri (Tycho

Brahe’sObservations)

Tycho BraheBacon’sNorganum

Organum

BaconGalileo’nun 2ana sistemile ilgili söylemi (Galileo’sDiscourseConcerningthe

TwoChiefSystems).

GalileoNewton’un prensibi(Newton’sPrincipia)

Newton

Copernicus'in Gökselkürelerin dönüşü üzerine

(Copernicus’OntheRevolutionsofHeavenly

Orbs)

CopernicusMontaigne’nın

denemeleri(Montaigne’sEssays)

MontaigneRudolphine tabloları

(JohannKepler’sRudolphine Tables)

KeplerDescartes’in metod

üzerine söylemi(Descartes’Discourseon

Method)

Descartes

144 years


Period of Modern Science Revoluation(144 years)

v Modern science revolution period covers from 1543, the date at which Copernicus (1473-1543) put forward the system of sun centric, to 1687, the date at which Principia published by Newton, It takes 144 years.

v Mile stones of the period are,

v OntheRevolutionsofHeavenlyOrbs(1543)by N. Copernicus’(1473-1543)

v Observations (1572) by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601),

v Essays (1580) by Montaigne (1533-1592)

v Novum Organum(1620) by Francis Bacon (1561-1626),

v Rodolphine Tables (1627) by Kepler (1571-1630) ,

v DiscourseConcerningtheTwoChiefSystems(1632)byGalileo (1564-1642)

v DiscourseonMethod(1637)byDescartes (1596-1650)

v Principia (1687) by Newton (1642-1687).

v The Period of Modern Science lasted from C16 to C 20.

v Modern Science has two components: One is emprical compenent ( experiment. Observation, measurement, counting, etc.). The other one is rational component ( concept, hypothesis, inductive and deductive reasoning.

v The Period from begining of the C20 (1900) to nowadays is called Comtemporary Period of Scicience

44


Modern Sciencev According to Heiddeger’s statement man has become

“subject” with the new age.v Centuries before the new age when man sees himself as

a part of universe.v With new age, man puts himself at the center of universe,

man put the world at somewhere other than himself(againist himself).

v “Positivism” world was derived from the verb “ponere”, which means to put across according to Latin.

45



Modern Science

v For Bacon, “making is knowing and knowing is making”.

v Bacon stated that “Dividing is knowing, knowing is becoming dominant”.

v Modern science emerged in line with the ideology of possessing nature, and later people and society.

46



Modern Science

v Exploratory becomes a form of technology of modern science.

v “to discover” is to reveal/expose and to remove the cover.v Modern technique receives its eligilibity about revealing

from the essence of modern science. v Bacon’s ideology of possessing infiltrated into modern

science, and later modern technique.v The competition between modern societies has

transformed to technology competition.

47



Modern Science

v Modern science is an activity that emerged from the combination of two components.

v On the one hand, empirical/operational (observation, experiment, counting, measuring etc.) dimension

v The other side, the mental (concept, hypothesis, inductive and deductive reasoning) activity.

48



WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?PHILOSOPHY of TECHNOLOGY


Technology

õ Technology is not only processing theory, at the same time technology is the path and tool of the making process.

õ Technology is the activity of producing artifact objects. õ Technology covers a large spectrum of skills and

techniques from religious techniques to sport or health techniques.

50



Main Technological Periods51

Traditional Period Industrial Revolution Information Revolution

Brain

Muscle

Tool

Raw Material

Product

Brain

Muscle

Power Tool (Machine Power)

Raw Material

Product

Brain

Muscle

Computer

Power Tool Enformation

Raw Material Enformation

Product

Source: Bunge, Mario; Philosophy of science and technology, V.7, D. Rediel Publishing Company, 1985, Holland, dan adapte edilmiştir

PhilosophicalFoundationsofScienceandTechnology inTheHistoricalContext | DurmuşGünay7/15/16

D.Günay

52 Modern Civilization and Technologyt Modern civilization depends on modern science and technologyt Modern science depends on Antique Greek science (philosophy)t Modern technology depends on natural scince beginning in 17th

century.t Before industrial revolution, science and technic were going into

different directions.t Before industry period, technic does not depend on scinece but

experiencet Ways of science and technolgy crossed at the end of 1st Industrial

Revolution in the modern period.t Modern science and technology have interacted with each other.t Two technology which affected culture and science are printing

press and electronics.


D.Günay

53 TECHNIC and TECHNOLOGY

z Technic knowledge prior to science is named as technic.z Technic knowledge depending on science is named as

technology.



Technological Development

v Technology is born in case of necessity.v The mother of technology is needs.

54




v Technic (or technology), is poiesis which is to make exist or reveal. It is not only poiesis but also able to reveal artistic-poetical appearance. Physis is the poiesis which is to emerge naturally without any intervention of human being. An example of physis is something like getting the bloom of a flower. Making a flute is a poiesis. For technic becoming poiesis it is due to the realization of a concept which existed in the thought of an artist or craftsman as the products or objects existed in the external world using the technology. Poiesis is to be created by man. Physis is to become revealed naturally without any human intervention.

55




v We consider technology as knowledge essantialy. It also covers tools using to bring together the essence and material. It is the knowledge which is the basic requirements of production and construction of things. Technological product is existent in three areas of existence: in thought, language, external world. In philosophy, excellent beings are considered to have existed in all three areas. Based on this, would it be possible to claim that the importance of technology comes from the its ontologic base lies in the category of excellent beings? We refer to technology as production of knowledge, production tools, and products all together.

56




v Before the industrial revolution, when theoretical life (bios theoretikos) - only the life of observers – prevailed, technic and science were treated as different. Technicwas not founded on sciences. Modern technic(technology) relies on modern natural sciences. However, it should be noted that technology did not start to rely upon the modern science with the Modern Science Revolution in the 17th century; rather, Science and Technology were intertwined during the Industrial Revolution and later (after 1760), especially in the beginning of the 19th century.

57




v The first time a scientific discovery yielded a technological product was in the manufacturing of electric motor. A Danish Scientist, H.C. Oersted discovered that an electric current produces a magnetic field when passing through a conductor in 1820. Oesrted proved that when a small string wire carrying electric current applies a force in the pin of a compass, the pin diverges.

58




v British Physicist Michael Faraday, when hearing this, tried to create continuous electron beam diversion of the pin. Faraday was the first scientist introducing the basic principles of modern electric engine. About 10 years after Faraday’s experiments, an American physicist, Joseph Henry, invented the electric engine.

59




v The prominent lifestyle of the modern world was action and production based on and called bios praktikos.

v The bios praktikos lifestyle transformed the technic into technology.

60




v The knowledge context of technology before the industrial revolution is based on experimental knowledge as well as knowledge of craft and/or art.

v The form of technology after the industrial revolution, the so called modern technology, is engineering science when science and engineering are taken into account.

61



Management of Technology

] The relationship of technology with the people and societyis determined by the management of technology.

] Four componets of the technology management are:- technology development- technology transfer- Strategy of technology- Insfrastructure of technology

62



63

Management Decisions

ScaleModel Prototype Test Plan

Productionor

Application

Productionand

Process

BasicResearch

AppliedResearch

TechnologicResearch

FeasibilityStudy Design

Social Needs andDemands

Policy

Evolution

RESEARCH IMPROVEMENT PRODUCTION andSERVICE

Diagram of Technological Process

Source: Mario Bunge (1976)


Technological Process64

ChangeTechnology

TimeUnleashing the Killer App : Digital Strategies for Market Dominance

- Larry Downes, Chunka Mui http://www.killer-apps.com/


Evolution Pattern of Technology/Market65

Time

Performance/Cost


Substitution of Technology66

Time

Perfo

rman

ce/C

ost

Abondaned TechnologySubstituted Technology


D.Günay

67 The Culture Of Technology, Technological Culture

t The Culture of Technology is a culture producing technology and technology depends on this culture.

t Technological Culture is a culture affected and formed by technology.

t Technological culture of a modern society producing technology contains the culture of technology

t Technological culture of society would not contain the culture of technology if the society used only technology not produced



D.Günay

68 The Culture of Technology, Technological Culture

Culture ProducingTechnology

Culture

Culture UsingTechnology

Culture contains boththe culture of

technology andtechnological culture

Culture does not contain the culture of

technology

The Culture of Technology Technological

Culture

Culture


Technological Culture


PURE SCIENCE, APPLIED SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY

and EDUCATION


Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology andEngineering

² In the field of science, activities follows such a sequence:Ø Pure Science/BasicResearch

Ø Applied science

Ø Engineering Science

Ø Technology

70



Pure Science vs. Applied Science

õ Pure Science/Basic Research aims to acquire information. Basic/pure science is composed of systematic theories and laws that try to learn, understand, explain and predict nature, events and phenomena.

õ Applied science is also composed of theoretic (systematic) constructs; however, it is aimed more at the application. Applied science is the restructuring of basic science with the purpose of application. Basic science is the sine qua non for the applied science.

71



Pure Science vs. Applied Science

õ Applied science is simply pure science applied.

72

Pure Science Applied Science

Aimthe understanding of nature; it seeksexplanation.

the control of nature; it has the task of employing thefindings of purescience to getpractical task done.

Resultthe furnishing of lawsfor application in applied science.

the stimulation of discovery in purescience.

Source: Feibleman, J. K. (1961)


Applied Science vs. Technology

õ Applied science consists in a system of concreteinterpretations of scientific propositions directed to someend useful for human life.

õ Technology might be described as a further step in appliedscience by means of the improvement of instruments.

73



Applied Scientist vs. Technologist74

õ The theoretical biochemist is a pure scientist, working forthe most part with the carbon compounds.

õ The biochemist is an applied scientist when he exploresthe physiological effects of some new drug, perhaps tryingit out to begin with on laboratory animals, then perhaps on himself or an volunteers from his laboratory or from thecharity ward of some hospital.

õ The doctor or practicing physician is a technologist whenhe prescribes it for some of his patients.



Applied Science vs. Engineering

õ Engineering Science is regulated in order to make an artificial object meet the requirements of the applied science.

õ In the engineering science based on natural science or applied science, practical purposes (applications) are observed.

õ It is difficult to make a clear distinction between the applied science and engineering science.

75



Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology76

PureScience/

Basic Science

AppliedScience

EngineeringScience

Technology Industry


77Relationship among Pure Science/Basic Research, Applied Science,Technology, Engineering and Industry

Pure/Basic Science

Applied Science

Teknoloji Mühendislik

Engineering

EndüstriIndustry

Temel Bilim

Uygulamalı Bilim

Exiistence in Language/Dilde Varolan

Existence in theexternalworld/

Dış dünyada Varolan


Technology


Relationship among the Technology, Science, Engineering Science and Engineering

78

TECHNOLOGY

Practical Cultural Activities: IncludingHardware, software and their social and

technical contents

ENGINEERINGScience, art and decision making

process; it is applied toconstruction design, material use

and machines (includingEngineering management)

SCIENCEIt is a systematic

knowledge activitywhich tries to explain

facts and events bylaws and theories. The

purpose of that is knowledge and understanding

ENGINEERINGSCIENCE

Science is adopted tobe used in

engineeringapplications

Source: Johnstone et al. (1999)


Subject of Science: Existent

Existents are founded by three types of existence. v existence in thought,

v existence in language,

v existence in external world

79



External World

v “The belief in an external world independent of the perceiving subject is the basis of all natural science”.

Albert Einstein(1879-1955)

80


Four Causes of an Existenceu They are: ü (1) the causa materialis, the material, the matter out of

which, for example, a silver chalice is made;ü (2) the causa formalis, the form, the shape into which the

material enters; ü (3) the causa finalis, the end, for example, sacrificial rite

in relation to which the chalice required is determined as to its form and matter;

ü (4) the causa efficiens, which brings about the effect that is the finished, actual chalice, in this case, the silversmith [9].

81



Idea (Platon) and form (Aristoteles) The basis of existence is, according to Aristotle, its essence or substance.

Plato called the essence of a thing an “idea”. Aristotle called the essence a “form” instead of an “idea”. According to Plato, the “idea” is separated from the beings and stays in the world of ideas. They are real beings in the world of idea. The beings in this world are the copies of the beings in the world of ideas.

Aristotle, on the other hand, it does not separate form/ideas from the beings and is immanent to existence. I have written down the following formula generated according to the relationship among the concepts of substance, form and material (hyle) by Aristotle

82



English: Substance = Essence + MaterialGreek : Ousia = Form (eidos =essence = idea) + Hyle

(Form Aristoteles)

This formula may help in understanding themeaning of technology.

Platon points out the realm of ideas. Aristoteles suggests that formis immanent in the existence, and can not be separated

material and form

Ousia/Substance

Platon shows sky; Aristoteles opens his hand toward eart

(İdea Platon)

83



Relationship among the Technological Product, Engineering Science, Material; and Place of Technology 84

Technological product

Engineering Science

Material

Substance Form Technology Material=Source: Gunay (2006)


Relationship among technological product, engineering science, material and technology

v Substance = Essence + Materialv Ousia = Eidos + Hylev Cevher= Öz + Maddev Töz = Öz + Özdekv Technological product = Engineering Science + Material

(Material)v Technological product = Substancev Engineering Science = Form (Essence)v Replacing (Technology=+) with the + sign then;v Technology = +

85



Conclusion

õ Galileo said that the Book of Nature is written in Mathematical language (Zhenhua, 2015) but, in today’sinnovative world, the Book of Science is written by thetransformation of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge, but the crucial factor is to provide such facilities for thescientists to articulate their tacit knowledge.

86


Conclusion

õ Engineering is more related with how to do something and knowledge. Knowledge of how contains making knowledge and tacit knowledge. There can be some failures during the transition from theory to practice due to the deficit of tacit knowledge

87



Conclusion

õ Nowadays, the need of specialized skills in green innovation has been increasing. Universities are required to give their graduates the skills needed to contribute and compete in the business World.

õ Countries formulate innovation strategies with governments, universities and within the business world.

õ Innovation and entrepreneurship have become very important concepts especially for those with an engineering education.

õ The development of creative, innovative and entrepreneur skills has become important for graduates of engineering programs.

88



Thanks for Your Attention

END


REFERENCES90

Barramada, Ann, “History and Philosophy of Science”.

Butts, J. and Rich, K. (2014), “Philosophy of Science”, Philosoğhies and Theories.

Bunge, Mario; Philosophy of science and technology, V.7, D. Rediel Publishing Company, 1985, Holland

Dosoudil , Jan and Nigel Haward (2007), “ Science and Technology Hstorical Timeline”, Great Britain

Emmeche, Claus, “Introduction to science studies: from philosophy via history to sociology”, University of

Copenhagen

Feibleman, J.K (1961), “Pure Science, Applied Science, Technology, Engineering: An Attempt at Definitions”,

Technology and Culture, 2 (4), 305-317.

Gunay, D. (2006), “Teknolojinin Doğası”, II. Türk Bilim ve Teknoloji Tarihi Kongresi, SDU, Isparta, Turkey.

Gunay, D. (2013), “Engineering, Engineering Education, Trends and Edngineerin Eduaction in Turkey”, ICEE 2013,

Madiah, Saudi Arabia.

Gunay, D. (2015), “Science and Technology Relationship in Historical and Philosophical Context”, INTE 2015,

Petersburg, Russia.

Summer, James, “The sociology of scientific understanding”, Theories and methods: literature, science and medicine

Documents

Philosophical Foundations of Science and Technology