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language: subject
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Singer and His Critics Philosophers and heirCritics ! "#a$ieson% &ale'(lack)ell Publishing *td'1++,"-.0./.,"1++,"-.0.".,"0-31,-+-
nglishSinger%Peter%221.-222thics'
1...(+,0'S++S+- 1...eb1,04'.Singer%Peter%221.-222thics'
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1Singer and the Practical thics
7ove$ent
&ale #a$ieson
ter Singer is one o8 the $ost in8luential philosophers o8 the t)entieth cehile other
ilosophers have been $ore i$portant in the develop$ent o8 the discipline% nohas changed $ore
es' ;e)s)eek $aga
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stice%no account o8 the $oralit9 o8 killing%and no respect8or $oral ag
So$e philosophersve co$plained that utilitarianis$ is a heartless doctrine )hich cannot recogni
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onents o8 neo2;a
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personhood and dre) analogies bet)een non2hu$ans and so$e hu$ans Ksee
(urleigh% 1..% p'."L! (urleighs discussion is a good exa$ple o8 ho) even a (ritis
acade$ic $a9 read Singers)ork as dangerous political rhetoric rather than as s9$pathetic and hu$a
philosophicalargu$ent Ksee especiall9 (urleigh% 1..% p' 3% n' 30L'he phrase is 8ro$ @' F' &ice9s description o8 7ill! KHarvie% 1.0! cited in ho$as% 1."+%1-L' Aor co$$ents on a previous dra8t o8 this essa9 J a$ grato (rad Hooker% &ale #a$ieson
the delegates at the Bx8ord2Copenhagen thics Su$$it held at St @nCollege% Bx8ord% in
ober 1..,'De8erences
erlin% J' K1.+.L #ohn Stuart 7ill and the ends o8 li8e' Deprinted in #' Gand G' ' S$ith KedsL%
Bn *ibert9 in Aocus' *ondon: Doutledge K1..1L'
(urleigh% 7' K1..L &eath and &eliverance: uthanasia in Ger$an9 1.00 1.+%Ca$bridge:
Ca$bridge Iniversit9 Press'Glock% H' K1..L he euthanasia debate in Ger$an9 )hats the 8ussM%
#ournal o8 @ppliedPhilosoph9% 11% 13 'Hare% D' 7' K1."1L 7oral hinking' Bx8ord: Clarendon
Press'arvie% C' K1.,-L he *ights o8 *iberalis$: Iniversit9 *iberals and the
Challenge o8 &e$ocrac9-0 "-' *ondon: @llen *ane'
*ock)ood% 7' K1.,.L Oilling and the pre8erence 8or li8e% Jnuir9%% 1+, ,0'
7ill% #' S' K1"341.,3L @ S9ste$ o8 *ogic Datiocinative and Jnductive'Collected orks o8 #ohn
Stuart 7ill% volu$es , and "% ed' #' Dobson' oronto: orontoIniversit9 Press'7ill% #' S' K1"+.41.,,L Bn *ibert9' Collected orks o8 #ohn Stuart 7ill%volu$e 1"' oronto:
oronto Iniversit9 Press'7ill% #' S' K1"-141.-.L Itilitarianis$' Collected orks o8 #ohn Stuart 7ill% v
10' oronto:
oronto Iniversit9 Press'll% #' S' K1"-.41."L he Subjection o8 o$en' Collected orks o8 #ohStuart 7ill% volu$e 1'
onto: oronto Iniversit9 Press'ar8it% &' K1..3L &oes eualit9 $atterM Jn #' Dadcli88e Dichards Ked'L%
Philosophical Proble$s o8ualit9: B88prints Collection' 7ilton Oe9nes: he Bpen Iniversit9'Da)ls% #' K1.,1L @ heor9 o8 #ustice' Ca$bridge% 7@: Harvard
Iniversit9 Press'Scanlon% ' 7' K1."L Itilitarianis$and contractualis$' Jn @' Sen and
(' illia$s KedsL%
Itilitarianis$ and (e9ond' Ca$bridge: Ca$bridge Iniversit9 Press'Sidg)ick% H' K1.0,L he 7ethods o8 thics%,th edn' *ondon:7ac$illan'
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Singer%P' K1.,3L &e$ocrac9 and &isobedience'Bx8ord: Bx8ord Iniversit9Press'
Singer%P' K1.,-L @ni$al *iberation' *ondon: #onathan
Cape'Singer%P' K1.,.aL Practical thics' Ca$bridge: Ca$bridge Iniversit9
Press'Singer%P' K1.,.bL Oilling hu$ans and killing ani$als%
Jnuir9% % 1+ +-'Singer%P' K1."3L he xpanding Circle' Bx8ord: Bx8ord
Iniversit9 Press'
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Singer%P' K1.""L Deasoning to)ards utilitarianis$' Jn ;' Aotion and &'
SeanorKedsL% Hare andCritics' Bx8ord: Clarendon Press'Singer%P' K1..L @ Ger$an attack on applied ethics: a state$ent b9
Peter Singer% #ournal o8@pplied Philosoph9% .% "+ .1'Singer%P' K1..3L Practical thics%nd edn' Ca$bridge: Ca$bridge Iniversit9
Press'nger%P' K1..L @ conversation )ith Peter Singer% he @ni$als @genda% pa
7arch4@pril! part7a94#une! http:44envirolink'org4arrs4aa48eatures4singer1'ht$l%
p:44envirolink'org4arrs4aa48eatures4singer'ht$l'
Singer%P' K1..+aL Ho) @re e to *iveM @$herst% ;E:Pro$etheus (ooks'
Singer%P' K1..+bL Dethinking *i8e and &eath' Bx8ord: Bx8ordIniversit9 Press'
ho$as% ' K1."+L 7ill' Bx8ord: Bx8ordIniversit9 Press'
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-hat%J8 @n9thing% Denders @ll Hu$ans 7orall9
ualM
Dichard #'@rneson hu$ans have an eual basic $oral status' he9 possess the sa$e 8unda$en
rights% and the$parable interests o8 each person should count the sa$e in calculations that
deter$ine social
ic9' ;either supposed racial di88erences% nor skin color% sex% sexual orientation% ethelligence% or an9 other di88erences a$ong hu$ans negate their 8unda$ental eual )o
andnit9' hese platitudes are virtuall9 universall9 a88ir$ed' @ )hite supre$ac
racist or an ad$irer
@dol8 Hitler )ho denies the$ is rightl9 regarded as be9ond the pale o8civili
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inciples appl9' Jt turns out to be the case that all o8 the persons
that )e have encountered areu$ans% but 8or all )e kno)% there $a9 so$e)here be non2hu$an persons%
)ho are not less )orth9st in virtue o8 being non2hu$an'everal 9ears ago Singer pointed out t)o 8la)s in this rationali
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$ething )ould be conducive to ones good or )el8are% and onl9 beings )
have experiences canre better or )orse'hat J call the =Singer Proble$= arises i8 one accepts that the $
signi8icant cognitivepacities that are relevant to the deter$ination o8 the 8unda$ental $oral sta
a being var9 8ro$dividual to individual b9 degree' he proble$ is to speci89 a
$oral principle deter$iningnda$ental $oral status that assigns a superior status to hu$ans co$pared
other ani$als on thesis o8 the superior cognitive capacities o8 hu$ans but also assigns
all hu$an persons an eualnda$ental $oral status regardless o8 their di88ering cognitive capacities' 7ore br
posed% theoble$ is to speci89 $oral principles that 9ield intuitivel9 satis8actor9
i$plications 8or theat$ent o8 hu$an individuals and other individual ani$als given that cognitive
capacities di88erross species and individuals'
ngers =all ani$als are eual= resolution i$plies that the pain o8 atoothache experienced b9 a rat
t is the sa$e intensit9 as a si$ilar toothache that is experienced b9hu$an should count the sa$e
social polic9 calculation' he $oral polic92$aker in Singers vie) )ould be aui$partialhandling con8licts o8 interest o8 this sort bet)een rats and peJ8 )e $ust choosebet)een
posing a pain8ultoothache on a hu$an child or a slightl9 greater tooon a rat child%
su$abl9 social polic9 should tilt in 8avor o8 the rat' his result 8lies in the
8ace o8 ordinar9
$$on sense% but Singer regards ordinar9 co$$on sense as a poor guSingers position does
o) that hu$ans generall9 have co$plex and rich interests that ste$ 8rotheir co$plex and rich
ntal li8e% and since non2hu$an ani$als have no correspondingl9 co$plex anrich interests% the
nciple o8 eual consideration 8or eual interests as Singer interprets it all8or legiti$ate
8erence 8or hu$ans )hen hu$an and ani$al interests are in con8lict' a hu$an child has an
erest in learning arith$etic% and nothing so 8ine can be attained a rat% then the high ualit9 o8
s interest renders its satis8action $ore valuable than the satis8action o8non2arith$etical rat
erests'
Bnce again one $ight raise a )orr9 about inco$$ensurabilit9' J8 a dog is its rich 8uture o8
s$ells and chases is cut short% and these interests $a9 be $ore co$plex
rich than co$parables$ell and chase interests o8 hu$ans' 7oreover% ho) does one co$pare
co$plexit9 o8 ver9di88erent interests a dogs co$plex interest in sni88ing a childs co$plex interest in solving
igsa) pu
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Singer and His Critics
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Pre8ace
s book is a celebration o8 the )ork o8 Peter Singer'Since philosophers hon
people b9
ici
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ceived an 7@ in philosoph9% )riting a thesis on =h9 should J be
$oralM= @ scholarship allo)ednger to co$plete his graduate studies in Bx8ord% )here he received hi
(Phil in 1.,1 and servedDadcli88e lecturer 8ro$ 1.,1 to 1.,3'1.,% Singer published =Aa$ine% a88luence and $oralit9= in the 8irst vol
o8 a ne) journal%osoph9 and Public @88airs' his article%)hich has been reprinted $ore than t)odo
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reasingl9 reuirespeciali
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)n and% according to t)o Ger$an observers o8 the Singer @88air% =a vas
consensus uni8iedle8t2ning and conservative papers%all o8 )hich strongl9 opposed ever again
uestioning an9bod9sht to li8e'= 1+ Since 1.". Singer has been unable to lecture openl9 in Ger$an9%
@ustria% andt
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on utilitarianis$ in that central )ork K(erlin% 1.+.L' So$eti$es% ho)ever% it
could be argued thatl got it )rong%and not onl9 in his )ritings but in his li8e itse
both 7ill and Singerogni
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erpreted as eual treat$ent 8or eual interests% then the beings )ith 8ancierint
should getciertreat$ent' ual consideration 8or eual interests $a9 not $atch )hat )e ha
$ind b9 thegan eual consideration 8or all hu$ans'= he degree to )hich utilitarianis$ beco$es
egalitarianelitist in practice depends on the theor9 o8 value that is conjoined
it' @t one extre$e% i8 oneds that pleasure is the good and that pleasures di88er onl9 in $agnitud
the interests in gettingasure o8 all creatures capable o8 experiencing pleasure )ill count the
sa$e' @t the opposite endthe scale% i8 one holds a theor9 o8 value according to )hich the vehighest intellectual
co$plish$ents greatl9out)eigh an9 lesser satis8actions in contributing to the goo8
$eones li8e% then the interests o8 so$e persons )ill have ver9 little )eco$pared to the
erests o8 other persons% in deter$ining )hat should be done' K(oth ones cato have an
erest o8 a given t9pe and ones capacities that enable one to satis89 thi
t9pe o8 interest )ill a88ect utilitarian calculation that deter$ines )hether or not one should be he
satis89 the interest'L
tice that one could concoct a version o8 utilitarianis$ that )ould reject the
nor$ o8 eualnsideration 8or eual interests' Bne $ight hold that i8 a being possesses so$
threshold level o8gnitive abilit9% that being has enhanced $oral status% and the satis8action o8 its
interests counts 8orre than the satis8action o8 the interests o8 lesser beings that are the sa$
uantit9 and ualit9'l this vie) hreshold Itilitarianis$' Jt )ould hold that other things eual% ob
the pleasuresucking a piece o8 cand9 8or a s$all hu$an child is $orall9 $o
valuable% a $atter o8 greaterral urgenc9% than obtaining an in all respects essentiall9 si$ilarpleasure8or a $onke9 or rat'
reshold Itilitarianis$ does better than utilitarianis$ at 8itting our co$$on2sense $o
judg$entsancing the interests o8 hu$ans againstthe interests o8 non2hu$ans o8
lesser cognitive abilities% buts againstthe Singer Proble$'
at J a$ calling the Singer Proble$ appliesto $an9 di88erent $oral theories%
thoughnot to all'ger $akes the generalit9 o8 the proble$ clear in his o)n )ritings on
Aor exa$ple% a Oantianralit9 holds that all rational agents $ust al)a9sbe treated not $erel9as $e
but as ends in$selves' Possession o8 the capacit9 8or rational agenc9con8ers an eu
8unda$ental status on all
sons as opposed to all other creatures% )ho lack rational agenc9'
(ut i8 the capacit9 8or rationalnc9is a capacit9 that varies continuousl9 in $agnitude% one )onders ho)one picks out so$e
shold level o8 the capacit9 such that variations in rational agenc9capabove the threshold do
generate correspondingdi88erences in 8unda$ental $oral status' Bn the 8ace o8 the Oantian
ount o8 rational agenc9is like an account o8 $oral status that ideheight as the characteristicliving beings that deter$ines
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PHJ*BSBPHDS @;& HJD CDJJCS
General ditor:rnest *epore
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hilosoph9 is an interactive enterprise' 7uch o8 it is carriedout in diaas theories and ideas
presented and subseuentl9 re8inedin the crucible o8 close scrutin9' hpurpose o8 this series isreconstruct this vital interpla9 a$ongthinkers' ach book consists o8 a
conte$porar9 assess$ent8 an i$portant living philosophers )ork' @ collection o8 essa9s )rittenb9 an
interdisciplinar9oup o8 critics addressing the substantial theses o8 the philosophers corpus opens ea
volu$e' Jnthe last section% the philosopher responds to his or her critics% clari8ies
crucial points o8 thediscussion%or updates his or her doctrines'
1 &retske and HisCritics
(rian 7c*aughlin #ohn Searle and His Critics
rnest *eporeand Dobertvan Gulick
3 7eaning in 7ind: Aodor andHis Critics
(arr9 *oe)er and GeorgesDe9 &ennett and His
Critics (o &ahlbo$+ &anto and His
Critics
7ark Dollins - Perspectives on uineDobert (' (arrettand Doger A' Gibson
, he Churchlands and heirCritics
Dobert ;' 7cCaule9" Singer and His
Critics &ale #a$ieson
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ve$ent and the rebirth o8 8e$inis$% the apparent consensus o8 the 1.
)as shattered b9 studenttests and black $ilitanc9' Jn the Inited States there )as a clear =disconne
bet)een )hat )asng on in the universit9 and )hat )as happening in the streets' his )a
s9$boli
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gel )as excruciatingl9sensitive to the nuances and co$plexities o8 the eth
)ar% but in thed he see$ed to e$brace the vie)s )ith )hich he had begun% onl9 no
8or reasons that see$eds than co$pelling in the light o8 the case that he had $ade 8or th
di88icult9 o8 the issues involved'nce the 1.,0s% conservative tendencies in practical ethics have gro)n in in8luence@lthough there
still those )illingto be as revisionist as Singer%he has beco$eincreasingl9 isolated a$ong
ilosophers in his )illingness to argue 8or unpopular vie)s and to take stractions'
e reason 8or the increasing conservatis$ o8 practical ethics involves $ethodoloproble$s at
core o8 the subject' Singer%8ollo)ing Hare% is hostile to the idea thaconsidered $oral
ge$ents can serve as =the data= )hich $oral theor9 is supposed to s9ste$ati<(ut not $an9
e been convinced o8 his alternative approach'. @ccording to Singer%)e sho8ollo) $oralciples )herever the9 lead' (ut i8 a $oral principle con8licts )ith a
deepl9 held% re8lective $oralge$ent% it is 8ar 8ro$ clear )h9 the judge$ent should de8er to the prin
rather than theciple de8erring to the judge$ent' o put the point another )a9% )h
approach )e take $ustilibrate bet)een our principles and our considered $oral judge$ents' @s a
8irst approxi$ation% it
$s i$plausible to suppose either that principles should al)a9sde8er to intuitions
thatitions should al)a9sde8er to principles'10
part because he is clearl9 co$$itted to a principle2driven $ethodolo
Singer has been able tobrace )holeheartedl9 a particular nor$ative theor9:t)o2level utilitarianis$' (u
$ost
losophers have a hard ti$e co$$itting the$selves to a single $oral theor9' hso$eti$esni8ests itsel8 in the endorse$ent o8 so$e version o8 pluralis$
bit o8 7ill% a dash o8 Oant% so$e
rali
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hat is surprising is the attitude o8 $an9 philosophers to)ards these ev
Jn assessing thesponses it is perhaps use8ul to re8lect on the 8act that pro8essional
philosophers )hose )ork isrected to)ards changing the )orld have al)a9sbeen rare% and o8ten have b
treated as outla)s9 the pro8ession' Co$pare% 8or exa$ple% the 8ate o8 Hegel )ith that o
7arx' Singer is in theadition o8 (entha$% 7ill% and Dussell% but onl9 one o8 the$ ever h
college job'
$e philosophers have co$e to Singers de8ense but others have co$e close toendorsing his
ncing' Jn 1..% the Ca$bridge philosopher #enn9 eich$an published an artentitled
u$anis$ and personis$: the 8alse philosoph9 o8 Peter Singer%= )hich began )i
these )ords: =Jnt to argue that 8alse philosoph9 can be dangerous% and to suggest tha
circu$stancesprevent itsng re8utedin print% it is probabl9 all right% in extre$e cases% to tr9
silenceit in other )a9s'= 1"o 9ears later she returned to this subject% and )rote that
Singers philosoph9 ' ' ' rese$bles ;a
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derstood as a naturalist Ksee% 8or exa$ple% Singer%1.""% p' 1+1L' ;o) it
an undeniable 8act thatople do believe things% and do accept justi8ications' (ut )hat )e need is th
notion that the9ould accept a certain justi8ication% because it is the best justi8ication available
hat kind o8r$ativit9 is )hat J take it Singer believes the principle o8 eual
consideration o8 interestsssesses% and the uestion re$ains o8 ho) such nor$ativit9 8its into hi
$ore general )orld vie)'
relatedproble$ 8or rationalists such as 7ill and Singer is the nonrationanature o8 the )orld in
ch the9 8ind the$selves' J8 )e )ere all )hat Hare has called archangels% the)ould be no such
ble$ KHare% 1."1% p' L' e could be told the correct$oral theor9%and put
into practice' (utare 8ar 8ro$ this ideal state' ;ote 8irst o8 all that there is noi$plication in utilitarianis$ that )e
e an9 KpracticalL reason to believe it% because it is true% perhaps%
because the argu$ents 8or itparticularl9 po)er8ul' @ll that $atters is )hether our believing it
the best outco$e intarian ter$s' here is% then% no reuire$ent on utilitarian philosophers that the
seek to persuadeers o8 their vie)s' Jndeed% as Sidg)ick believed% there $a9 be good util
reasons 8or notading the utilitarian creed to those )ho $ight $isuseit KSidg)ick% 1.0,% pp'
". .0L'
s suggests that the kind o8 justi8ication Singer has in $ind )hen he ischaracteri
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r $oral status% proclai$s that tall is better than short% and identi8ies beings ove
8eet tall as thet2class citi
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Singer and His Critics
dited b9
&ale #a$ieson
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page is http:44coo$bs'anu'edu'au4&epts4DSSS4Philosoph94People4#ackson4index'ht$l'
&ale #a$ieson is Henr9 D' *uce Pro8essor in Hu$an &i$ensions o8GlobalChange at Carleton
College% ;orth8ield% 7; ++0+,' He is the author o8 $an9 articles inenviron$ental philosoph9%
$oral philosoph9 and philosoph9 o8 biolog9 and $ind' He can be reached
on the Jnternet atdja$iesoQcarleton'edu' His ho$e page is http:44dir'ucar'edu4esig4HP6dale'ht$l'A' 7' Oa$$ is Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 and @djunct Pro8essor o8
at ;e) Eork Iniversit9% ++7ain (uilding% 100 ashington Suareast% ;e) Eork% ;E 10003!and Fisiting
Pro8essor o8Philosoph9 at IC*@' Her $ost recent book is 7oralit9% 7ortalit9% Folu$e
: Dights%&uties%andStatus' She can be reached on the Jnternet at 8$klQis'n9u'edu'ae *angton is *ecturer in the &epart$ent o8 Philosoph9 at the
Iniversit9 o8 She88ield% @rts o)er%
he88ield% ngland S10 ;' She is the author o8 Oantian Hu$ilit9'
olin 7cGinn is Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 at Dutgers Iniversit9% PB (,0% ;e) (runs)ick% ;#.0320,3' His $ost recent book is thics%vil% and Aiction' He can be re
on the Jnternet at$cginnQ$ail'$sn'co$Hol$es Dolston JJJ is Iniversit9 &istinguished Pro8essor and Pro8essor o
Philosoph9 at Coloradotate Iniversit9% Aort Collins% CB "0+3'He is the author o8 Conserving ;
Falue and the@ssociate ditor o8 the journalnviron$ental thics'He can be reached o
the internet at
olstonQla$ar'colostate'edu' His ho$epage is http:44la$ar'colostate'edu4Rrolston4'Peter Singer is Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9% on second$ent to the Centre 8or
(ioethics% at7onash Iniversit9% Cla9ton% Fictoria 31-"% @ustralia' His $ost recent book thics into @ction:
Henr9 Spira and the @ni$al Dights 7ove$ent' Jn the autu$n o8 1.." beca$e the Jra ' &e
Ca$p Pro8essor o8 (ioethics at Princeton Iniversit9'7ichael S$ith is Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 and Head o8 the Philosoph9
Progra$ in the Desearch
Schoolo8 Social Sciences at the @ustralian ;ational Iniversit9% Canberra 000' He is the
author o8 he 7oral Proble$' He can be reached on the Jnternet $s$ithQcoo$bs'anu'edu'au'
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Public @88airs' ar and $oralit9 )as the do$inant topic% but articles
7arxis$% abortion%ide% and 8reedo$ o8 expression also appeared' he st9le o8 argu$ent
)as generall9 intuitive% buta s9$posiu$ on the rules o8 )ar D' (' (randt grounded his acc
in rule2utilitarianis$% )hile D'Hare critici
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the job%= Kp' 0L% but it is hard to see )hat philosoph9 )ould be
Singer i8 it didnt start )ith aid appreciation o8 the )a9 things are' he observation that 8acts $atter $ight see
platitudinous$ost people% even to $ost acade$ics% but philosophers o8ten pretend tha
=$ere=e$pirical 8actse nothing to do )ith an9thing o8 philosophical signi8icance! and )hen thi
conceit beco$esicult to sustain% the9 o8ten invent 8acts Kunder the guise o8 thought
experi$entsL rather thanhering to discover the$' hat $akes @ni$al *iberation so po)er8ul% eve
readers )ho doshare Singers utilitarian principles% is the t)o2thirds o8 the book thabrings to light our treat$ent
ani$als and provides practical suggestions 8or ho) to changeour livrevie)er )rote in the
losophical Devie)% not )ithout ad$iration% that @ni$al *iberation )as the8irst philosoph9 book
r to contain recipes'
third characteristic o8 Singers )ork is the presupposition that individualaction can $ake a
erence' @s his )ork has un8olded% Singer has increasingl9 addressed social pol
di$ensions o8proble$s that he considers% but usuall9 he )rites as one person inconversation )ith another'
$inists $a9 have coined the slogan =the personal is the political%= but Sin
has been tellingies about hi$sel8% his 8a$il9%and his 8riendsas long as he has been doi
philosoph9' His goal ischangeour attitudes and behavior because that is ho) 9ou changethe)orld' J8 ani$als su88er
en the9 are raised 8or 8ood% then )e should stop eating the$' J8 giving 10 per
o8 our inco$e to
a$)ould save lives )ithout depriving us o8 an9 co$parable goods% then )eshould sit do)n and
t )riting checks'
hat all this adds up to is a conception o8 practical ethics that is
both activist and de$anding' Jtuires us to 8ind out )hat is going on in the )orld and to
deter$ine ho) )e can changeit 8or thetter' Jt then reuires us to act accordingl9' his has led Singer to $
de$onstrate% and sit in age in a cit9 suare to publici
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out controversial issuesMo put the uestion in a di88erent )a9% =&oes
revisionar9 practical ethicsvitabl9 run the risk o8 provoking its o)n suppressionM= So$e )ould respond
sa9ing that )eould give up on the idea that practical ethics should be revisionar9' @t lea
t)o distincternatives to revisionar9 practical ethics $ight be suggested' one alternative% the role o8 practical ethics is to identi89 nor$ative judge$ents about practicalues b9 extracting the$ 8ro$ our prior set o8 considered $oral judge$ents' B
such a conception% role o8 practical ethics is to reproduce our ever9da9 $oral belie8s an
appl9 the$ to particularses' Jt is certainl9 true that such an enterprise )ill not sti$ulate vo
public opposition' Bn theher hand% it is hard to see )h9 such an activit9 should be thought
be particularl9 i$portant'
$$onsense $oralit9 does not reuirethe support o8 philosophers to $its authorit9' @nd i8that philosophers can contribute to discussions o8 practical $oral issues isthe occasional
allelujah= in response to expressions o8 )hat $ost people alread9 believe%then the9 $ight as )ell
ck to the proble$ o8 universals'
secondrole 8or practical ethics )ould be to clari89 various positions oni$portant practical issues
d present a ca8eteria o8 options' Clearl9 there is value in thisort o8 activit9% and an9one )ho
ieves in revisionar9 practical ethics )ould vie) these clari8icator9 activities assteps along the
9' (ut at least )hen it co$es to ethical uestions% clarit9 is not enough'
So$e vie)s are bettern others and it $atters )hat vie)s people hold' Jt is hard 8or $e to
i$agine that an9one )hould devote his or her li8e to practical ethics could reall9 be as neutralab
$oralit9 as thisroach suggests'
$e )ould sa9 that )hat causes extre$e reactions to Singer is not the 8a
that he does revisionar9actical ethics% but the )a9 that he practices his subject' he proble$
one o8 sensitivit9' Jt is notngers vie)s that provoke outrage% but the )a9 that he expresses th
So$eti$es J think that )hat)ould have taken 8or Singer to be $ore sensitive in the Singer @88air isnot to have )ritten
actical thics%or to have saved the protesters so$e troubleb9 voluntaril9 bahi$sel8 8ro$
r$an9' Still% no one )ho )rites or speaks as $uch as Singer can clai$ to
have al)a9ssteeredar o8 insensitive re$arks and phrases% and such lapses can be 8ound in
Singers )ork' 7oreover%ngers direct approach to issues o8 pro8ound i$portance $a9 be vie)ed
b9 so$e people asn8rontational' Eet )hat J 8ind $ost striking about Singers )riting is
its sobriet9 and si$plicit9'nger is usuall9 clear and direct% )ithout rhetorical 8lourishes' His books ar
ai$ed at his readersads rather than their hearts' his just $ake it all the $ore ironic that so $
his readers see$lose their heads )hen reading hi$'
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sition that $ost Oantians are likel9 to den9' o think that a utilitarian
based on sli$$ed do)npiricis$ has an9 specialclai$ to being un$9sterious is just an error' Jn oth
)ords% there arel9 t)o options in nor$ative ethics: intuitionis$ the vie) that )e
have reasons to act )hich dot present the$selves as salient 8eatures o8 our conscious experience
or nihilis$ about ethicalsons' Bbservation and experience do not provide us )ith the utilitarian
principle! rather% an9rsion o8 utilitarianis$ including those o8 7ill% Hare and Singer%as
)ell as Sidg)ick $ust besed on so$e clai$ or set o8 clai$s )hich is 8ound plausible in the lig
rational re8lection' @nd
ional re8lection just is all that need be understood b9 intuition' Jnother )ords% the debate
)een utilitarians and Oantians $ust take place a8ter agree$ent on intuitioni79 o)n vie) is
t Singer is $ore likel9 to be on the )inning side in this debate%bucannot be avoided b9
nigrating Oantian principles as nonsense' Aor i8 the9 are nonsense% so
utilitarianis$'
*evels o8 7oral &iscourse
l and Singer are e$piricists' (ut the9 are also% in a sense% rationalists% insthe9 clai$ to
e their philosophical rhetoric on appeal to reason rather than to e$otion' ecannot% 7ill sa9s%
ve clai$s about ulti$ate ends K1'+L' (ut here he is clearl9 speaking o8
deduction% since hetinues% here is a larger $eaning o8 the )ord proo8% in )hich this u
is as a$enable to it as other o8 the disputed uestions o8 philosoph9' he subject is )ithin the
cogni
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at individuals var9 in their earned )orth is co$patible )ith asserting that all
have eual unearnedrth in virtue o8 their status as hu$anpersons' (ut since not all sentient
beings have eual inherentearned )orth% the trick is to speci89 the characteristicsthat uali89a be
8or $e$bership in thess o8 euall9 )orth9persons'n attractive response to Singers pu
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previous page
Cop9right (lack)ell Publishers *td
1...Airst published 1...
- "10 . ,
+ 3 1(lack)ell Publishers *td10" Co)le9 DoadBx8ord B/ 1#A
IO
(lack)ell Publishers Jnc'3+0 7ain Street7alden% 7assachusetts
01"IS@
page6iv next page >
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rights reserved' xcept 8or the uotation o8 short passages 8or the puo8 criticis$ and
ie)% no part o8 this publication $a9 be reproduced% stored in a rets9ste$% or trans$itted% in
9 8or$ or b9 an9 $eans%electronic% $echanical% photocop9ing%recording or
other)ise% )ithout theor per$ission o8 the publisher'xcept in the InitedStates o8 @$erica% this book is sold subjectto the
condition that it shall not% b9a9 o8 trade or other)ise% be lent% resold% hired out or other)ise circulate
)ithout the publishers
ior consent in an9 8or$ o8 binding or cover other than that in )
is published and )ithout a$ilarcondition including this condition being i$posed on the subseuent
purchaser'
(ritish *ibrar9 Cataloguing in Publication &ata
@ CJP catalogue record 8or this book is available 8ro$the (ritish *ibrar9'
*ibrar9 o8 Congress Cataloging2in2Publication&ata
Singer and his critics 4 edited b9 &ale #a$ieson'p' c$'KPhilosophers and their critics ! "LJncludes bibliographical re8erences and index'JS(; 12++,"-2.0"21 Khardcover : alk' paperL'JS(; 12++,"-2.0.2/
Kpbk' : alk' paperL1' Singer%Peterthics' J' #a$ieson% &ale' JJ' Series(+,0'S++S+- 1...
1,0'.dc1
."231
CJP
9peset in 10 on 1 pt i$esb9 Pure ech Jndia *td% Pondicherr9http:44)))'puretech'co$Printed in Great (ritainb9 7PG (ooks *td% (od$in%
Corn)all
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his book is printedon acid28reepaper
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;oteson Contributors
chard #' @rneson is Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 at the Iniversit9 o8
Cali8ornia at San &iego% .+00
l$an &rive% *a #olla% C@ .0.32011.' He is the author o8 $an9 articleson conte$porar9 theoriesjustice'He can be reached on the Jnternet at rarnesonQucsd'edu'Doger Crisp is Aello)and utor in Philosoph9 at St @nnesCollege% Bx8ord
B/ -HS' He is theauthor o8 7ill on Itilitarianis$% the editor o8 the journalItilitas and
$e$ber o8 the @nal9sisCo$$ittee' He can be reached on the Jnternet at roger'crispQst2annes'ox'ac'uk'ori Gruen teaches in the &epart$ent o8 Philosoph9 at Stan8ord Inivers
(uilding .0% Stan8ord%C@ .30+%)here she is also a88iliated )ith the thics in Societ9 Progra$
She is the co2editor o8
ex% 7oralit9 and the *a)% and has published articles on hu$anrelation)ith non2hu$an ani$als
nd eco8e$inist philosoph9' She can be reached on the Jnternet at
gruenQcsli'stan8ord'edu'
7' Hare is 8or$erl9 hites Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 in theIniversit9 o8 Bx8ord and is Pro8essorPhilosoph9 $eritus at the Iniversit9 o8 Alorida' His $ost recent boSorting But thics'Dichard Holton is *ecturer in the &epart$ent o8 Philosoph9 at the
Iniversit9 o8 She88ield% @rts
o)er%She88ield% ngland S10 ;' His )ork is $ainl9 in philosoph9 o8language and $oral
ps9cholog9'nk #ackson is &irector o8 the Jnstitute o8 @dvanced Studies anPro8essor o8 Philosoph9 in the
titute o8 @dvanced Studies% @ustralian ;ational Iniversit9% Canberra% @C000' His $ost recent
ok is Aro$ 7etaph9sics to thics: a &e8ence o8 Conceptual @nal9sis' Hecan be reached on the
ernet at 8rank'jacksonQanu'edu'au' His ho$eprevious page page6vii next page >
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eration= appeared in the ;e) Eork Devie) o8 (ooks' he stor9 o8 ho
this article ca$e to bettenis b9 no) )ell kno)n' hile a student in Bx8ord% Singer%)i
his )i8e Denata% 8ell in )ith aup o8 Canadians )ho )ere $oral vegetarians% t)o o8 )ho$%Stanle9 and Do
God2lovitch%re involved in editing a book called @ni$als% 7en and 7orals' Inable
resist the Godlovitchsu$ents% the Singers changed their lives' anting to do )hat he co
pro$ote his recentl9pted vie)s regarding ani$als% Singer sent an unsolicited revie) o8 @ni$als%
7en and 7oralsto;e) Eork Devie) o8 (ooks'Surprisingl9% it )as accepted' @stonishingl9%the revie) had a $ajor
pact% leading to a book contract 8ro$ ;e) Eork Devie) (ooks'
autu$n 1.,3 Singer $oved to the Inited States in order to teach at ;eEork Iniversit9' He )as@$erica onl9 sixteen$onths% but his visit had a large i$pact' He)rote $ost o8 @ni$al
eration during his sta9% and )hile )orking on the book Singer presented drachapters to
losoph9 depart$ents aroundthe countr9' ith his Bx8ord credentials and hisconnections to Hare%
ger helped to legiti$i
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n 1.,+ Singer returned to 7elbourne% )here he has re$ained% except to
up various visitingappoint$ents in universities aroundthe )orld' Aro$ 1.,+ to 1.,, he )as a
*ecturer at *arobe Iniversit9 and since 1.,, he has been Pro8essor o8 Philosoph9 at
7onash Iniversit9' Jn theautu$n o8 1... he )ill beco$e the Jra ' &eCa$p Pro8essor
(ioethics at Princeton Iniversit9'
the earl9 1."0s Singer )rote a series o8 books that provided so$e context his $oral and
itical vie)s' 7arx appeared in 1."0 Ksince translated into 8our languagesL andHegel )as
lished in 1." Kno) translated into seven languagesL' Jn 1."1 he xpandingCircle: thics and
iobiolog9% Singers account o8 the biological 8oundations o8 ethics% )as
published'
though he produced plent9 o8 )ork on other topics throughout the 1."0s% Sattention turned
creasingl9 to $edical ethics' Jn 1."3 he 8ounded the Centre 8or Hu$an(ioethics and served as its
rector until 1..' Jn 1."+ )ith Helga Ouhse he established (ioethics% )hich ha
beco$e one o8e leading bioethics journals in the )orld' (et)een 1."3 and 1.. S
produced seven booksd $onographs on $edical ethics% including Dethinking *i8e and &eath% published
in nglish in.% and subseuentl9 translated into Jtalian%&utch% Polish% Ger$an% #apanese% and S
tuall9 all o8 Singers )ork exe$pli8ies the 8ollo)ing three i$portantcharacteristics' Airst% it is
isionar9' he point o8 practical ethics is not si$pl9to understand the )obut to changeit'
gers speci8ic vie)s are )ell kno)n: that )e should stop eating andexperi$enting on ani$als!
)e should give large portions o8 our )ealth to those )ho are )orse o88that in so$e cases
anticide is per$issible' he concern that practical ethics should $ake a di8has led hi$ toskeptical o8 approaches to $oral and political philosoph9 that rel9 onour ever9da9 $oral belie8s'$ain criticis$ o8 Da)ls in the 1., ;e) Eork i$es 7aga
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e reason 8or thinking that the proble$ is the singer rather than the son
that there are pro$inentlosophers )ho largel9share Singers vie)s )ho do not elicit the sa$e vituperativ
responses'd perhaps there are lessons here 8or those )ho do revisionar9 )ork in
practical ethics' (ut it $a9o be the case that other philosophers do not provoke such reactions bec
their )ork is not seenthreatening' Perhaps challenges to the reigning orthodoxies are tolerated long as the9 are seen$erel9=acade$ic= or K)hat co$es to the sa$e thingL ine88ectual' Singer is goo)hat he does'books changepeoples lives' Perhaps the attacksthat he $ust endure are theco$ple$ent to his
cesses'
nger hi$sel8 see$s genuinel9 surprised and hurt that his vie)s so$eti$es elisuch responses'is opti$istic enough about the possibilit9 o8 rational thought% evabout sensitive subjects% that
could honestl9 believe that Ger$ans could rationall9 assess uestions o8euthanasia despitetheir
tor9' @nd he shares the scienti8ic )orldvie) o8 $an9 o8 those )ho hasought to discredit his
)s about ani$als' Singer believes in the episte$ological privilege o8 scas $uch as $ost
entists% so one o8 his strategies in discussions o8 ani$alexperi$entation
has been to use scienti8ichorit9 to under$ine scienti8ic practices such as the &rai
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usti89ing practice% like etiuette or the kind o8 religious 8aith that
onl9 to those )ho 8irst setside all sceptical doubtsKSinger% 1.,.a% p' 11! c8' 1..+a% pp' 1"3 -L'gers co$parison o8 $oralit9 to religion is interesting% and one $i
characteri