Phil.history Proj

8/12/2019 Phil.history Proj

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Submitted By: Mary Ann Servan

BSBAII

PHILIPPINE HISTORY

Submitted To: Mr Lim

TEACHER


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HISTORY OF ISLAMHistory of Islam concerns the religion ofIslam and its adherents,Muslims."Muslim" is anArabic word

meaning "one who submits toGod". Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted thepolitical,economic,andmilitary history of theOld World,especially theMiddle East,where its roots lie. Though it is believed bynon-Muslims to have originated inMecca andMedina,Muslims believe that the religion of Islam has been present sincethe time of the prophetAdam.Muslims believe that prophetsNoah,Abraham,Moses,Jesus,among others, were allIslamic prophets, and they have equal veneration in theQur'an.TheIslamic world expanded to include people of theIslamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization.

A century after the death of lastIslamic prophetMuhammad,theIslamic empire extended fromSpain in thewest toIndus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those oftheAbbasids,Fatimids,Almoravids,Seljukids,Ajuuraan,Adal andWarsangali inSomalia,Mughals in IndiaandSafavids inPersia andOttomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. TheIslamiccivilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers,mathematicians, doctors, nurses andphilosophers during theGolden Age of Islam.Technology flourished; therewas investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading theQur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.

In the later Middle Ages, destructiveMongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in theBlackDeath,greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, andtheOttoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamicworld power again,although one that was unable to master the challenges of theEarly Modernperiod.

Later, inmodern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence ofEuropeanGreat powers.After theFirst World War,Ottoman territories (aCentral Powers member) werepartitionedinto several nations under the terms of theTreaty of Svres.

Although affected by ideologies such associalism andsecularism during much of the 20th century,theIslamic identity and the dominance ofIslam on political issues intensified during theearly 21st century.Globalinterests in Islamic regions, international conflicts andglobalization changed the type of Islamic influence on thecontemporary world.[1]In the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts thatadvocate theunification of religion and state has spread, but theideology has been criticized.

ISLAMIC ORIGINIslam began within the context ofLate Antiquity.Inpre-Islamic Arabia,Arab people lived on theArabian

Plate.In the south ofHedjaz (principal religious and commercial center of post-classical Arabia),the Arabictribe ofQuraysh (Adnani Arabs), to whichMuhammad belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe wasincreasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of theKaaba within the town ofMecca and was the dominanttribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important pagan shrine. Itbrought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into theBanuHashim tribe of the Quraysh clan, a branch of theBanu Kinanah tribe, descended fromKhuzaimah and derived itsinheritance from theKhuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).

According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began withrevelations to Muhammad (when hewas 40 years old) in 610. Thehistory of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to theSahabah during

Muhammad's life. The rise of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the Hijra,moving to Medina. WithIslam,blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood and only theculprit was executed.

In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty ofHudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr',attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conqueredMecca.Muhammad died inJune 632. TheBattle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of thefirstcaliphAbu Bakr andMusailima.
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ipedia.org/wiki/Hedjazhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabian_Platehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_identityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vreshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitioning_of_the_Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Modernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somaliahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsangali_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adal_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajuuraan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljukidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatimidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_powers#Arab_Caliphateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_prophethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27anhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meccahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Easthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam


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Muhammad Kaaban

Six Prophet According to Islamic Tradition

MAJOR PERIODS

TheIslamic state andMuslim's system of government evolved through various stages.[2]The precise datesof various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state periodlasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial

periodlasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal periodlasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond totheearly period of post-classical history. The "Decentralization" periodlasted from around 900s to the early 1500s.This correspond to thehigh period andlate period of post-classical history. The"Fragmentation" periodlasted fromaround 1500s to the late 1910s. Thecontemporary period,referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s intothe twenty-first century.

Adem (Adam)

N(Noah)

Ibrhm(Abraham)

Msa(Moses)

s Jesus

Muhammad
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EARLY SOURCES

The study of the earliest periods in Islamic history is made difficult by a lack of sources. For example, themost important historiographical source for the origins of Islam is the work ofal-Tabari.Whileal-Tabari was anexcellent historian by the standards of his time and place, use of his work as a source is problematic for tworeasons. For one, his style of historical writing nonetheless permitted liberal use of mythical, legendary, stereotyped,distorted, and polemical presentations of its subject matter. Second, al-Tabari's descriptions of the beginning ofIslam post-date the events by a large amount of time, al-Tabari having died in 923 CE.

Differing views about how to deal with the available sources has led to the development of four different

approaches to the history of early Islam. All four methods have some level of support today. The descriptivemethoduses the outlines of Islamic traditions, while being adjusted for the stories of miracles and faith-centred claims withinthose sources.

]Edward Gibbon andGustav Weil represent some of the first historians following the descriptive

method. On thesource criticalmethod, a comparison of all the sources is sought in order to identify whichinformants to the sources are weak and thereby distinguish spurious material. The work ofWilliam MontgomeryWatt and that ofWilferd Madelung are two source critical examples. On thetradition criticalmethod, the sources arebelieved to be based on oral traditions with unclear origins and transmission history, and so are treated verycautiously.Ignaz Goldziher was the pioneer of the tradition critical method, andUri Rubin gives a contemporaryexample. The skepticalmethod doubts nearly all of the material in the traditional sources, regarding any possiblehistorical core as too difficult to decipher from distorted and fabricated material. An early example of the skepticalmethod was the work ofJohn Wansbrough.

Nowadays, the popularity of the different methods employed varies on the scope of the works under

consideration. For overview treatments of the history of early Islam, the descriptive approach is more popular. Forscholars who look at the beginnings of Islam in depth, the source critical and tradition critical methods are moreoften followed.

After the 8th century CE, the quality of sources improves. Those sources which treated earlier times with alarge temporal and cultural gap now begin to give accounts which are more contemporaneous, the quality of genreof available historical accounts improves, and new documentary sourcessuch as official documents,correspondence and poetryappear. For the time prior to the beginning of Islamin the 6th century CEsourcesare superior as well, if still of mixed quality. In particular, the sources covering theSasanian realm of influence in the6th century CE are poor, while the sources for Byzantine areas at the time are of a respectable quality, andcomplemented bySyriac Christiansources for Syria and Iraq.

City-states and Imperial period

After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic state:Abu Bakr (632-634),Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar , 634-644),Uthman ibn Affan,(644-656), andAli ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are knownas the "Rashidun"or "rightly guided" Caliphs inSunni Islam.They oversaw the initial phase of theMuslimconquests,advancing throughPersia,Egypt,the Middle East and North Africa.

Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation networks. To be closeto the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consultingwith the poor, Umar established the first welfare stateBayt al-mal.The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for theMuslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundredsof years under theRashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through theUmayyad period and well intothe Abbasid era. Umar also introduced child benefit for the children and pensions for the elderly. The expansion of

the state, was partially terminated between 638639 during the years of great famine and plague in ArabiaandLevant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant,Egypt,Cyrenaica,Tripolitania,Fezzan,EasternAnatolia,almost the whole ofSassanid PersianEmpire includingBactria,Persia,Azerbaijan,Armenia,Caucasus andMakran were incorporated into Islamic State.When Umar was assassinated in 644, theelection of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. TheQur'an wasstandardized during this time.

Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily tofinance the ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines andPersians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. As new areas joining the Islamic state, they also benefitedfrom free trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic state, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade isnot taxed, wealth is taxed. The Muslims paidZakat on their wealth to the poor. Since theConstitution of Medina,was drafted by theIslamic prophetMuhammad the Jews and the Christianscontinued to use their own laws in the
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Islamic State and had their own judges.Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. Toassist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained andthe people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.

In 639,Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governorAbu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea duringtheArabByzantine wars,in 649Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned byMonophysitiseChristians,Copts andJacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of theByzantine navy at theBattle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.

When Umar was assassinated in 644,Uthman ibn Affan became the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabiclanguage is written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers, people began havingdifferent dielects and phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was brought tothe notice of Uthman ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, thecompilation of the Qur'an was finishedsometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. Fromthen on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.

The Qur'an andMuhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in theFarewell Sermon.Tribal andnationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the

Arabs started to resurface. Following theRomanPersian Wars and theByzantineSassanid Wars deep rooteddifferences between Iraq, formally under the PersianSassanid Empire and Syria formally under theByzantineEmpire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously,the second caliph, Umar, was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a

governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards,he had him removed from his position.

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attractedto wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealthand start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. "Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldlylife. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46 "Oyou who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoeverdoes that - then those are the losers." Qur'an 63:9 Staying in these encampments away from the cities alsoensured that there was no stress on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kepttheir own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into cities themselves,likeBasra andKufa in Iraq andFustat in Egypt. Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as duringtheSiege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.

AsUthman ibn Affan became very old,Marwan I a relative ofMuawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and becamehis secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previouslybeen excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656,Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son ofAbu Bakr and theadopted son ofAli ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather ofJa'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house ofUthman ibn Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan. Ali then assumed the position of caliphand moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan andMarwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted inthefirst civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated byKharijites in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interestof peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifthRightly Guided Caliphs forthe Sunnis

and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with

Muawiyah I. In theHasanMuawiya treaty,Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he bejust to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty. This broughtto an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for theShias to be a Caliph. Following this, Muawiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyaddynasty,with its capital inDamascus.After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in acivil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight, the Umayyad dynasty later fell into thehands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered theMaghrib,theIberianPeninsula,Narbonnese Gaul andSindh.

After the peace treaty with Ali's son,Hasan ibn Ali,and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power. In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resultedin the death of their chief. In 664, Muawiyah andZiyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognisedZiyad as a brother and appointed him governor atBasra.Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arrangedfor his sonYazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680.Husayn ibn Ali,by then Muhammad'sonly living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in theBattle of Karbala the same year, an
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event still mourned by Shia on theDay of Ashura.Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule wasextended under Muawiyah toRhodes,Crete,Kabul,Bukhara,andSamarkand,and expanded in North Africa. In664, Arab armies conqueredKabul,and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.

Succession and Umayyad accession

The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives fromUmayya ibn Abd Shams,the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the cityofMecca,Damascus was the capital. After the death ofAbdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,MuawiyahI consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus fromMedina,which led to profound changes

in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked theaccession of a new family to power.

As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally theBayt al-mal and the Welfare Stateexpenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled,increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, withits wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad. All this increaseddiscontent. The descendants of Muhammad's uncleAbbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor

Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the generalAbu Muslim,inaugurating theAbbasid dynasty in 750, which moved the capital toBaghdad.A branch of theUmmayad family fledacross North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established theCaliphate of Crdoba,which lasted until 1031 beforefalling due to theFitna of al-Andalus.The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.

At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2)

making it one of thelargest empires the world had yet seen, and the fifthlargest contiguous empire ever. After theUmayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa toAl-Andalus,where theyestablished theCaliphate of Crdoba,which lasted until 1031 with the Fitna of al-Andalus.

TheMosque of Uqba(Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn Nafi in 670 AD, is the oldest

and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim West; its present form dates from the 9th century,Kairouan,Tunisia.

Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that ofConstantinople.He expanded thefrontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though theByzantines drove him back andhe was unable to hold any territory inAnatolia.Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nationfrom post-civil war anarchy. However,Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nationby dividing theUmmah,fabricating self-aggrandizingheresies slanderingthe Prophet's family and even selling hisMuslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire. One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacieswas his decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violationof the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali.
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Dome of the Rock

The Mosque of Omar, onAsh-Haram Al-Sharif (theTemple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of theSecond Fitna.

The period underMuawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign ofAbd

al-Malik ibn Marwan,a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule,all important records were translated into Arabic. In his reign, acurrency for the Muslim world was minted. This ledto war with the Byzantine Empire underJustinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis)in 692 inAsia Minor.The Byzantineswere decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent ofSlavs.The Islamic currency wasthen made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malikconsolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regularpostal service.

Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached itsfarthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and acrossto the west of North Africa. Muslim armies underTariq ibn Ziyad crossed theStrait of Gibraltar and begantoconquer Spain using North AfricanBerber armies. TheVisigoths of Spain were defeated when the UmayyadconqueredLisbon.Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle ofTours). In the east, Islamic armies underMuhammad bin Qasim made it as far as theIndus Valley.Under Al-Walid,

the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India.Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf played a crucial role in the organization andselection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, buildingthe strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is considered tobe the apex of Islamic power.

Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointedYazid ibn al-Muhallab governor ofMesopotamia.Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family ofal-Hajjaj,one of twoprominent leaders (the other wasQutayba ibn Muslim)who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid,rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegianceto Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman.Sulayman did not move toDamascus on becoming Caliph, remaining inRamla.Sulayman sentMaslama ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention ofBulgaria on the Byzantine sideproved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.

Universal period and decentralization

Islamic Golden Age

TheAbbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, theyconqueredMediterranean islands including theBalearics and, after, in 827 theSicily. Theruling party had come topower on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionaryAbu Muslim.Underthe Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabicprose andpoetry,termedby The Cambridge History of Islamas its "golden age".Commerce and industry (considered aMuslim AgriculturalRevolution)and thearts and sciences (considered aMuslim Scientific Revolution)also prospered under Abbasidcaliphsal-Mansur (ruled 754 775),Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 809),al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 813) and theirimmediate successors.
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The capital was moved from Damascus toBaghdad,due to the importance placed by the Abbasids uponeastern affairs inPersia andTransoxania.At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise ofregional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one familymember,Abd ar-Rahman I,escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. IntheMaghreb,Harun al-Rashid appointed the ArabAghlabids as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continuedto recognise central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by theShiiteFatimid dynasty in909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called " al-Qahirah"(meaning "the planet of victory", known today asCairo). In Persia theTurkicGhaznavids snatched power from the

Abbasids. Abbasid influence had been consumed by theGreat Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had

migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peacefulproselytising.The first stage in

theconquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 1209) years later, the area up totheGanges riverhad fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslimrulers were inKanemstarting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the headofGao as early as 1009. TheIslamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.

The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith andmosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguishedthemselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According toIraLapidus,"The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with theaddition of the Yemeni faction and theirMawali". The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, knownas mawali, who remained outside thekinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within

the Umayyad empire. Islamicecumenism,promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of theUmmahin theliteral meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as theShariah was codified, and thefourMadhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism.Religious achievements includedcompletion of the canonical collections ofHadithofSahih Bukhari and others.

[91]Islam recognized to a certain extent

the validity of theAbrahamic religions,the Qur'an identifyingJews,Christians,Zoroastrians,and "Sabi'un"or"baptists" (usually taken as a reference to theMandeansand related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book"Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of theSunni andShia,two majordenominations ofIslam,solidified and thedivisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimidand Ayyubid periods.

Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamicmonarchy (unitary system of government.) TheregionalSultanate andEmirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state. Intheearly Islamic philosophy of theIberian Umayyads,Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise,

providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from officialAsh'ari theology;thus,Averroism has been considered a precursor to modernsecularism.

Golden Baghdad Abbasids

According to Arab sources in the year 750,Al-Saffah,the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched amassive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating theentire Umayyad family and achieving victory at theBattle of the Zab,Al-Saffah and his forces marched intoDamascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the realm ofthe Abbasid Caliphate.

An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.
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The military conflicts subsided asHarun al-Rashid ruled. His reign was marked by scientific, cultural andreligious prosperity. He established the libraryBayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and musicflourished during his reign. TheBarmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, butdeclined during Rashid's rule.

According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca,Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his fatherHarun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. GeneralTahir ibn Husayn rebelled andbesieged Baghdad.Tahiled reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought tonegotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over hissceptre,seal and other signs that hewas caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and

Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placedon the Al Anbar Gate.

Minaret at theGreat Mosque of Samarra.

When Al-Wathiq died of high fever,Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered formany reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fellinto decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built theGreat Mosque of Samarra as part of anextension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologianConstantine thePhilosopher,who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by EmperorMichael III.Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. TheShifaced repression embodied in the destruction of theshrine of Hussayn ibn Al,an action that was ostensiblycarried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put downrebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil wasassassinated by a Turkish soldier.

Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though hewas implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession,fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid theByzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor,electingAl-Musta'in.The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked.However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failedMuslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murderingtheir Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate toAl-Mu'tazz but was put to deathby his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
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Fatimid Empire

"Islamic Cairo" building was named afterAl-Hakim bi-Amr Allah,built by Fatimid vizierGawhar Al-Siqilli,and extended byBadr al-

Jamali.TheFatimids originated inIfriqiya (modern-dayTunisia and easternAlgeria). The dynasty was founded in

909 byAbdullh al-Mahd Billah,who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of hisdaughterFtima as-Zahra and her husbandAl ibn-Ab-Tlib,the first ShaImm,hence the name al-Ftimiyyn"Fatimid". The Fatamids and theZaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.

Abdullh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of centralMaghreb,an area consisting of the moderncountries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled fromMahdia,his capital in Tunisia.

The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering theIkhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Qhira(Cairo)in 969. The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in thesky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph andhis army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such asFustat until 1169.

After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and evencrossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.

Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily,Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, theRed Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and theHejaz.Egypt flourished, and the Fatimidsdeveloped an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomaticties extended all the way to China and itsSong Dynasty,which determined the economic course of Egypt duringtheHigh Middle Ages.

Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit thanheredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to governmentposts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in governmentbased on ability. There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr

Allah.

The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in theKhan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn stree
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Berbers and Iberian Umayyads

The Arabs, under the command of the Berber GeneralTarik ibn Ziyad,first began their conquest of southernSpain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in theVisigothickingdom inHispania.Crossing theStrait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in thesummer of 711 when the Visigothic kingRoderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at theBattle of Guadalete.Tariq's commander,Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominatedmost of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certainrifin 710 andalso, theAd Sebastianumrecension of theChronicle of Alfonso III,refers to an Arab attack incited byErwig duringthe reign ofWamba (67280). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battlewas fought.

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank ofEmir by theUmayyadCaliphAl-Walid I inDamascus.After theAbbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the endof the 10th century, the rulerAbd al-Rahman III took over the title ofEmir of Crdoba(912-961). Soon after, theUmayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital asCrdoba.Al-Hakam II succeeded to theCaliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms ofnorthern Iberia, and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.Economic development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The ruleof the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.

The exterior of the Mezquita
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Rahman I's successor was his sonHisham I.Born in Crdoba, he built manymosques and completedtheMezquita.He called for ajihadthat resulted in a campaign against theKingdom of Asturias and theCounty ofToulouse;in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange byWilliam of Gellone,first cousin toCharlemagne.His successorAl-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One,

Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne inAix-la-Chapelle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Crdoba wasattacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa andMrida.

Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare againstAlfonso II ofAsturias,whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault byVikings who had disembarkedinCadiz,conqueredSeville (with the exception of itscitadel)and attacked Crdoba. Thereafter he constructed afleet and navalarsenal atSeville to repel future raids. He responded toWilliam of Septimania's requests ofassistance in his struggle againstCharles the Bald's nominations.

Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of theMuladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims)andMozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his sonMundhir I.During the reign of hisfather, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladirebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umaribn Hafsun.He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brotherAbdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.

Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked bycontinuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Crdoba, whilethe rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's

brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successorAbd ar-Rahman III,son of thekilled son of Umawi.

The Crusades

Beginning in the 8th century, theIberian Christian kingdoms had begun theReconquista aimed at retakingAl-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095,Pope Urban II,inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces andimplored by theeastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for theFirst Crusade fromWestern Europe which captured Odessa,Antioch,County of Tripoli and Jerusalem.

In the early period of the Crusades, the ChristianKingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlledJerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smallerCrusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part ofthe complicated politics of theLevant,but did not threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region.

AfterShirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, andhis nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.

In theThird Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered forseveral decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and waseventually completed with thefall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, theFourthCrusade was diverted from the Levant and instead tookConstantinople,leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now
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the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against theTurkish peoples to the east. However, thecrusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according toWilliam of Malmesbury,preventing them fromfurther expansion intoChristendom and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.

Mongol invasions

After the Crusades theMongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of theIslamic Golden Age.

Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership ofGenghis Khan,The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. TheMongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost incivilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian cityofIsfahan had fallen to them by 1237.

With the election of KhanMongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke'sbrother,Hulegu,was made leader of theMongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. Thefall ofBagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph,al-Musta'sim,wascaptured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260.Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasidarmy lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north ofJerusalem in 1260 at the pivotalBattle of Ain Jalut.

Ultimately, theIlkhanate,Golden Horde,and theChagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongolkhanates - embraced Islam. In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13thcentury gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power foundedbyTimur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in Indiaand theOttoman Turks inAnatolia.His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad,Damascus,Delhi andmany other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death,whichmay have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, andreachedAlexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination ofthe plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. TheTimuriddynasty would found many branches of Islam, including theMughals of India.

Maghreb
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TheGreat Mosque of Kairouanalso known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba

ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city ofKairouan,Tunisia.

Kairouan inTunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in theMaghreb.Arab generalUqba ibnNafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, theGreat Mosque of Kairouan considered as the oldest andmost prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.

This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history.TheIdrisid were the first Arab rulers in the westernMaghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is

named after its firstsultanIdris I.

TheAlmoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from theSahara flourished over a wide area of North-WesternAfrica and theIberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty theMoorish empire was extended overpresent-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar,Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what isnowSenegal andMali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.

TheAlmohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded thefifthMoorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-

Andalus.

Asia and the Far East

South Asia

The Taj Mahal

On theIndian subcontinent,Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, intoday'sKerala state. Arabs traded withMalabareven before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that agroup ofSahaba,underMalik Ibn Deenar,arrived on theMalabar Coastand preached Islam. According to thatlegend,the first mosque of India was built bySecond Chera Ki

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