Phenomenological Mapping and Comparison of Shamanic Buddhist Yogic and Schizophrenic Experiences

7/30/2019 Phenomenological Mapping and Comparison of Shamanic Buddhist Yogic and Schizophrenic Experiences

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Phenomenologcal Mappingand Comparisons ofShamanic, Buddhist, Yogic,and SchizophrenicExperiencesRoger Walsh

In recent years there has been increased interest, in anrhropology.psychology, religious studies. and the culture at large, in the study ofalternate or altered srates of consciou sness (ASC). There is significante d e n c e that altered states may represent a core experiential componentof religious a nd mystical tradirions an d that practices su ch as meditationand yoga may induce specific classes of ASC (Shapiro; Shapiro andWalsh: Goleman). The prevalence and importance of ASCs may bepthered lrom Bourguignon's finding that 90%of cultures have instiru-tior~a lized orms of them . This is "a striking finding an d suggests thatwe are, indee d, dealing with a matter of major importance. not merely abit of anthropological esoterica" (11).On e of the early assumptio ns that was often m ade abour altered stateinducing practices was thar they exh ibited equifinality. That is. rnanyauthors, including this one, mistakenly assumed that differing tech-niques. such as various meditations, contemplations. and yogas. neces-sarily resulted in equivalen t states of cons ciousness. This largelyreflected our ignorance of the broad mnge of possible ASCs h a t can bedeliberately cultivated (Cole man ). For exa mple , the varieties of ASCthat have been identified in Indian meditative and yogic practices aloneinclude highly concenrrated stares such as the yogic samadhis or Bud-dhist jhanas. witness-consciousness states in which equanimity is sostrong that stimuli have little or no effect on [he observer. a nd states

where extremely refined inner stimuli become the objects of artentionR q c r W alrh or Prolemr of Psychlary . Phl lmph?, and Anxhmpclla~ 1 ihc Untversln o iC ~ l i l o r -nia rl Imn c . Ininc. CA 92717.


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such as the faint inner sounds of shabd yoga or the subtlepseudoninranic bliss of Buddhist vipassana meditation (Goldstein:Cole man ). The n too there are unirive states in which the sense of sepa-ration between self and world dissolves such as in some Zen satoris(Kapleau:281); there are others in which all objec u or phenom ena dis-appear such as in the Buddhist nirvana or \'endantic n i ~ k a l p asamadhi; and there are stares in which all ph enom ena are perceived a sexpressions or modifications of consciousness, e.g.. sahaj samadhi (Wil-ber 1980:74; Free John: 589). Of course this is not to deny that cem instates may display significant functional an d experiential com monalities.Asian meditative and yogic states are now recognized as distinctstates suigcncnj that may exhibit a variety of u nique phenom enological.perceptual, electrophysiological, and hormonal changes (Shapiro: Sha-piro Sr Walsh Wilber. Engler Sr Brown; Goleman). Until recently.however, these Asian meditative and yogic states were often regarded aspathological, and their practitioners were regarded as neurotic orpsychotic (G rou p for the Advancement of Psychiatry). Th us one text-book of psychiatry concluded that

The obvious similariries between schizophrenic regressions and thepractices of yoga and Zen merely ~ndica te har the general trend in ori-enul culrures is ro withdraw into [he self from an overbearingly difficulrphysical and social reality. (Alexander and Selesnich:457)The reasons for this long history of the conflation a n d pathologking

of religious states are proba bly several. The se include a general biasagainst accepring the very existence of cen ain altered states: witness thenineteenth century surgeons who observed apparently painless amputa-tions performed under hypnosis and concluded that the subjects hadbeen bribed to pretend they felt no pain (Tan 1986). Related to this isthe limited range of Western categories for states other than waking.sleeping, an d pathological ones. This dovetails with the widelyobserved bias in clinical psychiatry and psychology to pathologize unu-sual experie nces (Jung:xlii; Maslow:5; Noll. 1983:3$4). This can bepanicularly important in cross cultural studies because "anthropologistssometimes fail to distinguish clinic and culture" (Opler:1092). Relatedto this is what Michael Harner (1 98 2:S Vll) calls "cognicentrism." thetendency to assume that one's own usual state is opdmal. Finally, mostresearchers have had little direct experience of the stares they investigate.Yet classical descriptions. psycholcgcal and philosophical argumenu(Tan 1983b; Walsh 1989d). and personal repom by Western trainedresearchers who have e.xperienced altered states (e.g. Globus: Hamer1982 Tan 19 86 Ram Dass 1990) suggest that i t may be difficult to


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com pre hen d fully 2nd differenriare alternate states uirh out direct experi-ence of them.However a number of phenomenological. clinical, psychometric.physiological. chemical. and theoretical co mp arix lns have indicated sig-nificant differences between meditative-yogic states and those of psycho-logical disturbances, including schizophrenia (Kornfield; Shapiro;Wals h 1 980 ; Wilbe r 198 3; Wilb er. Engler. and Brown). Indeed. severalhun dred studies now attesr ro potential therapeutic benefits o i thesepractices (Shapiro; Shapiro and Walsh Murphy & Donovan), and, asKen Wilber i198 0:78) concluded , meditative-yogic states and p a th ol w -ca1 states "can be seriously equated only by those whose intellectual

inquiry goes no further than superiicial impressions."50 Western academ ic evaluations o i the alternate states of co n-sciousness induced by Asian medirative and yogic disciplines haveundergon e a marked shift. Many initial evaluations assumed that theywere pathological and regressive where as more recent assessmen ts haveacknowledged their uniqueness and potential benefits. The purpose ofthis paper is 1) to examine whether a similar reevaluation may beappropriate for another tradition for which altered states appear to becentral, namely shamanism. 2) to employ a new approach that allowsmore precise, multidimensional description, mapping, an d comparisonof states oi consciousness. 3) to map shamanic states. and 4) then tocompare shamanistic states with other states with which some authorshave claimed they are identical.DEFINING SHAMANISM

Shamanism is now going through a period of surprising popularityin the West, and shamanic workshops and books are multipl)lng rap-idly. At the same time there is a grow ing apprecia tion of the centralityof alternate states of consciousness in sham anism . Indeed the definitionof sh ama nism s eem s to be changing to reflect this appreciation.Early definitions of shamanism iocussed on the shaman's ability tocontact and control "spirits." Th us Shirokogorolf (269) claimed that thetern1 shaman refers to "persons of both sexes who have mastered spirits.who at their will can introduce these spirits into themselves and use

th e ~ r w e r over the spirits in their own interests, particularly helpingother people. who suffer from the spirits."However. contemporary anthropologists seem less impressed by theimportance ot spirits than by h e altered srates in which they are exper-ienced, and def in~ tion s eem to have shifted accordingly to focus o n


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these states (W alsh 1990:9!. Wirh in this defin itiona l class there arebroad a nd narrow definitions. Broad definitions such as those or Perersand Price-Williams (1980:405) sripulate that the "only defining attri-bute is that the specialist enrer into 3 controlled ASC on behalf of hiscomm unity." Narrow definitions stipulate 3 specific category o f ASCs,most often srares in which s ham anic journeying or soul flighr occurs(Eliad e 1964:5: Noll 1983:43.): Wals h 1989a:q. 1990:lO). and MichaelHarner (1982:wi) has arrempred to describe and define shamanism interm s of a single specific stare.The definirion used here is a narrow one which describes shaman-ism as afamily of traditions whose practitioners focus on voluntarilyentering altered states of consciou sness in which they experience h e m -selves. or their spirit(s), traveling to orher realms at trill and intencring

ui th other entities in order to serve their commun ides. While n o singledefinirion will sarisfy a11 researchers. this one has several advantages.Firsr, it describes a group of practitioners that almost all researchers.would view as sham ans. Second , because of its specificity an d narrow-ness. the definition is able to differentiare this tradition from other tradi-tions and practices. e.g.. med iums , priests. an d medicine men: as well asfrom \,arious psychopathologies, wirh which sh ama nism has been co n-fused (Walsh 1990a).Shamanic Exper i ences

Interpretat ionsWhile there is now greater interest in shamanic ASCs and a begin-ning appr eciation that [hey may be specific, it is still comm only assum edin borh anthropolegy and psychology that shamanic srates and thosewho experience them are pathological (Kakar. Noll 1983). Indeed. the"experience ol [he shaman has been likened to almost every psychopa-tholog)." (Peters and Price-Williams 1980:394 ). The sha ma n has beencalled, among other things, menrally deranged, an ourrighr psychotic, averitable idiot, a charlatan, an epileptic, and. perhaps mosr often, anhysteric or schizophrenic k g . , Devereux; Wissler).An opposite bur equally extreme view seems to be emerging in [hepopular literature. Here shaman ic states are being identified with thoseof Buddh ism, yoga, or Christian mysricism. For examp le. Holger

Kalweir (236) claims that [he shaman "experiences exisrenrial unity-th e sarnodhi of the Hindus or whar Western spiritualists andmysrics callenlightenment. illuminarion, unio mystics." Likewise Gary Doore (223)


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claims char "sham ans, yogis and Buddhists di ke are ~ cc es si nghe samestate of co nsciousness."There seem to be serious deficiencies with these comparisons.Almost universally they appear to be based on gross similarities ratherrhan on careful phenomenological mapping an d comparison (W alsh1990):On e significant an d important rxcep rion is the work o l Richard Noll(1983). Noll did a careful phenomenological comparison kn v e e n sha-manic journey uares as described in the traditional lirerarure and rhesrares of schizop hren ics as docum enred in the American Psychiarric

Asxia t ion ' s (1980) Diagnostic and Stafistical Manual ojittcncnlalDisorden.Noll was able to demonstrate, contrary to decad es o l assumptions. that[here are clear phenomenological differences between schizophrenicand shamanic experiences and th3t the two could nor be regarded asidentical.For example. Noll demonstrated major differences on the dimensionof control. He p i n te d our [hat sham ans are generally able ro induceand terminate their ASCs 31 will and modulare their e.xperiences to someextent. while schizophrenics are almost entirely helpless victims of theirstates an d experiences. As will be shown later, compa risons on severalorher phenomenological dimensions also demonstrate s~gnificantdifferences.01 course it must be noted that Noll focused on s ham anic journeystates and not on rhe earlier life period of h e sham anic initial call.which may sometimes consrirute a major life crisis with considerablebizarre behavior (Eliade 1964: Grof and Grof 1989). Consequently.Noll's dara does not fully rule our [he possibility char shamans may oncehave been disturbed or even schizophrenic bur subsequently recover.To Noll 's com p~r ison s an be added several oth er observations. Thefirst is that the clinical picture of the initial crisis suggests significantdifferences from schizophren ia (Grof and Grof 198 6. 1989; Walsh1990). The second is that the shama n is mid ro function ofren a s on e ofthe mosr effective members of the tribe, displaying superior energ)., con-cen rration , mem ory, knowledge. and lead ership iEliade. 131%: Ha rnrr .1982; Reichel-Dolmatofl; Rogers), qu ali t~ es hat are hardly consistent

with rhe chronic deteriontion com mon in schizophrenia. Takenrogethrr. these facts consritute a strong argument against the f~~cilequa-tion of shamanism and schizophrenia.Noll's work poinrs to new possibiliries and standards lor diagnosticand comparative assessment o l sham anic states. Henceforth it will nolonger be adequate simply to conclude on the basis of supedicial simi-


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Iarities that shamanic stares of consciousness are equivalent to otherstates, such as those found either in various forms of patholqg or inothe r traditions suc h as Buddhism o r yoga. Rather what will be neces-sity is a careful multidimensional mapping of shamanic states of con-sciousness and then an equally careful multidimensional comparison ofrhese states wirh those of other po pul atio ns . After 311, as Husron Smith(1987:55 8) pointed out: "Claims for similarities or dirferences spintheir wheels until they get down to tvqvs and d c p c s in which thingsdiffer or are alike."

~h is 'a ni cl e ims to expand Noll 's work by providing 3 more detailed(yet still preliminary), multidimensional, phenomenological map of sha-manic stares of consciousness and comparing this with the pathologicalstates of schizophrenia and wirh the meditative states of Buddhism andyoga. It will become app aren t that a11 these states sho w significant dif-ferences an d that equating them can n o longer be justified. Hencef onheach rjp e m ust be regarded as a distinct class of states whish differ onmultiple significant dimensions.Th e Var ie t ies of Sham anic S ta tes of C onsc i ousnes s

In making these comparisons i t is imponant to acknowledge thatthere is not one but many states of consciousness rhat are invariablysought and used in sham anism. Shaman s may induce altered states by avariety of means including fasring, solitude, dancing, drumming, anddrugs (Hamer 1973. 1982; Dobkin de Rios and Winkleman; Walsh1989b). Major classes of shamanic altered states include possession.drug, and journey srates. Shama nic possession-stares refer ro swtes inwhich the sha man 's conwiousn ess is experienced as being raken over tovarying degrees by an ego-alien entity, usually believed to be a spiril.(Peters and Price-Williams 1980; Walsh 1990).

Dnig srates encompass a remarkably vide varier). of states (Grof1980. 1988; for their relationship to shamanism see Hamer 1973; forthe rel ar~ on shi p f dru g stares to non-drug induced religious states seeSmith 1964; an d for a theoretical explanation of this relationship seeWalsh 1990). This is not to deny that there may be significant ove rlapor functional equivalence benveen some of rhese states (Peters) butrather rhat there seems no reason to assume a single shamanic stare.

This paper focuses on mapping the states occurring during the sha-manic journey. Th e journey has been ch osen because i t is one o f thekey, some would say one of rhe defining, characteristics of shamanism(Eliade 1964; Ha me r 1982; Noll 19 83). In addirion we have many


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descriptions of it and the intense imagery which occurs in it has oftenbeen confused with schizophrenic hallucinations (Noll 1983; 1985).Even here to say that there is only a single stare of consciousnessmay be 3n oversimplificarion. As anyone w ho has don e multiple sh a-manic journeys knows. one's stare m3y vary perceptibly from journey tojourney, and there are probably significant indi\ldual differencesbenveen practitioners. This is not to deny that there are commonalitiesamo ng these stares an d experience s. However, it does point out thatconsiderab le variation may occur and that even the co ncept of a "state of'cons cious ness '' is an arbitrary and static crystalization of what is, in liv-ing experienc e, a multidimension al dynam ic flow of experience . For thesake of simplicity in this paper 1 will sometimes use the term "shamanicstate of consciousness" to refer to sham anic journey state(s).

N A TU R E O F T H E S H A M A N I C JO U R N E Y S T A TE O FCONSCIOUSNESS

Trance S ta t esThe shaman ic state of consciousness dur ing journeys is often spo kenof as a trance. The term trance seem s to be widely used but impreciselydefined. Indeed. i t is usually so imprecisely defined that some research-ers try to avoid it "panly because it carries negative connotations, panlybecause i t has never been clearly enough defined" (Tan 1986:70): Itseems to have been used broadly to cover all waking ASCs and morenarrowly to indicate an ASC marked by focused attention (Peters and

Price-Williams 1983; Winkleman). 1 use h e term only in this lattersense.Definitions of focused a ttention trance s tend to include th e criteria ofengagement in an inner world accompanied by reduced awareness of.and responsiveness to, the environment (Pattison. Kahan. andHurd:28 6). This is probably useful as a first step, but it may be that thedefinition and difrerentiation o l trance states can be taken c onsiderab lyfunh er. The following is an initial attempt to begin this process.I u~ ou ld uggest that the key defining characteristic of a trance is afocusing of attention with reduced awareness of the e.xperientia1 context(objects, stimuli, or environment outside this focus). The focus of theconstricted attention may be either internal or external. Wh en it is

internal then there is the possibility of rich, intense images and fantasyincluding journeys of the sham anic type. Of course sham an s would


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i3 6 Journal o/ rh c Ammcuan .Acadtmr o j Rtlrgronargue for the objecrive reality of their realms and e.xperiences and deny[hat they are merely images (Harner 1982; 1984).

.Assuming that the sh am a n~ c rate of consciou sness is a [ o m o frrance. can we go fun her and ask "whar type of rrance?" In otherwords, ro what extent can we differentiate and map trance states? Vari-ous maps ofsrares of consciousness have been proposed for millennia.Ancienr Asian systems include rhe Buddhist Abhidharrna(Nyanaponika) and yogic chakra systems (Tan 19833). Recent Westernsuggesrionsinclude maps based on systems theory (Tan 1983b1, thelevel of arousal (F ische r), indu cing variables (Ludwig), developmenralstages (Wilber 1980). and phenomenological dimensions (Clark). Noneof rhese maps appear fully appropriate ro the purposes of this paper.The phenomenological dimen sions examined here are based on the fre-quency with which these dimensions are described and the imponancethey are accorded in descriptions oi the states to be considered. Basedon rhese crirena [he following dimensions seem panicularly relevant.Key D im en s ion s for ~ a p p i n ~ltered States

1. Degree of reduction of awareness of [he e.xperiential context o renvironm ent: ranging from complete to minimal or none7. Ability to communicate3 . Concenrration: impo nant factors here include:a. The dcgrce of concentration andb. Wh eth er the attenrion isfi\cd immovably on a single object(e.g.. Buddhist jhanas or yogic samadhi states) or momenfay or

jluid,where atrenrion is allowed to shift between selected objects(e.g.. in shamanic journeys)4 . Degree of control.Here there are two imponant types of control:a . Ability to en ter an d leave the ASC at willb. Ability to control the conrenr of experience while in [he ASC5 . Degree of arousal6. Degree of calm . Th is refers ro more tha n low arous al. which referssimply to [he level of activation, since calm also implies low levelsof agitation and distractibility (Nyanoponika Then).7. Sensitivity or subrlety of sensory perce ption. This may be eirherreduced, as in hypnotic anesthesia, or enhanced. as in Buddhistinsight meditation.8 . Nature of [he sen se of self or identity9 . Affect: especially whether the experience is pleasurable o r painful


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10. Out of body experience (OOBE)Does the subject experience perceiving from a point that seemsoutside the body?11. Con tent of inne r experience:Here many further differentiations can be made such as: Is thecontent formless or with form?a. Formless, i.e.. without differentiation into specific objects or, forms, e.g.. an ex perience of undifferentiated light or clearspace. as in the Buddhist jhanasb . Wirh form, differentiated. having specific objects, e.g.. visualimages. I f the content is differenriared h e n it and [he state olconsciousne % can be divided along several subdivisions. Crir-ical subdivisions include:

1) Degree of organization2) Modality of the predominant objects. e.g.. auditor).. visual.somatic3) Intensity of the objecrs4) Psychological "level" of h e objects, e.g., personal orarcherypal imagery

12. The develo pmental level of the state. In so me disciplines different .ASCs emerge in a fixed sequence of stages, e.g., the formlesssamadhi states of yoga emerge after earlier stages in which anen-tion is focussed on specific images (Wilber 1980: Wilber et 31.1.There does not seem to be clear evidence in the literature of 3distinct developmental progression o i states in shama nism, an d sothis dimension is not dikussed further in this paper.These parameters are obviously broad and preliminar?, and com-pared to [he exquisite subtleties of [he Buddhist Abhidharma are rela-tively insensitive. Doub tless they will be refined by funh er research.Yet even at this stage they allow significantly more sensitive phenome-nological com pariso ns than have been the norm . In addition. the verybreadth of these etic categories may confer significant advanrages inas-much as they should easily encompass the relevant emic descriptionsfrom diverse populations.

M A PPI N G SH A M A N I C JOURNEY TATESWirh this preliminary delineation of important experiential dimen-sions of ASCs we can now rum atrention specifically to the shamanicjourney scate and its attendant espe rirnces. The fo lloaing description 01the state is based on three sources. The first is the des cription of jour-


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7.18 journal 4 ht Amtrican Acadcmv oj Rrlyonneys in the literarure (e.g. Shirokogorofl; Eliade 1964; Hamer 1982: Noll1983; Peters and Price-Williams 1980). The secon d is inre nie ws withnative . ..undergone intensive long-term (minim um on e year) shamanic apparen-ticeship and training in native South American. Huichol, and Nepalesetraditions. Understanding these descriptions w as facilitated by a thirdsource of inlormarion, namely, several years' personal experience uirhsham anic journeys. Training for these was obtained primarily un der therutelage of Michael Harner, formerly a p r o f e w r of anthropolog y at rheNew School for Social Research, who ha s synrhesized his life-long studyof, and study with. shamanic practitioners from diverse culrures inrocourses on what he calls "core shama nism." whic h focus significanrlyon shamanic journeying. I mention the personal experience becausethere is growing evidence thar, due to state-specific learning, under-standing of alternate stares may be significantly enhanced by directe.xperience of them (T an 1983a.b). Space limirauons obviously pre-clude giving derailed ac co un u of the many individual journeys obta inedfrom these several sources. some of which are already available in theliterarure, bur the general profiles are as follows.The shamanic journey is always undenaken for a specific purpose.such as to obtain information or power w ith which to solve a problemafflicting some one in [he tribe. Th e sha ma n firsr enters an altered statewith [he assisrance of practices su ch a s preparatory fasting, sleep dep ri-vation, and ritual, followed by aids such as drumming. dancing, andsinging. Onc e established in [he .4SC the shaman experiences separar-ing from the body, largely losing awareness of the body and environ-rnenr, an d traveling a s a free soul o r free spirir, to o ne of the three worldsof the sham anic cosmology-the upp er, middle, or lower worlds. Th eshaman's artention is f i ~ e d n the appropriare world, which is exper-ienced vividly in mulriple sensoly modalities, i.e.. visual, auditoty, tac-tile, etc. In this world the s ham an may first call his or her persona lspirits (spirit helpers. power animals) for assistance. The shaman thenroams at will in search of a source of relevanr information or power.experiencing a wide range of emorions dep endin g on [he specific expe r-iences char occur, and having found the source artempu to bring theinformation o r power back. Reentering the body the shaman rem ina testhe ASC and communicates the information or transmits the power rothe persons in need, perhaps prescribing a panicular medication, rirual.or course of action in tende d ro alle\lare the problem for which the jour-ney was unde nake n. With this general outline of the journey we can


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now map the sha ma nic pum ey su re on our experiendal dimensions asfollo\vs.Th e sha man ic journey state is usually one of reduced awaren ess ofthe environment. That this reduction may be incomplete is suggested bythe fact [hat some shamans communicate with spectators during theirjourneys (Peters and Price-Williams 1980; Harner 1982).Conce ntration is said to be increased. This concentration ismom entar ). rather than fixed since the sha man 's attention moves freelyfrom object to object.Sh am ans usually maintain good control of the state. They are usu-ally able to e nter a nd leave the ASC at will and also able to panly deter-mine the by e of imagery and experiences. This pania l control of

experience is similar to that described in lucid dreaming states (dream-ing in which one recognizes that one is dre am ing ) (La Berge) and to anumber of psychotherapeutic visualization techniques. These tech-niques include guided imagery, guided meditation. "waking dreams."Jung ian active imag ination, and a variety of o the r visualizarion strategies(Noll 1983; Walsh 1 9 8 9 ~ . 990).Sha man s may be moderately aroused and agitated during their jour-neys. This is hardly surprising since they may experience themselvestraversing strange worlds, placating angry gods, and battling fearsomespiriu. Calm is not a word that would usually be applied to shamans'journeys. Their affect is variable, dep endin g on the types of experiencesthey undergo.Shamans usually continue to experience themselves during joumqsas separate individuals but now a s "souls" or "spirirs." freed from thebody. As such they feel able to travet through o r between worlds. to seeand interact with other spiriu, and to intercede with these spirits onbeha ll of their people. The sha man ic journey therefore bears similaritiesto the out-of-body experiences described throughout the world in spon-taneous, learned. lucid dream. or near-death experiences (Monroe;Moody 1975. 1988; Ring 1980. 1984 . 1986; Im~nin). t may be that spon-taneous out-of-bodyexperiences such as these provided the inspirationfor their voluntary mastery and incorporation into a set of practices andrituals that became the basis for the tradition of shamanism (Walsh19895. 1990) . Similar journey experience may also occur in othe r tradi-tions, including Taoism. Islam, yoga. and Tibetan Buddhism. although

the journey is not as central a practice as in shamanism (Evans-Wenr;;Siegel an d Hirschm an; Baldrian). All this is not to imply that theseexperiences necessarily involve 3 separation of consciousness from thebody. Thoug h this is inde ed the interpretation of shama ns. most We%-


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i50 journal q/ r h r . 4 rnmtdn Acadcmr qf Rrlijrbne m researchers, but not all, would regard them as imaginal rarher thantruly exowm atic.

The experiential conrent of th e sham anic journey is complex andcoherent. The images or phe nom ena enc ountered are remarkably rich.mulrimodal (e.g., visual and auditory), highly structured, meaningful.consistent with the shaman's learned cosmology and rhe purpose of thespecific session. a nd under partial voluntary con trol.COMPARATIVE MAPPING

Unril now comparisons benveen different states of consciousness.such as between rhose of shamanism and schizophrenia, have beenrarher superficial. All roo ohe n people have sim ply concluded, on thebasis of very imprecise comparisons. that these states were identical or[hat they were different. Multidimensional pheno menolog ical m app ingallows us to move beyond such simple claims, to compare severaldimensions of experience, and ro say on which dimensions srares aresimilar an d on which [hey differ. In sho n, this approa ch allours us romove from unidimensional to multidimensional comparisons and tocompare more sensitively and distinguish benveen states.We can now use this approach ro compare shamanic srates withthose rhar occu r in orher conditions. Since it has been claimed thatshamanic stares are the same as chose of schizophrenia. Buddhism. andyoga, let us map these states on the dimensions of experience rhar we

have used to map sharnanic states and then compare them.Schizophrenic S tares

Many people who claim that shamans are schizophrenic and thatshamanic and schizophrenic stares are equivalent seem to assume thatthere is only one shamanic altered srate and one schizophrenic state.Yet we have already seen chat there are probably multiple sharnanicstates an d the sam e is certainly true of sch izoph renia (Ame rican Psychi-i r r ic ?\s~miat io n) .To simplify things i willfocus here on rhe stare rharoccurs in an acure schizophrenic episode. since this has probably beenmost often confused with. sham anic ex periences.An acu tesc hiz oph ren ic episode can be one of the lnosr devastatingexperience s any human b eing can undergo. Psychological disorganiza-tion is extreme and disrupts aflecr, cognition. perception, and identity.Though rhere are'signilicanr vanations within andberueen individuals


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U'ukh: P h r n ~ m c n ~ / ~ c a lWappPny 751we can map the acute schizophrenic episode in terms 01 ou r experientialdimensions and compare it to the shamanic srare.Control is almost entirely lost. The victim of an acute sch izoph renicepisode has lirtle abiliry ro halt [he process or modify experiences.Awareness of the environment may be reduced when [he p e m n is pre-occupied air h hallucinations, and cognirion may be w, disorganized thatthe person may be unable ro cornmunic3te. Concentrarion is drasricallyteduced. an d the patient is usually highly aroused a nd agirated. Theexperience is usually extremely unpleasanr, and emotional responses areolren disroned.

The schizophrenic's experience is usually highly disorganized andincoheren t. This disorganization exte nds even ro [he sens e 01 id en ti^.and schizophrenics may consequenrly feel that [hey are disintegrating.dying. and losing [he abiliry to discriminate what is self and w hat is nor.This may occasionally resulr in a sens e of being ourside [h e body, whichin these circumsrances is called autoscopy, bur ihe experience is briefand uncontrolled (.4merican Psychiatric Association 1987; Kaplan andSadock:757).

Table 1Phenomenological Mapping o jtates qf Cons~iousness

! ohcn diwoncdunror). andm I I CAY1RWS

usully ! ! drrr~ic.llyreduced

f rnornenwn. f f l ixrd. wmrdht>- >T,


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rience with psychotic features" (Lukoff 1, "resilience" (Flach). "spiritualemergency." "spiritual emergence." and "transperso nal crisis" (Brag-do n; Grof and Grof 1986. 1989. 1990 ). For a fuller discussion of theunusual behavior following [he inirial call and irs various diagnosticinterpretarions see Walsh (1990). I r seem s most unlikely that [he initia-tion crisis can be diagnosed a s a schizophren ic episode : ir occurs in onlya minority of shamans. I t is cl&rly inappropriate to use the initiationcrisis as a reason to diagnose or dismiss 311 shamans as schizophrenic.Social functioning must also be considered in comparing shamansand schizophrenics. I t will be recalled that shamans are often out-standing members of the community, may display considerable intellec-mal, artistic, and leadership skills, an d m ake significanr c onrributions ro

[heir comm unity. Such skills and conrriburions are rare am ongschizophrenics.Henceforth shamanism and schizophrenia are besr identified as dis-rinct phenomena. Although it is understandable that early researcherssometimes labelled shamans as schizophrenic, it is also clear that thispractice is no longer appro priare . Of course [his is nor ro deny the pos-sibility [hat some shamans may be psychologically disrurbed, bur i r iscertainly to deny h a t h e y are all necessarily so.

Com par i s ons w i t h O t he r T r ad i ti onsWirhin recenr years there has been a growing tendency ro equareshamans with masters of various contemplarive rradirions, especiallyBuddhism a nd yoga, and to assume that the states of c onsciousness tharthe shaman enters are identical ro those of these pracririoners andrradirions.Yet. as we will see, multidimensional mapping and comparisonsreveal some significant similarities but also significant differencesbenveen rhese states. Furthermore. in addition to [he evidence of carefulphenomenologic31 com pariso ns there are sign ifica n~ heorerical argu-men ts against equivalence. These argum ents can be outlined briefly asfollows:1. .As was mentioned. [here are probably multiple shamanic states ofconsciousne ss. e.g.. journey, possession, an d drug stares. Thereforecareful comparison between traditions involves more than finding one

shamanic srate and claiming i t is idenrical wirh a stare attained in otherrradirions. Rather multiple com pariso ns are necessary.2. Other traditions such as Buddhism and yoga have many distinctpracrices and paths. Buddhism. for examp le. has lirerally dozens of


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i53 Journal ilj hr Amrriron Aiadrmv o j R~ l ;~@nmeditation practices (Co me ; Cole man ), and there is no etidence to sug-gest that [hey indu ce identical states. In fact. phenom enological r ep onssuggest major differences between them. For e.~arnple. the Buddhisrconcenrrarive stares, the jhanas. differ dramarically from the states of [hece nl nl Buddhist vipassana (insight) meditation (Buddhaghosa). Indeed.[he jhanic concentrative states are close r, in many u9ays to yogicsamadhis (Coleman ). bur this is hardly surprising gv en that they wereoriginally derived from yogic concentration practices (Narada).3. ' Yogic and Buddhist practices evolve through apparently invariantseries of markedly disrincc states and stages. e.g.. the ten ren oxherdingpictures a nd [he eight jhan as of Buddhism and the various stages ofyogic samadh i (Feuerstein 19 89 ). Therefore, multiple states may existeven within a single practice.

In summar)., claims that sh am an s an d ma sters of other traditions areequivalenr and access identical stares will need m make multiple com-parisons benveen mulriple states on multiple dimensions, somethingthat simply has noc been don e. Th ew rheorerical argume nts point toseveral reasons why it is difficult to make sweeping claims for identitybetween sh ama nic srates an d those of other traditions. Of course this isnot to deny [hat lhere may be some experiential and functional o~verlapbetween different states inasmuc h a s [hey may involve similar processesand aims, such as attentional training and compassionare senice(Peters).These theoretical reservations are supported by data, for when wemake direct multidimensional comparisons we find not identity but

major differences. Thus. for esample . let us make a summary compari-son in [he accompanying table benveen the p rotoy pic sharnanic journeystare and prototyplc scares [hat are likely to occur in advanced Buddhistvipassana meditation and adva nced yogic practice. This comparisonwill be aided by a summary presentation of the principles and exper-iences of classical yogic and Buddhist insight medita tions. Thesedescriptions are based on classic texts (e.g.. Prabhavananda and isher-w300d; Buddhaghosa), recenr descriprion s (e.g.. Co lds tein ), intemiew swith advanc ed Asian a n d Western pracririoners, psychological testing(Shapiro and Walsh: Fone and Dysard 1983a.b; Brown and Engler).and fifteen years of personal medirarive experience (W alsh 1977, 1978 ).Classical yoga is a concentration practice in w hich th e mind is stilleduntil i t can be fixed with unwavering attention on inner experience such

as [he breath. an image. or a mantra (Eliade 1969; Zimmer; Feuerstein1989. 19 90) . To do this the yogi withdraws atrention from the body andouter world, a technique called pra ~ a ha rn ,o focus inwards "like a tor-


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U' g l r h : P h r n o m~ n o l q i ~ lI f a m i.?.?-oise withdrawin g his limbs into his shell." As a result aw aren ess of thebody and outer world is largely lost and the ycgi can focus undis-tractedly on ever more su btle inter nal objects. Finally a11 objecrs dro paway and [h e yogi experiences sam adh i. which is an exa mple of [heclassical ecstatic mystical union or unio rn-vstico (Underhil t Stace;Forman).. Whereas classical yoga is 3 concentration practice, Buddhist insightmsditarion is a so-called awarene ss pracrice. Wh erea s yoga empha sizesrhs development of unwavering attention o n inner o b j e c ~ .nsight mcdi-ration emphasizes fluid atrenrion ro a11 objecrs, both inner and outer.Here a11 stimuli are observed a nd ex amin ed a s precisely a nd minurely asawareness will allow. The aim is to examine and understand the work-ings ol senses, body, and mind as fully as possible, and thereby to currhrough the disronions and misunde rstandings [hat usually cloud aware-ness. "To see things as they are" is the motto ol this pracrice (Bud-dhaghbsa; Goldstein; Go leman).

Table I shours rhar the sham anic journey an d yogic and Buddhisrstates differ o n a number of significant dimensions. Perceptual sensiriv-iry ro cn\lronmental stimuli shows dramatic dillerences berween srates.In Buddhist vipassana meditation states bnrh ancient and modern phe-nomenological reports (Buddhaghosa; Nyanaponika Thera; Walsh 1977.1978; Golstein) as well as recent tachistoscopic resting (Brown. Foneand Dysan 1984a.b) suggest that perceptual sensiriviry to en\lronm enra lstimulation can be significanrly enha nced . However awareness of theenvironm ent is usually somewh at reduced in the sham anic journey an ddrastically reduced, even ro the point of nonawareness, in advancedyogic states (Zimmer, Feuersrein 1989). Indeed Eliade (1958:78)defined samad hi as "an inwln erab le state in which perception ol [heexternal world is absent."These differences in environmental awareness are reflected in differ-ences in communica tion. Buddhist insight meditators can usually com-municste, and shamans c3n sometimes do so (Peters and Price-Williams 1080). However, in advanced yogic concenrrarion comm uni-cation is usually sufficient to break concenrration and remove the practi-tioner from the state (Golernan).The p p r s an d degree of concentration also var). from tradirion ro

tradition. In contradistinction ro schiz oph renia , in which concentrationis drasrically impaired, a11 three tradirions [rain for increased concentra-tion. Inde ed, training atrenrion app ears to be a common denominatoramong consciousness-altering practices (Noyak). In shamanism andtjpassana meditation, conccntration is momentar)., since atrenrion


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moves fluidly lrom one object to anoth er (Eliade 196-1: Gols tein). Thisis in marked contrast to advanced yogic practice, where a ttention is fixedand immovable (Eliade 1969; Feuerstein 1989).Closely related to concentration is contr ol. Two different dimen-sions of contro l should be distinguished. The first is rhe ability to enteran d leave the ASC at will. an d the second is the dbility to determin e theexperiential content of the ASC. Contrary to schizophrenia. where con-trol is drastically reduced. all three disciplines enhance both types of

; conrrol. Practitioners are able to enter and leave their respective states atwill although the shaman may require external assistance such aspsychoactive drug s or entrancin g stimuli such a s dm mm ing . Both sha-mans and vipassana meditarors are able to exert panial conrrol overtheir experiences in the ASC, while yogis in wmadhi have almost com-plete control. Indeed, the second line of Patanjali's classic yogic textstates that "yoga is the contro l of thought-waves in [he mind"(Prabhavanada and lshewood:15).

There are also significant diierences in arousal. Shamans are usu-ally aroused during their journey and may even dance or become highlyagitated. Vipassana meditators. on the othe r han d, reporr initial emo-tional and arousal labiliry. which gradually yields to greater calm (W alsh197 7. 1978: Goldstein). Calm m3y become prof ound in yogic samad hiwhen much of the normal cognitive processing ceases (Brown; Eliade1969; Shapiro and Wa lsh). Although I cannot fully agree with RolandFixher's "cartography of nonordinary states" based on levels of arousal.it is interesring to note that he places samadhi at the extreme end ofhypoarousal and schizophrenic states near the extreme end ofhyperarousal.Th e self-sense differs drastically amo ng the three practices. Theshaman usually retains a sense ol being a separate individual, thoughnow perhaps identified as a soul rather than as a body. However. the~ u d d h i s tmeditator's microscopic awareness deconstructs the sell-senseinto a flux of evanescent comp onen t stimuli. This is the experience ofanalro, in which it is recognized that the sen se o l a perm anent, separateegoic sell is an illusoly product of imprecise awaren ess. This appa rentlycontinuous self-sense arises in much [he same way as an apparentlydyn amic con tinuo us movie arises Irom a series of still frames (Goldstein;Coleman ), a phenome non known as flicker fusion. The yogi, on theother hand, may come to realize an unchanging transcendent Sell, orpuntsha (Eliade 1969; Zimmer).The sham an's experience may be either joyous or painful. as may the


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Buddhist vi pz sa na m editator's. However, in advanced stages the yogi'sexperiences are said ro be increasingly blissful.The content of rhe pr~ctirionen'e ~ ~ e r i e n c e slso differs dramati-cally berween traditions. The sha ma n experiences organized coherentimagery consistent with rhe shamanic worldview and the purpose of thejourney. However. both ancient phenomenologica l re po m and recentperceptual resting (Brown and Engler) suggest that Buddhist meditatorseventually deconstruct a11 experiences into their constituent stimuli.What remains is the perception of an evanescent flux of simple stimuliwhich arise and pass away with extre me rapidity. By contrast. theadvanced yogi is said to attain "samadhi without suppon." an experi-ence of unchanging pure consciousness devoid of images or objects olany kind.

Practitioners from the three traditions show significant differenceswith regard to their experience of the body. Wh ereas the sha ma n typi-cally has a controlled out-of-body experience (OOB E) or "ecstasis." theBuddhist vipassana meditator does not. Yogis, on h e other hand, maylose awareness of the body due to pm~ahara elimination of sensoryinpu t) and experience "enstasis." O n this point Eliade, whose rheoreti-cal knowledge of both shamanism and yoga was probably as extensiveas anyone's. was very clear on h e difference between the two:Yoga cannot possibly be confused with shamanism or classed amongthe lechniques of e c s r q . The goal of cla ss~ cyoga remains perfectautonomv, enstasis. while shamanism is chancrerized by iu desperateeffort to attain :he 'condiuon of a spirit.' ro accomplish ecstatic nigh[.!339)

C OM M ON E XP E R I E NC E S A N D CAPACITIESThere is a popular saying thar a11 things are both similar and differ-ent. Having demonstrated significant differences between shamanic.Buddhist, and yogic states, the question naturally arises "in what waysare they similar?' Cenainly we would expect some similariries since allthree groups ol practitioners have undergone long-term intensive mentaltraining designed to cultivate religious sensitiviry, experiences, andunderstandings. 1 will therefore briefly sum marize h e similarities thatca n be identified on the experiential dim ensi ons we h?\?e been using.


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i j 8 j ~ u r n o l~y . hr d mr ni an . 4 c s d t ~ j Rrl,A">n

ControlAll three practitioners have developed the ability to enter and leavedesired srares of c onsciousne ss wl rh rel3tive ease. Of course. this ishardly surprising, since this ability was a criterion for inclusion in thisstudy.Concen t ra t ion

A l l three groups of practitioners exhibit heightened concenmtion.Ho\r,e\,er the type of concentration, fixed or fluid, is specific to th e train-ing and task.Affect

In the course of their training all three practitione rs are almost inva-riably forced to confront a variety of fearful negative esperiences. Thegenen l te nd en q is. as might be expected from psychological principlesof implosive therapy. a gradual decrease in the intensity of these negativeexperiences. In these practices this is tollowed by 3 tendency for morepleasant. even ecstatic and blissful, expenences to arise (Elkin: Gold-stein: Coleman).Self-Sense

,411 three practitioners experience a shift in identity, although thereare significant differences in the experien ces that in duce i t and [he senseof self that resul~.However, the common element is a disiJen[ificationfrom the conventional egoic body-bound self-sense.C o n te n t

All three practices induce specific religiously significant experiences.What is remarkable is that these experiences are consistent with the~, or ld vi ew nd ontocosm ologyof the tradition. This suggests that thereis an intriguing complementarity between a tradition's worldview and isrechnology of transcendence such that an effective technology (set ofpractices) elicits experiences consistent mlth and supportive of theworld-view (Walsh 1991). Since worldview and expectation can moldexperience. there is therefore an interesting question as to what estenttechnology or world\lew is chicken or egg.


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IS THERE A COMMON MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE?On e of the major questions that has dom inate d philosophica l discus-sion of mysticism since William James is whether or not there is anycore mystical experience that is common across cultures and traditions.Walrer Stace and some advocates of the perennial philosophy argue yes:no. say "constructivists." such as Steven Katz (1978. 1983). who arguethat all e.xperience, including mystical experience, is constructed andhence mediated and modified by a variety of conditioned. inescapable.personal and cultural experiences and filters. Othe rs argue that thequestion remains open (Smith 1987; Rothberg 1989. 1990). For anexcellent examination of the epistemological assumptions underl~ingKarz's posirion see Rothberg (1969, 1990). Since [he com pariso ns made

above clearly indicate significant differences between shamanic, yogicand Buddhist experiences, they would seem to favor the constructi\isrsand argue against the view that there exisrs a common mysticalexperience.Yet this may be only pa n of the story. Although the yogic an d Bud-dhist meditative experiences described above are indeed advanced. theyare not the most profoun d. At the highest reache s of meditation, tran-scendent experience s of a wholly different kind, radically d iscontinuousfrom all that have gone before, are said to occur. These are the sam adhiof yoga and the nirvana of Buddhism.Here description a nd reason are said to fail: "Not by rea soning isthis ~p pr eh en sio n ttainable" (Katha Upanishad 1.2.3); "words rerurn

along with the mind not attaining it " (Taittiriya Upanisha d 2.9.1). Forthese experiences. and the realms they putatively reveal, are said to bebeyond space . time. qualities, conc epts, and limirs of any kind. Hencethese experiences are said to be ineffable, inde,xribable. and inconceiv-able because they are mn sem piri cal . transverbal, an d rransrational. Inthe words of the third Zen patriarch Sengstan:To this ultimate finalityno law or description applies. . . .The more you talk about i tThe further asrrav you wander from [he truth.

Here phenomenological description, mapping, and comparison fail.for even to attempt to qualify. let alone map and measure, experiencesand domains is said to result invariably in paradox, inasmuch as this isNicholas de Cusa's "coincidence of opposites," Zen's "not-one, not-wo." and Vedanta's "advaita."

The paradox of artempring to describe the coincidcnce of opposites


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760 Jmrnul I:/ thc Ammncun Acodcn!~qf Rc/~@ov

is, as Kant was to discover, that the opposite of any apparently validstatem ent is also valid. Almost fifteen hun dre d years before Kant,Nagajuna-founder of Madhyamaka Buddhism-reached vinually thesame conclusion. "a conclusion echoed 2nd amplified in succeedinggenerations by every major school of Eastern philosophy and psychol-ogy: Reason can not grasp the essence of absolute reality 2n d when ittries. it generates only dualistic incompatibilities" (Wilber 1983:18).The primary and liberating task, say both Buddhist and yogic traditions,is not to describe these states and experiences but rather to know themfor oneself through direct, transrational intuition and it s resultant wis-dom, pmjna, or jnam.

Are the yogic samadhi and Buddhist nirvana idenrical, or, more pre-cisely, are they indistinguishable? It seems that one can not say that theyare different. but then one also cannot say they are the same, since bothsimilarities an d diferen ces dep end o n being able to attribute and com -pare qualities. Th e answer, at least for yoga an d Bud dhism. to the ques-tion of whether there exists a common core mystical experience may beneirher yes nor n o but rather, from a Western philosophical perspective,"what ca n be y i d at all can be said clearly, what we cannot talk abourwe must p a s over in silence" (Wittgenstein 1961:3).The ineffability of the yogic wm ad hi and Buddhist nirvana doe s notansw er the questions of whe ther there exists a mystical experience c om -mon to diverse traditions or whether all mysrical experiences are con-structed. However, i t doe s suggest tha t, although many yogic. Buddhist.and shamanic states can be differentiated by phenomenological map-

ping, there may be some states. perhaps the most profound, that cannotbe mapped or distinguished.Are Shamans Also Myst ics?

And what of shamanism? Do i t s practitioners also access mysticalstates? I have found no references to the unio mystica in the literature.and o ne autho rity categorically states that in sham anism "we never findthe mystical union with the divinity so rpical for the ecstatic esperiencein the 'higher fonns of religious mysticism' " (Hultkranu:28).However, there are three lines of evidence t h a ~uggest that this con -clusion could be incorrect. These are the facts that sham anism is an oraltradition. that powerful psychedelics may be used. and that some West-e m practitioners repon unitive esperiences.Since shamanism is an oral tradition. i t is possible that such exper-iences may have occurred. at least occasionally. but have been lost to


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subsequent generations and of course therefore to Western researchers.Without writing there may be no way to pre senp e adequately a record ofthe highest and rarest flowerings of a tradition.Although not an essential pan of shamanism, the use ofpsychedelics is common in some areas (Harner 1973). Peyote and aya-huasca. for example. 3re powerful psychedelics capable of inducingexperiences that som e researchers regard as genuine mystical one s (Grof1988: Smith 1964: Walsh and Vaughan).Finally. Westerners being [rained in shamanic practices may reponunitive experiences, and I have personally heard two such accounts.These seemed to be examples of nature mysticism, although of coursethere is the possibility that othe r types of mystical experience may also

occur. All of this suggests that. although h e unio mysnra is not the goalof shamanic practices, it may sometimes occur.SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS

Claims [hat shamanic states are identical to those of schizophrenia.Buddhism, or yoga appear to have been based on imprecise cornpari-son s and both theory and data argue against their equivalence. In p a nthis confus ion reflects a history of imp recise ma pp ing of altered state s.More precise, though still preliminary, multidimensional phenomeno-logical mapping and comparisons or altered stares are now possible.The maps and comparisons presented here are obviously only initialsteps. However, even at this preliminary stage of developme nt they sug-gest that, while shamanic. Buddhist and yogic states show some func-tional and experiential overlap. they are usually quite distinct and alsoshow major differences from schizop hren ic states. An obvious next stepwould be to use one of the psychometric tests now being developed.such as Thc Phcnomcnnlogy L$ Consciousness Invcntow (Pekala andKumar), to obtain quantitative assessments and comparisons of thephenemonology of these scares. Another would be to obtain elec-rrophysiological measurem ents of shama nic states to compa re wi th themeasurements already available of schizophrenic and meditative scares.Hopefully funher research will enable us to map, compare, and distin-guish rhese and other states with increasing precision.


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Documents

Phenomenological Mapping and Comparison of Shamanic Buddhist Yogic and Schizophrenic Experiences