Seafood Contamination And Human Health

After The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill

By:

Woody Arnold

PH638A

4/19/2014

I. Introduction

For decades, humanity has been relying on drilling out petroleum as the main energy source for cars, ships,

planes, and other types of transportation. Despite the fact that humanity has been relying on petroleum in general for

about one hundred years, due to disasters such as big oil spills at sea, humanity is starting to re-evaluate themselves

and try to push to come up with better solutions for energy while restoring the environment. The questions that are

plaguing researchers and professionals in the field; including public health officials; are, “What are the long term

effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that took place in 2010 in regards to human health and seafood

contamination? And are there studies needed to confirm these long term effects on human health?” Although

scientists and engineers have done some extensive research over the years to discover ways to create cleaner

versions of these petroleum based fuels, such as looking into algae, I believe that remaining reliant on petroleum

will have long term ecological effects on our environment, especially when massive oil spills occur like with the

Deepwater Horizon oil spill that took place in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. This disaster had a massive impact; not

just environmentally; but economically and socially. Because of the depth of the well blowout, deeper parts of the

Gulf of Mexico are likely impacted. It is estimated that the potential negative economic effects of this blowout and

oil spill on commercial and recreational fishing, as well as marine aquaculture in the US Gulf area, by computing

potential losses throughout the fish value chain. It is found that the spill could, since 2010 and up to now, result in

(midpoint) present value losses of total revenues, total profits, wages, and economic impact of $3.7, $1.9, $1.2, and

$8.7 billion, respectively. Commercial and recreational fisheries would likely suffer the most losses, with a

respective estimated $1.6 and $1.9 billion of total revenue losses, $0.8 and $1.1 billion in total profit losses, and $4.9

and $3.5 billion of total economic losses. (U. Rashid Sumaila et al. 2012)

On May 2, 2010, 12 days following the explosion and fire of the Deepwater Horizon, NOAA closed 6,817

square miles of the Gulf of Mexico to commercial and recreational fishing. The closure was implemented to ensure

potentially contaminated seafood would not enter markets and pose a risk to human health. The closure grew to

include portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters. At the peak of the closure, 88,522

square miles, or nearly 37%, of all federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico were off-limits to fishing.13 The maximum

proportions of state waters closed to fishing during the spill were Alabama (40%), Florida (2%), Louisiana (55%),

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and Mississippi (95%).14 Since the flow of oil from the well-head was stopped in July, most of Louisiana state

waters and all of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters have been re-opened to fishing. As of January 24,

2011, only 1,041 square miles of federal waters immediately surrounding the well-head remain closed to

commercial and recreational fishing. (H.F. Upton 2011) The Gulf of Mexico is also has a high marine biodiversity,

with 15,419 recorded species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has a Red List of species

that are at risk globally to become endangered or extinct. IUCN Red List assessments are being expanded to

evaluate more marine species, including some in the Gulf of Mexico. The IUCN has assessed 322 species in the

Gulf of Mexico to date, 53 of which are in threatened categories; an additional 29 are listed as near threatened. The

IUCN assessments include all Gulf marine mammals (5 of 28 species threatened), sea turtles (all 5 species

threatened), sea grasses (2 of 9 threatened or near threatened), mangroves (0 of 6 threatened), reef-building corals

(11 of 60 threatened or near threatened), wrasses (1 of 20 threatened), sharks and rays (43 of 131 threatened or near

threatened), seabirds (3 of 40 threatened or near threatened), and groupers (11 of 22 threatened or near threatened).

Groupers are of particular concern; three species are classified as critically endangered on the Red List and the

Atlantic goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) is listed as near extinction. An oil spill of this magnitude threatens

many species. (C. Campagna et al. 2011) In addition to the threat of the Gulf of Mexico's biodiversity that this

spilled caused, the long term effects on human health are unknown despite extensive research since the disaster. The

current literature tends to focus separately on health effects in workers and health effects in communities. However,

workers who responded to the Gulf oil spill are integrated into their communities, and the ecologic, economic, and

health effects of the spill are closely interconnected. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011) Though there has been research so

far about the effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and chemical dispersants on marine life, on the

workers involved in the clean ups when the Deepwater Horizon oil spill took place, and even extending to studies on

how terrestrial life such as bird interactions could be have been affected long term, this paper will specifically focus

on PAHs in seafood and its toxicity to humans while addressing evidence of toxicity and possible proposals for

further research on the topic.

II. Contaminants in Seafood and Toxicity

Though there are many factors since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill that still may have potential long term

effects up to this day with many closures of fisheries along the Gulf of Mexico, the consumption of seafood is one of

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the biggest concerns to human health. Studies after previous oil spills have shown that seafood contamination is

determined by numerous factors, including the type and quality of the oil, the proximity of the spill to fishing

grounds, ambient temperature and weather conditions, and species- and ecosystem-specific parameters that

determine metabolism and the potential for bioaccumulation at different levels of the food chain. (J.M. Gohlke et al.

2011) Though the contaminants of main concern from the aftermath of the overall Deepwater Horizon oil spill

disaster are dispersants (Corexit 9500A), PAHs, and heavy metals, PAHs have been found in seafood. In general,

petroleum oil is primarily composed of hydrocarbons and this can represent up to 97% in some products but can be

as low as 50% in heavy oils and bitumen. PAHs comprise between 0 and 60% of the composition of oil. In general,

the lower molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons are found in greater amounts in oil relative to those of higher

molecular weight. One to three ring PAHs can account for up to 90% of the total aromatic hydrocarbons in oil while,

four to six ring PAHs are found in lower concentrations. Also, PAHs in oil are primarily alkylated and non-alkylated

congeners are found at low concentrations. Molecular weight of hydrocarbon molecules is also an important factor

determining diffusion from environmental compartments to biota. Overall, PAH solubility decreases as molecular

weight increases and higher molecular weight PAHs tend to bind more strongly to particulates and sediments. Lower

molecular weight compounds such as monoaromatic hydrocarbons and naphthalene are highly soluble and readily

diffuse through membranes (French-McCay 2004). However, these lighter compounds are also very volatile and do

not tend to persist in the environment for more than hours to days. In contrast, PAHs with three or more rings are

more hydrophobic and thus, less soluble compared to low molecular weight hydrocarbons (French-McCay 2004).

However, due to their increased persistence after a spill, these PAHs can be important components causing toxicity.

(A. Dupuis et al. 2015) When comparing benzene, which is also a contaminant of concern, since it is known to be a

hematoxicant, a hematocarcinogen, and has a subtle effect on circulating blood cells in workers exposed at sea

below the health occupational standard, PAHs are more persistent and have the ability to bioaccumulate and

potentially cause skin and lung cancer and have reproductive and developmental toxic effects. Atmospheric

photochemical activity, common in summer, converts volatile hydrocarbons into reactive aldehydes and leads to

ozone formation, which can cause respiratory irritation like asthma attacks. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011)

It is also believed that PAHs can cause narcosis in marine life. For example in a study done of the

interactions between zooplankton and crude oil, copepods showed signs of sublethal effects and acute toxicity.

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Narcosis was one of the sublethal effects that we observed in copepods exposed to crude oil, in agreement with other

studies. Narcotic effects in copepods may be associated to both the volatile components of petroleum (BTEX) and

the PAHs. Although narcosis in copepods is reversible after exposure to unpolluted water, if it is prolonged, it may

reduce feeding and consequently cause death, or may increase the risk of mortality by predation in nature.

Alterations in reproduction, feeding and egestion rates have been commonly observed in copepods exposed to

specific PAHs. However, there is a big discrepancy among studies regarding what physiological rates are affected,

and the results vary widely depending on the species and oil exposure concentration. (R. Almeda et al 2013)

In contrast to marine life, humans are exposed to PAHs on a daily basis due to pollution caused by

industrial processes. According to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), the usual routes

of exposure are ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact dependent on occupation. Non-working sources of

exposure include diet, smoking, and burning wood and coal. Exposure may even occur via placental transfer, breast

milk, and coal tar products. Therefore, people exposed the most to PAHs would be blue-collar workers such as

machinists, roofers, asphalt workers, coal-gas workers, road pavement workers, fisherman using coal tar nets, etc.

PAHs are metabolized via CYP enzymes in the liver. In addition to liver and kidneys, metabolism of PAHs occurs in

the adrenal glands, testes, thyroid, lungs, skin, sebaceous glands and small intestines. PAHs are first transformed into

epoxides then to dihydrodiol derivatives and phenols. Then the glucuronide and sulfate conjugates of these

metabolites are excreted in the bile and urine. Glutathione conjugates are further metabolized to mercapturic acids

in the kidney and are excreted in the urine as free hydroxylated metabolites conjugated to glucuronic acid and

sulfate Toxicity may vary due to differences in structure and is also dependent on the biological effective dose, or

the amount of toxins that actually reaches the cells or target sites where interaction and adverse effects occur. To

humans, the main health effect of concern is carcinogenic, but are have a low degree of acute toxicity. After chronic

exposure, the non-carcinogenic effects are usually pulmonary, gastrointestinal, and renal and many PAHs are slightly

mutagenic with some of the metabolites or derivatives being mutagens for certain PAHs. (ATSDR 2009)

In regards toxicity due to exposure, as noted by researchers on their research on seafood safety after an oil spill that

there are hundreds of different PAHs, but, the composition of PAHs from combustion is noticeably different from

that of PAHs produced by diagenetic processes (PAHs found in crude oil, coal, or shale, for example). PAHs

produced by combustion are primarily compounds with unsubstituted aromatic rings; these PAHs are often called

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parent PAH structures. PAH compounds produced by petroleum have alkyl group substitutions on the various parent

ring structures. A small fraction of the PAHs found in petrogenic sources include unsubstituted or parent compounds.

Therefore, analytical data that include information on alkyl substitution makes it relatively easy to determine

whether the PAHs in an environmental sample are from pyrogenic or petrogenic sources, or are a mixture of both. (J.

Wickliffe et al. 2014)

In addition to the toxicity of PAHs and how each PAH differs in the level toxicity due to varying chemical

structures, the toxicity of Corexit 9500A, the chemical dispersant used during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill was

studied in a master's thesis submitted by Mengyuan Zheng from Auburn University. The study attempted to quantify

the in vitro by using cell lines from different tissues and provides data regarding the toxicity mechanisms of Corexit

9500A. It was hypothesized that Corexit 9500A in regards to cytotoxicity involves apoptosis, necrosis, oxidative

stress, and mitochondria dysfunctions. Based on literature review, limited studies were done on the toxicity of

Corexit 9500A, but it was discovered that the dispersant doesn't cause endocrine disruption. Due to inhalation by

workers on site during the cleanup of the oil spill, in a study using rats by the National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health (NIOSH), that focused on research of the acute pulmonary, brain, and skin response of the

dispersant, inhaled Corexit might spread throughout the brain through the olfactory system and influence the central

nervous system (CNS). A study was conducted on the potential neurological risk of Corexit using male rats and the

study showed that by the seventh day partial loss of olfactory marker proteins in the brain, decreased tyrosine

hydroxylase protein in the striatum, and increased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the hippocampus

and cortex suggesting imbalances in neurotransmitter signaling after acute exposure. (Sriram et al 2011) Corexit can

also enter circulation through the dermal route and affect several organs and cells in the human body.

Mechanistically, Corexit can affect the electron transportation chain and therefore decease Complex-I activity in

cells that lead to mitochondria dysfunction. Antioxidants also respond to the stress caused by the dispersant.

Superoxide dimutase activity increases and hence activates a cells self-protection mechanism and increases catalase

activity. Glutathione has been shown to decrease while reactive oxidation species increases. Therefore, exposure to

Corexit 9500A leads to cell death due to lipid degradation of the cell membrane. Cell death due Corexit 9500A is

proven to be due to apoptosis. (M. Zheng 2013)

III. Evidence of Exposure

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Along with the toxicity of PAHs to humans and its metabolic pathways, there is evidence of possible long

term exposure to seafood and humans. Human exposure can occur even from the production of plasticizers,

pigments, drying agents, and pesticides, but the environment is exposed to only a small amount, but ultimately, can

occur in indoor or outdoor environments and by all routes (inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact), regardless of the

source. PAH formed by burning of fossil fuels, smoke from forest fires, and cigarette smoking are mainly available

for inhalation, but they can also be ingested together with food (e.g., smoked foods, atmospheric deposition on

vegetables, and coal used for cooking) or saliva (smoking). For skin contact, the principal primary sources are

exposure to tar, soot, and organic solvents. (S.S. Franco et al. 2008)

Along with the possible routes of human exposure, a study published on the oil impacts on the coastal

wetlands of the Mississippi River Delta, it is stated the impacts of oil on the ecological structure and function of

wetland ecosystems may alter the resulting benefits to human well-being. (I.A. Mendelssohn et al. 2012) There is

clear, solid evidence that this oil spill showed huge impacts on economic activity and acute toxicity to marine life,

but little evidence is shown about the possible health exposures to the general public from the consumption of

seafood besides people who work in occupations related to the cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill through

exposure routes explained by Sergio Franco in his study of PAH health risk assessments in Brazil.. In a critique

assessment of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who is mainly responsible and determines seafood

safety, the FDA's procedures were evaluated to reflect current safety procedures and vulnerable populations focused

on shellfish consumption and possible cancerous risks. Based on the study, FDA Gulf assessment contained

assumptions that were inconsistent with their own guidelines that were produced by the National Research Council

(NRC), the World Health Organization (WHO), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the

California EPA. The questionable assumptions included high consumer body weight, low estimates of seafood

consumption, failure to include a cancer risk assessment for naphthalene, failure to adjust for early life susceptibility

to PAHs, short exposure duration, and high cancer risks benchmarks. This study proposes that there needs to be

lower benchmark levels that indicate risks for PAH exposure. (M. Rotkin-Ellman et al. 2012) With a huge

environmental disaster such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and

children are shown to be most at risk since it was shown that children and fetuses have greater exposure to

contaminants due to surface area. It is found that by conducting due diligence on FDA's assessments of the exposure

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and health risks of contaminated seafood, more accurate and realistic assessments can be made to determine

exposure risks. It was noted that for non-cancerous health effects, the highest level of PAH exposure is 100,000

times less than the reference dose defined by the EPA. (J.M. Gohlke et al. 2011) Current methods are increasingly

improving to be able to differentiate and distinguish chemical structures among PAHs, but also environmental

media. But the since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, risk assessment is questionable due to sensitivity for individual

PAHs and insufficient literature for many of these compounds. Recently, research scientists funded to conduct

seafood safety assessments have now included an additional 25-50 PAHs, where most are APAHs to better define

pyrogenic and petrogenic origins of the compounds in seafood and in marine organisms. . For human exposure

assessments to PAHs, validation studies highlight urinary 1-hydroxypyrene as a methodology already validated for

monitoring exposure and PAH-DNA adducts in lymphocytes as a marker of effective dose. The most promising

biomarkers still in the validation process include cytogenetic markers of early effect, evaluation of frequency of

chromosomal aberrations, and micronucleus induction. (S.S. Franco et al. 2008)

IV. Evidence for Health Effects

To support the evidence provided by FDA's critique of their assessments, another study was done

specifically on locally caught shrimp consumption of a Vietnamese-American community in southeast Louisiana.

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) stated that the FDA assumed an average consumer

weight of 176 lbs with a daily shrimp/crab consumption of 13 g. that reflects the intake of the 90th percentile of U.S.

seafood eaters. But the problem with the assessment is that it is believed that an important 10% that represents

seafood consumers, the Vietnamese-American community living along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, is left out.

According to Mark Wilson, the study leader who is also an environmental toxicologist at Tulane University

hypothesized, “The Vietnamese-American population in eastern New Orleans, Louisiana, is a worst-case scenario

for risk because they eat more shrimp and weigh less than the average citizen.” But in contrast to Wilson hypothesis,

the studies found that there was no health risks from seafood consumption. According to Gohlke in a research

conducted on a Vietnamese- American community in Louisiana, the amount of PAHs found to in seafood no sign of

serious health risks to humans and that people who are more than likely to gain serious health risks are those who

work in blue-collar occupations like the workers involved in the cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill who

were exposed to PAHs daily. In Mark Wilson's targeted study on the Vietnamese-American community that showed

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there was no health risks to humans from the locally caught shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico, it was decided to use

white tailed shrimp in this study because of a consensus by 50 people in community meetings and six sites were

picked by the local shrimp catchers themselves to conduct this study. To support how this study was conducted the

sites were picked because the shrimp from these areas were consumed by the targeted community. Shrimp samples

were picked and quantitative PAH analysis was done on shrimp abdominal tissues to test for 81 different PAHs using

gas chromatography in selected ion monitoring mode and Vietnamese-Americans working in the shrimping sector

were surveyed via telephone and online surveys created by the Social and Economic Sciences Research Center

(SESRC) at Washington State University. The sampling frames consisted of 375 men and women, even among the

same household. The risk assessments that conducted also analyzed bodyweight, intake rate, and exposure duration.

(M.J. Wilson 2014) In another study on the federal response on seafood safety during the aftermath of the

Deepwater Horizon oil spill that support the findings from the targeted study on the Vietnamese-American

community, 13 PAHs and their alkylated homologs were selected as human health risk indicators by crude oil

residue in seafood with the intention of developing a human health risk assessment. National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used ships and contract vessels to collect seafood via trawls, hand lines, and

long lines. By June 2011, more than 8000 seafood specimens were in federal waters which had been processed and

subjected to sensory testing and chemical analysis. The specimens were brought frozen to NOAA's National

Seafood Inspection Laboratory (NSIL) in Mississippi for processing. When it comes to human health risk concerns,

the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals

determined that the average consumer could eat 63 lbs of peeled shrimp, 5 lbs of oyster meat, or 9 lbs of finfish

everyday for 5 years and have minimal risk of health effects. (G.M. Ylitalo et al. 2012)

Based on the findings from this study that showed no health risk, since the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the

Vietnamese-American community, despite the fact that this community is most likely vulnerable due to lower

bodyweights and higher consumption of shrimp on average, decease their amount of shrimp consumption and like

studies on the critique of the FDA's method of risk assessment, children, pregnant women, and other vulnerable

populations of this community weren't surveyed and analyzed. To help support the fact their maybe possible health

risks from PAH ingestion, a study was done on prenatal exposure and cognitive dysfunction in children. The study is

ongoing on the health effects of prenatal exposure to air pollution on infants and children in Krakow, Poland. The

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strong effect of prenatal PAH exposure is consistent with human studies showing that the fetus and infants in general

are more sensitive to toxicants in the environment than adults. It is also noted that although in this particular study

the had the limitation of a small size sample of children, the study accounted for factors that are known to affect

intellectual development, such as tobacco smoke and breastfeeding. Strength of this study, though not related to the

aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, showed that there is a need for pregnant women to reduce their

exposure to air pollution. (W.A Jedrychowski et al. 2015) In comparison to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, along

with the use of chemical dispersants on the oil in the ocean, oil was burned off as well and may have the possibility

of going toward the general community, but could be applicable to the consumption of seafood when actual studies

in this area aren't found. According to the same study that conducted a critique on the FDA's assessments, they

found that in their revised version of the assessment, 53% of the Gulf's shrimp samples were above the levels of

concern for pregnant women. In the case of past oil spills, such as the Erika and Prestige oil spills, studies in cells

and in laboratory animals suggests that bioaccumulation and biomagnification of crude oil components like PAHs

can occur in seafood. (B.D. Goldstein et al. 2011) In addition to concerns and health risks to pregnant women and

children, a study of human fecal microbiota showed that health risks may arise due to the fact that dispersed oil

exposure in the microbiota increases the amount of E. coli with increased susceptibility to Salmonella enterica

infections.

In the study of human fecal microbiota on dispersed oil, fecal samples were obtained from six healthy

males ranging in ages 50 to 60 years old and where tested immediately after donation and Deepwater Horizon crude

oil and the dispersant used in the spill, Corexit 9500, were obtained from the FDA's Gulf Coast Seafood Laboratory,

Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. The study conducted with the approval of the FDA Research

Involving Human Subjects Committee. The methods used for this study were nucleic acid extraction, DGGE

analysis, quantitative real-time PCR, and pyrosequencing analysis of 16S rRNA genes. The bacteria that were used

for this study were Escherichia coli (E. coli), Bacteroides uniformis, Bifidobacterium adolescentis, uncultured

Faecalibacterium EF402172, and Eubacterium biforme. There were in vitro cultures of feces exposed to oil and the

dispersant and was shown that dispersed oil affected the microbiota more than either oil or dispersant alone. It is

stated that this could be due to the dispersed oil's increased solubility which provides more surface area of

hydrophobic and toxic compounds for microbial contact and studies show that chemical dispersants may increase

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the concentration of PAHs in the water column. Most of the bacterial species were more influenced by the disperant-

oil mixture than with oil alone. To further support the evidence of the effects of the main oil spill contaminants,

PAHs and chemical dispersants, the changes in bacterial populations could change the nutrient compositions that

could affect bacterial groups within the gastrointestinal tract. (J.N. Kim et al. 2012) Although there are compelling

evidence of health effects on humans due to the effects on the microbiota, like with the study of the Vietnamese-

American community on shrimp consumption in Louisiana, there are no adverse health effects on the health of the

general population due to PAH contamination alone. Our microbiota work and live in symbiosis with humans and

anything that has negative effects on our microbiota could have negative effects on our immune system.

V. Conclusion

Although there are may be obvious long term effects for people in occupations who have worked in the

cleanup of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the long term effects are still questionable in regards to contaminated

seafood in relation to human health. It has been shown the chemical dispersant, Corexit 9500A, increases the PAH

concentration in the water. Therefore increasing the likelihood of exposure. To support the research of Zheng on

toxicity pathways of Corexit 9500A, there was a debate on whether the dispersant was effective at doing its job of

dispersing the crude oil in the ocean. Claire Paris, an oceanographer at the University of Miami in Florida concluded

in a paper she coauthored titled, Chemical Engineering Science, the dispersant only reduced the amount by 1% to

3%. In addition, some scientists question whether pumping 2.9 million liters of the chemicals into the deep sea did

any good; even harming marine life in the process. (W. Cornwall 2015) So far, in the case of the study with the

Vietnamese-American population in Louisiana, there was evidence of exposure, but way below the threshold for

actual health risk concerns set by the FDA. A human, like in the case of industrial workers would need to be

chronically exposed to PAHs and the chemical dispersant daily to actually be susceptible to serious health risks such

as carcinogenic effects. The difficulty of this particular topic when it comes to PAHs is that different PAHs have

varying effects to humans which makes it difficult to find any solid evidence of PAHs on the long term effects of the

health of the general population eating seafood coming from the Gulf of Mexico, but several of the PAH compounds

have the ability to cause carcinogenic effects out of all of the PAHs found in crude oil. But despite the lack of

knowledge, a study done on the bioaccumulation of contaminants in diploid and triploid Eastern oysters showed the

promise of being able to detect PAHs short- and long-term for monitoring oil spills within the environment as a good

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bioindicator. (M.S. Miles et al. 2014) Throughout literature review, not many studies have been found on

toxicological and epidemiological effects of contaminated seafood on human health, especially with the long term

effects on pregnant women, infants, and children. Most of the studies found were mainly on marine life and their

interactions with the environment and if there are studies on the effects on the health of the general public, assuming

there is a huge health risk due to the disastrous oil spill on commercial fisheries, studies show there isn't any health

concern, but some researchers, like Miriam Rotkin-Ellman and company with their critique on FDA assessments

believes that they are leaving out vulnerable populations in their assessments and the level of concern is set too high.

Based on literature reviews, if there are no health risk concerns from eating the contaminated seafood after a huge

oil spill, the question that should be asked is, “What future studies are needed to really check and be sure that in the

long term, there aren’t health risks to the general population?” There needs to be more studies, besides the prenatal

study of PAH exposure from air pollution in Poland on pregnant women and infants, specifically on ingesting

contaminated seafood. In relation to the effects of the contaminants found in seafood from the spill, when studying

human fecal microbiota, it is shown that the dispersant-oil mixture had more of an impact on enterobacteria than

with the samples with either dispersant or oil alone. As stated, the many bacteria that comprise the human

microbiota live in symbiosis and makes up 70% of the strength of our immune system. Despite no real evidence that

eating contaminated seafood poses no risk to human health, there also needs to be more studies in this area regarding

long term effects on human health.

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Biography

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Gohlke, J. M., Doke, D., Tipre, M., Leader, M., & Fitzgerald, T. (2011). A review of seafood safety after the Deepwater Horizon blowout. Environmental health perspectives, 119(8), 1062.

Wilson, M. J., Frickel, S., Nguyen, D., Bui, T., Echsner, S., Simon, B. R., ... & Wickliffe, J. K. (2014). A Targeted Health Risk Assessment Following the Deep Water Horizon Oil Spill: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure in Vietnamese-American Shrimp Consumers. Environmental health perspectives.

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Miles, M. S., Malone, R. F., & Supan, J. E. (2014, May). Evaluation of Triploid Oysters as a Tool to assess Short-and Long-term Seafood Contamination of Oil Spill-impacted Areas. In International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2014, No. 1, pp. 1958-1971). American Petroleum Institute.

Ylitalo, G. M., Krahn, M. M., Dickhoff, W. W., Stein, J. E., Walker, C. C., Lassitter, C. L., ... & Dickey, R. W. (2012). Federal seafood safety response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(50), 20274-20279.

Campagna, C., Short, F. T., Polidoro, B. A., McManus, R., Collette, B. B., Pilcher, N. J., ... & Carpenter, K. E. (2011). Gulf of Mexico oil blowout increases risks to globally threatened species. BioScience, 61(5), 393-397.

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