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B. P. Tissot D. H. WeIte
Petroleum Formation and Occurrence Second Revised and Enlarged Edition
With 327 Figures
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Professor BERNARD P. TISSOT Institut Francais du Petrole and Ecole Nationale Superieure du Petrole 4, avenue de Bois-Preau, 92506 Rueil, France
Professor DIETRICH H. WELTE Kernforschungsanlage Jülich GmbH Institut für Erdöl und Organische Geochemie Postfach 1913, 5170 Jülich, FRG and IES Gesellschaft rur Integrierte Explorationssysteme mbH Kartäuserstr. 2, 5170 Jülich, FRG
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data. Tissot, B. P. (Bemard P.), 1931-. Petroleum formation and occurrence. Includes bibliographies and index. 1. Petroleum - Geology. 2. Gas, Natural - Geology. 3. Geochemical prospecting. I. Weite, D. H. (Dietrich H.) 1935-. 11. Title. TN870.5.T53. 1984. 553.2'8. 84-10484.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concemed, specifically those of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage in data banks. Under § 54 ofthe German Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to "Verwertungsgesellschaft Wort", Munich.
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1978 and 1984.
Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1984.
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
Bookbinding: Konrad Triltsch, Graphischer Betrieb, Würzburg 2132/3130-543210
ISBN 978-3-642-87815-2 ISBN 978-3-642-87813-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-87813-8
Foreword
The publication of this book Petroleum Formation and Occurrence by Bernard Tissot and Dietrich Welte will indeed be welcomed by petroleum geologists, petroleum geochemists, teachers and students in these fields, and all others who are interested in the origin and accumulation of hydrocarbons in nature. It is indeed a privilege for us to have the opportunity of sharing with these two eminent scientists the wealth of information they have acquired and developed during long careers devoted to concentrated scholarly study and practical investigation of the nature, origin, and occurrence of petroleum.
Professor Bernard Tissot graduated from the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Mines in 1954 and from the Ecole Nationale Superieure du Petroie in 1955. In 1955 he received a D.E.S. in geology from the University of Grenoble and then began research work on petroleum geology at the Institut Fran~ais du Petroie. He was made head of the Department of Geochemistry in 1965, and since 1970 has also been teaching organic geochemistry at the Ecole Nationale Superieure du Petroie where he became Professor in 1973. Professor Tissot has had a broad and varied background of practical experience. He has been a member of exploration teams in France, New Caledonia, and Sahara. In 1960-1963 he headed a mission of the IFP to the Department of National Development of Australia. Outstanding among his achievements has been the use of the Paris basin as a laboratory in the development of an understanding of the relation between temperature and petroleum genesis. In recent years he has devoted considerable attention to North America and has published studies on the origin of the Athabasca tar sands and the Uinta Basin oil. Together with J. Espitalie he is responsible for the development of new pyrolysis techniques and instrumentation for the identification of petroleum source rocks and their stage of maturation and a mathematical model for the thermal evolution of organic matter in sediments. He is author or co-author of numerous outstanding scientific papers on origin and migration of petroleum published in both French and English in various periodicals and books.
Professor Dietrich Weite received his Ph. D. Degree in 1959 from the University of Würzburg in geology and chemistry. He
VI Foreword
then worked for three years as a research geochemist in the Hague for the Shell International Oil Company on the origin of oil and gas. In 1963 he returned to Würzburg where he established a research laboratory in organic geochemistry. In 1966 he received the President's award from the American Association of Petroleum Geologists for his outstanding paper on Relation between Petroleum and Source Rock. During 1966 he visited various academic and industriallaboratories in the USA and in 1967 took a position as Senior Research Geochemist and toward the end of his stay was given the function of Research Coordinator for Exploration with Chevron Oil Field Research Company. While being with Chevron he was working on geological-geochemical research projects in California, the Gulf Coast, and other areas in America. In 1970-1972 he taught at the U niversity of Göttingen and since 1972 has been Professor of Geology, Geochemistry, and Oil and Coal Deposits at the Institute of Technology at Aachen. During his scientific career Professor Welte has made numerous outstanding contributions to the knowledge of the geochemistry of petroleum, published in German and in English in various periodicals and books, in addition to numerous private reports resulting from his oil company connections. Most recently Professor Welte accepted the post of Director of the newly founded Institute for Petroleum and Organic Geochemistry at the Nuclear Research Center Jülich, although he will continue some teaching in Aachen.
Although resident in Europe and presently working in European institutions, Professors Tissot and Welte have both been frequent sojourners in America and have long participated actively in meetings of American geochemists and geologists. Both have worked extensivelyon problems of petroleum genesis in America and have published a number of papers in the Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Many readers will recall the outstanding conferences on the Geology of Fluids and Organic Matter in Sediments in Banff, Alberta in May 1973 at wh ich for several days the authors presented specific topics in this subject area and fielded questions and comments from a picked audience of petroleum geologists. Both Tissot and Weite have participated and aided greatly in work on the hydrocarbons of cores from the Joides Deep Sea Drilling Project, and are members of the Joides Panel on Organic Geochemistry.
The origin of petroleum has challenged scientists as far back as the 17th century when it was supposed by many to be associated with the mysterious "phlogiston". From being simply a matter of scientific curiosity it became, with the development of the petroleum industry, a subject of vital practical importance, knowledge of which has often meant the difference between success and failure in exploration for petroleum. Much progress
Foreword VII
has been made by the combined efforts of geologists, geochemists, and geophysicists, but the subject is still a dynamic one with many baffling unknowns and uncertainties. Perhaps even more filled with uncertainties and unknowns at the present day, and clearly just as critically important to practical oil exploration, is the manner of migration and accumulation of petroleum.
Tissot and Weite approach their subject not only as geochemists but also well-armed with geological knowledge. The book starts (Part I) with the production and accumulation of organic matter - the basic feed stock for petroleum. Then follows the very critical Part II on the transformation of this organic matter to kerogen and then to oil, or gas. Important aspects of the formation of coal and oil shales are also treated. Part III deals with the formation of oil and gas pools and the knotty problem of migration of petroleum from source to reservoir. Part IV is concerned with the composition and classification of petroleum, "geochemical fossils", and the relation between character of petroleum and geological environment and sub se quent alteration of oil in the reservoir. Finally, Part V covers the practical identification and evaluation of source rocks, the correlation between oils and between oils and source rocks, and an evaluation of the practical uses of geochemistry in petroleum exploration.
The Tissot-Welte volume is a clear, practical, readable account, by two of the world's leading researchers in the field, of the formation, migration and accumulation of petroleum, primarily from the geochemical viewpoint, but adequately seasoned with geology. The text is further clarified by a wealth of tables and figures and is amine of reference information. The topics are developed in a logical and reasonable way with full credit for other and sometimes divergent views. One of the many merits of the Tissot-Welte book is its open-minded approach to problems and its avoidance of a dogmatic attitude - the true measure of a really deep knowledge of a subject. A particularly strong point is the attention wh ich the book gives to practical procedures and to the complex instrumentation required in modern petroleum geochemical investigations, as weil as to the more theoretical aspects of the subject
The book will fill a very much needed place both as an advanced classroom text, and as a guide and reference work on the subject, which should be in the hands of all practicing petroleum geologists and geochemists. These will undoubtedly emerge as better oil finders for the reading of this volume.
ROLLIS D. RED BERG
Professor of Geology (Emeritus) Princeton University, 1978
Preface to the Second Edition
The first edition of Petroleum Formation and Occurrence was published about 6 years ago. In the Preface, we expressed the hope that this book may help to promote the integration of organic geochemistry into the geosciences and improve communication between geologists and more chemically oriented researchers involved in practical petroleum exploration. We believe we have indeed contributed toward attaining those goals. Furthermore, we are very pleased to see both how rapidly this field of petroleum sciences is growing and to note its influence on geosciences in general. It has become necessary to expand the scope of the book in order to include important new topics, such as biological markers, gas generation, heavy oils and tar sands, migration and modeling, particularly geological and geochemical modeling with high speed computers. It is evident that computer modeling is here to stay, and may very weil revolutionize the field. The computer can be used as an experimental tool to test geological ideas and hypotheses whenever it is possible to provide adequate software for normally very complicated geological processes. The enormous advantages offered by computer simulation of geological processes are that no physical or physico-chemical principles are viola ted and that for the first time the geological time factor, always measured in millions ofyears rather than in decades, can be handled with high speed computers with large memories. Thus, the age of true quantification in the geosciences has arrived. We believe that this computer-aided, quantitative approach will have an economic and intellectual impact on the petroleum industry, mainly on exploration. Our concepts of petroleum generation, migration, and accumulation are becoming increasingly quantifiable and hence can be used as predictive tools in the search for oil and gas. This approach helps to cut costs not only in mature exploration areas when looking for "overlooked" petroleum, but also in high-risk frontier areas. The intellectual result could be a better chance for a much-needed synthesis of the principal fields in geosciences such as geology, geophysics, and geochemistry. With this second edition of our book, we ho pe to contribute both to scientifically more advanced and hence risk-diminishing exploration strategies, and also to the growing demand for a synergetic view of the geosciences.
x Preface to the Second Edition
We have not only updated the previous text, but have added completely new chapters on gas, heavy oils and tar sands, distribution of world petroleum reserves, case his tori es on habitat of petroleum, and geological and geochemical modeling. Other chapters or sections have been enlarged and rearranged, such as those on geochemical fossils (biological markers), primary migration, asphaltenes and resins, coal as a possible source rock, new techniques of source rock characterization, and oil-source rock correlations. We have also included more than 270 new references, added 84 new illustrations, and modified others. The index has been considerably improved and enlarged.
Both of us are indebted to co-workers and colleagues in our organizations, the Institut Fran<;ais du Petrole (IFP), Rueil Malmais on , and the Kernforschungsanlage-Jülich (KFA). Special thanks for scientific advice and critical comments go to P. Albrecht, B. Durand, D. Leythaeuser, R. Pelet, M. Radke and J. Rullkötter. One of us (D:H. W) wants to acknowledge the very fruitful cooperation with scientists from the Shengli Oil Field Research Institute in the People's Republic of China. We are both thankful that permission was granted by the Shengli Oil Field Research Institute to publish information on the common work about the Linyi Basin in NE China.
The great help we received from Mrs. R. Didelez (IES), Mrs. B. Hartung (KFA) and Mrs. G. Tramblay (IFP) for organization, coordination and editing of the manuscript of the second edition of our book is also very thankfully acknowledged. Finally, we want to thank our wives again for their patience with us during our work on the second edition of our book.
July, 1984 B.P. TISSOT
D.H. WELTE
Preface to the First Edition
The subject treated in this book Petroleum Formation and Occurrence is truly interdisciplinary. It has its roots in such diverse fields of science as biology, oceanography, and, most important, in various branches of chemistry and geology. Those concerned either in academic or industrial work, with research, or practical problems associated with petroleum, have long recognized this fact. A steadily increasing number of these people is looking for a comprehensive source of information on the various aspects of petroleum exploration.
For a number of years we had been giving seminars in different countries on the origin, migration and accumulation of petroleum. It was from these seminars that the idea to write a book was born. After discussing this matter, it was clear that such a book should not be written by many authors, who might each be expert in a particular field, but that it should be written just by the two of us as generalists, even if it meant an enormous amount of work. In this way we had hoped the book would be easier to read, and that the many facets of this difficult subject could be better understood.
It is our wish that people in the academic world, advanced students in geosciences and chemistry or other branches of science, would benefit from this book. The book may also help to integrate organic geochemistry more into the geosciences than has been the case up to now. Most of all, however, we hope that this book is of use for those working in petroleum exploration and fields related to it. For a long time there has been a lack of communication between geologists active in practical exploration, and researchers more involved in chemicaBy oriented laboratory work: we hope to have bridged that gap.
Through our book we want to demonstrate that the search for petroleum can benefit greatly from the integration and application of the principles of petroleum generation and migration. For many years the decision to drill a weB was largely taken on the basis of the recognition of suitable structures. Then the selection of a structure was based mainly on intuition and general experience, because very little information was available whether or not a trap would contain hydrocarbons. A systematic utilization of the new
XII Preface to the First Edition
comprehensive understanding of petroleum formation and occurrence, as presented in this book, can improve the success rate in predicting petroleum-filled structures and hence decrease the financial risk of drilling. To follow this concept requires that in the future petroleum geologists must acquire some knowledge of petroleum geochemistry. To this end the teaching of organic geochemistry has to be developed. We hope that this book can serve as a basic text for the petroleum geochemistry covered in such a course.
The completion of the book would have been impossible without the help of our co-workers, colleagues and friends, especially in our organizations at the Institut Frant;ais du Petrole (IFP) , Rueil-Malmaison, the Kernforschungsanlage-Jülich (KFA) and the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH). We are highly indebted to P. Albrecht, Ch. Cornford, W. Dow, B. Durand, G. Eglinton, A. Hood, R. Pelet, J. Williams and M. A. Yükler, who critically read and reviewed parts of the manuscript. We thank Mrs. R. Didelez for her indefatigable assistance du ring preparation and organization of the final manuscript. Last but not least we want to thank our wives for their patience with us while working on the book.
Finally special thanks go to H. D. Hedberg, who read all the text, gave very valuable advice, and encouraged us throughout the work.
April,1978 B. P. TISSOT
D. H. WELTE
Contents
Part I Production and Accumulation oi Organic Matter: A Geological Perspective
Chapter I Production and Accumulation of Organic Matter: The Organic Carbon Cycle . . . 3
1.1 Photosynthesis - The Basis for Mass Production of Organic Matter ................. 3
1.2 The Organic Carbon Budget During the History of the Earth .................... 7
1.3 The Organic Carbon Budget in the Black Sea 11 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 2 Evolution of the Biosphere
2.1 Phytoplankton and Bacteria . . . 2.2 Higher Plants ......... . 2.3 Geological History of the Biosphere
Summary and Conclusion . . . . .
Chapter 3 Biological Productivity of Modern Aquatic
14
14 17 19 20
Environments . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1 Primary Producers of Organic Matter . . 3.2 Factors InfIuencing Primary Productivity 3.3 Present Primary Production of the Oceans
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . .
Chapter 4 Chemical Composition of the Biomass: Bacteria, Phytoplankton, Zooplankton,
21 23 28 30
Higher Plants . . . . 31
4.1 Proteins and Carbohydrates 31 4.2 Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . 34 4.3 Lignin and Tannin . . . . . 44 4.4 Qualitative and Quantitative Occurrence of
Important Chemical Constituents in Bacteria, Phytoplankton, Zooplankton and Higher Plants 45
XIV Contents
4.5 Natural Associations and Their Effects on Biomass Composition . . . . . . . 50 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Chapter 5 Sedimentary Processes and the Accumulation of Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.1 Fossil and Modern Sediments Rieh in Organic Matter, and Their Geological Implieation ....... 55
5.2 The Role ofDissolved and Particulate Organie Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 Accumulation Mechanisms for Sedimentary Organic Matter. . . . . . . . . . 59 Summary and Conclusion 61
References to Part I . . . . . . 63
Part 1I The Fate 01 Drganic Matter in Sedimentary Basins: Generation 01 DU and Gas
Chapter 1 Diagenesis, Catagenesis and Metagenesis of Organic Matter 69
1.1 Diagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Catagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Metagenesis and Metamorphism .
Summary and Conclusion . . . .
Chapter 2 Early Transformation of Organic Matter: The Diagenetic Pathway from Organisms to
69 71 72 73
Geochemical Fossils and Kerogen . . . . . 74
2.1 Significance and Main Steps of Early Transformations . . . . . 74
2.2 Biochemical Degradation 75 2.3 Polycondensation . . . . 81 2.4 Insolubilization .. . . . 85 2.5 Isotopic Composition of Organic Matter in Young
Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.6 Result and Balance of Diagenesis 90
Summary and Conclusion . . . . 92
Chapter 3 Geochemical Fossils and Their Significance in Petroleum Formation . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.1 Diagenesis Versus Catagenesis: Two Different Sources ofHydrocarbons in the Subsurface 93
Contents
3.2 Hydrocarbons Inherited from Living Organisms, Directly or Through an Early Diagenesis:
xv
Geochemical Fossils (Biological Markers) 98 3.3 n-Alkanes and n-Fatty Acids . 100 3.4 Iso- and Anteiso-Alkanes 110 3.5 Cw-branched Alkanes 110 3.6 AcyclicIsoprenoids . . . 111 3.7 TricyclicDiterpenoids.. 116 3.8 Steroids and Pentacyclic Triterpenoids: Occurrence in
Recent and Ancient Sediments. . . . . . . . . . .. 117 3.9 Fate of Steroids and Triterpenoids During Diagenesis
and Catagenesis . . 121 3.10 OtherPolyterpenes . . . . . . . 126 3.11 Aromatics . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.12 Oxygen and Nitrogen Compounds 127 3.13 Kerogen, the Polar Fraction of Sediments, and
Asphaltenes of Crude Oils as Possible Sources of Fossil Molecules . . . . . 129 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Chapter 4 Kerogen: Composition and Classification 131
4.1 Definition and Importance ofKerogen . 131 4.2 Isolation of Kerogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 4.3 Microscopic Constituents of Kerogen ..... 133 4.4 Chemical and Physical Determination of Kerogen
Structure 139 4.5 Chemical Analysis . . . . . . 140 4.6 Physical Analysis ...... 142 4.7 General Structure of Kerogen 147 4.8 Depositional Environment and Composition of
Kerogen: the Evolution Paths 151 4.9 Conclusion ....... 159
Summary and Conclusion . . 159
Chapter 5 From Kerogen to Petroleum. . . . . . . . .. 160
5.1 Diagenesis, Catagenesis and Metagenesis of Kerogen
5.2 Experimental Simulation ofKerogen Evolution . 5.3 Structural Evolution of Kerogen . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Formation of Hydrocarbons During Catagenesis . 5.5 Isotope Fractionation and Kerogen Evolution .. 5.6 Experimental Generation of Hydrocarbons from
Organic Material Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . .
160 169 174 176 189
192 198
XVI Contents
Chapter 6 Formation of Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.1 Constituents and Characterization ofPetroleum Gas. 199 6.2 Gas Generated During Diagenesis of Organic Matter 201 6.3 Gas Generated During Catagenesis and Metagenesis
of Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204 6.4 Gas Originating from 1norganic Sources . . . . . .. 207 6.5 Occurrence and Composition of Gas in Sedimentary
Basins: Example ofWestern Europe . . . . 208 6.6 Distribution of Gases in Sedimentary Basins . 213
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . 214
Chapter 7 Formation of Petroleum in Relation to Geological Processes. Timing of Oil and Gas Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.1 General Scheme of Petroleum Formation . . . . .. 215 7.2 Genetic Potential and Transformation Ratio . . . .. 218 7.3 Nature of the Organic Matter. Gas Provinces Versus
Oil Provinces .......... 219 7.4 Temperature, Time and Pressure ........ 222 7.5 Timing of Oil and Gas Generation . . . . . . . . 223 7.6 Comparison Between the Time of Source Rock
Deposition and the Time of Petroleum Generation . 225 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . 228
Chapter 8 Coal and 1ts Relation to Oil and Gas .
8.1 General Aspects of Coal Formation 8.2 The Formation of Peat 8.3 Coalification Process 8.4 Coal Petrography . . 8.5 Petroleum Generation
Summary and Conclusion
Chapter 9 Oil Shales: A Kerogen-Rich Sediment with
229
229 230 234 241 245 253
Potential Economic Value. . . . . . . . .. 254
9.1 Historical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254 9.2 Definition of Oil Shales. Oil Shale Versus Petroleum
Source Rock . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Composition of Organic Matter 9.4 Conditions of Deposition 9.5 Oil Shale Density ...... . 9.6 Pyrolysis of Oil Shales .... . 9.7 Oil Yield; Composition of Shale Oil 9.8 Oil Shale Distributions and Reserves .
Summary and Conclusion
References to Part II . . . . . .
254 256 258 259 259 260 261 266
267
Contents
Part /11 The Migration and Accumulation 0/ OU and Gas
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Migration and Accumulation of Oil and Gas
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2 Physicochemical Aspects of Primary Migration .....
2.1 Temperature and Pressure 2.2 Compaction....... 2.3 Fluids ......... . 2.4 Possible Modes ofPrimary Migration
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . .
Chapter 3 Geological and Geochemical Aspects of
XVII
293
295
296
296 301 307 309 323
Primary Migration ........... 325
3.1 Time and Depth ofPrimary Migration . . . . . 325 3.2 Changes in Composition of Source Rock Bitumen
Versus Crude Oil .................. 330 3.3 Evaluation of Geological and Geochemical Aspects of
Primary Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 3.4 Conclusions and Suggestions on Primary Migration 338
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Chapter 4 Secondary Migration and Accumulation 341
4.1 The Buoyant Rise of Oil and Gas Versus Capillary Pressures .................. 342
4.2 Hydrodynamics and Secondary Migration . . 344 4.3 Geological and Geochemical Implications of
Secondary Migration .......... 347 4.4 Termination of Secondary Migration and
Accumulation of Oil and Gas 351 4.5 Distances of Secondary Migration 354
Summary and Conclusion . . . . 356
Chapter 5 Reservoir Rocks and Traps, the Sites of Oil and Gas Pools 357
5.1 ReservoirRocks . . . . . 358 5.2 Traps .......... 360
Summary and Conclusion 365
References to Part III ..... 366
XVIII Contents
Part IV The Composition and Classification of Crude Oils and the Influence of Geological Factors
Chapter 1 Composition of Crude Oils .... 375
1.1 Petroleum Versus Source Rock Bitumen . 375 1.2 Analytical Procedures for Crude Oil
Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 1.3 Main Groups of Compounds in Crude Oils 379 1.4 Principal Types of H ydrocarbons in Crude Oils 382 1.5 Sulfur Compounds . . 398 1.6 Nitrogen Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 1. 7 Oxygen Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 1.8 High Molecular Weight N, S ,0 Compounds: Resins
and Asphaltenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 403 1.9 Organometallic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . .. 408 1.10 Covariance Analysis of Main Crude Oil Constituents 411
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 414
Chapter 2 Classification of Crude Oils 415
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 2.2 Historical . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 2.3 Basis ofProposed Classification of Crude Oils 416 2.4 Classification of Crude Oils ......... 417 2.5 Chäracteristics ofthe Principal Classes of Crude Oils. 419 2.6 Concluding Remarks 422
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 423
Chapter 3 Geochemical Fossils in Crude Oils and Sediments as Indicators of Depositional Environment and Geological History . . 424
3.1 SignificanceofFossilMolecules . . . . . . . . 424 3.2 Geochemical Fossils as Indicators of Geological
Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 3.3 Geochemical Fossils as Indicators of Early
Diagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 3.4 Geochemical Fossils as Indicators of Thermal
Maturation .................. 433 3.5 Present and Future Development in the Use of
Geochemical Fossils . . . 436 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Contents XIX
Chapter 4 Geological Control of Petroleum Type 439
4.1 General and Geochemical Regularities of Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
4.2 Geochemical Regularities Related to the Environment of Deposition . . . . . . . 440
4.3 Geochemical Regularities in Relation to Thermal Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
4.4 Concluding Remarks on Cmde Oil Regularities 457 Summary and Conclusion . 457
Chapter 5 Petroleum Alteration
5.1 Thermal Alteration ... . 5.2 Deasphalting ...... . 5.3 Biodegradation and Water Washing
Summary and Conclusion . . .
Chapter 6 Heavy Oils and Tar Sands
6.1 Definitions ........ . 6.2 Composition of Heavy Oils 6.3 Specific Gravity and Viscosity 6.4 Origin and Occurrence of Heavy Oils 6.5 World Reserves and Geological Setting 6.6 ValorizationofHeavyOils.
Summary and Conclusion
References . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part V Gi! and Gas Exploration: Application o[ the Principles o[ Petroleum Generation and Migration
459
460 461 463 469
470
470 472 475 477 480 482 483
484
Chapter 1 Identification of Source Rocks 495
1.1 Amount of Organic Matter 495 1.2 Type of Organic Matter . . . . . . . 497 1.3 Maturation ofthe Organic Matter . . 515 1.4 Conclusions on Characterization of Potential Source
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . 540 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . 546
Chapter 2 Oil and Source Rock Correlation 548
2.1 Correlation Parameters . . . . . . . . 549 2.2 Oil-Oil Correlation Examples . . . . . 551 2.3 Oil-Source Rock Correlation Examples 561
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . 570
xx Contents
Chapter 3 Locating Petroleum Prospects: Application of Principle of Petroleum Generation and Migration - Geological Modeling . . . . .. 571
3.1 Acquisition ofthe Geochemical Information . . .. 573 3.2 First Conceptual Model of Petroleum Generation in a
Basin ................... 575 3.3 Numerical Simulation of the Evolution of a
Sedimentary Basin - Geological Modeling 576 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . 581
Chapter 4 Geochemical Modeling: A Quantitative Approach to the Evaluation of Oil and Gas Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 583
4.1 Necessity of a Quantitative Approach to Petroleum Potential of Sedimentary Basins . . . . . . . . . .. 583
4.2 Mathematical Model of Kerogen Degradation and Hydrocarbon Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 585
4.3 Genetic Potential of Source Rocks. Transformation Ratio ........................ 589
4.4 Validity ofthe Model ................ 590 4.5 Significance of the Activation Energies in Relation to
the Type of Organic Matter ............. 590 4.6 Application of the Mathematical Model to Petroleum
Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 593 4.7 Reconstruction of the Ancient Geothermal Gradient 596 4.8 Migration Modeling . . . 604 4.9 COl1clusion ....... 607
Summary and Conclusion 608
Chapter 5 HabitatofPetroleum . . . . . . . . . . . 610
5.1 Habitat of Petroleum in the Arabian Carbonate Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
5.2 Habitat of Petroleum in Young Delta Areas . . . 615 5.3 The Linyi Basin in the People's Republic of China 624 5.4 Habitat of Gas in the Deep Basin ofWestern Canada. 628
Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 639
Chapter 6 The Distribution of World Oil and Gas Reserves and Geological - Geochemical Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
6.1 Introduction ............... . 6.2 Geological Setting of Oil and Gas Reserves 6.3 Age Distribution of Petroleum Reserves . .
641 642 648
Contents XXI
6.4 Significance of the Age and Geotectonic Distribution of Petroleum and Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 650
6.5 Richness of Sedimentary Basins. Role of Giant Fields and Giant Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
6.6 Ultimate World Oil and Gas Resources ..... 660 6.7 Paleogeography as a Clue to Future Oil and Gas
Provinces ........ 662 Summary and Conc1usion 666
References to Part V . . . . . . 667
Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 679
