PESTICIDES IN TRADITIONAL FARMING SYSTEMS IN WEST AFRICA!,'

O. Youm", F. E. Gilstrap, and G. L. Teetes Department of Entomology

Texas Agricultural Experiment Bunion Texas A & M University

College Station. TX 7i843-2475

ABSTRACT

The growing problem of pesticide misuse in developing countries has prompted great concern among scientists nnd scholars (\Veir and Schapiro 1981, Bull 1982, Anomymous 1985. AGRrPROMO 1986, Atteh 1987). In developing countries in West Africa where traditional agriculture is widely practiced, pesticides arc serious potential health hazards because of illegal marketing of pesticides, low literacy rales and poor user undersUlnding of pesticide dangers. This paper examines the nwareness of pesticide hazards, the need for additional pesticide regulations at national Ilnd international levels, the need to regulate sales and importation/exportation of pesticides, and lhe potcntifll dangers of changing diversified tmdil.ional agricult.ural practices t.o pesticide dependency.

Key Words: West Africa, pesticides, pesticide regulation. pesticide misuse. traditional farming systems, integrated I)est management.

J. Agric. Entomol. 7(3): 171-181 (July 1990)

Traditional West African agriculture is characterized by small farms, mixed crops and hetel'ogeneous crop germpiasill. The small farm in tropical Africa varies in size from 0.001 to 0.45 ha where a variety of leafy vegetables and food crops such as maize, sorghum, cassavu, cowpens and potatoes are cultivated in traditional mixed- or inter-cropping systems combined with shifting cultivation (Yolldeowei 1987), Unfavorable environmental conditions such as insufficient or irregular rainfall and poor or eroded soils make malUlgement of available small farm resources more difficult. Despite such limitations, traditional farming is widely practiced in developing countries in West Africa, and these diverse and often complex systems are managed by sustained practices. About two decades ago, it was estimated that one-half of the world population living on 40% of land area was engaged in subsistence Calming and traditional agricultural practices ('Vellhausen 1970). Traditional methods of crop production are practiced by small~scale farmers throughout Africa and at least 80% of food consumed in West Africa is produced by peasant farmers (Youdeowei 1987).

Received for publication 5 April 1989: llccepted 16 September 1989. Presented in tIll: Infonnal Conference, "Use and MiSuse of Pest.icides in Developing Counlric$." lit. the Entomological Society of AmenclI Annual Conference lind Exhibilion, Louisville, KY, Dccember 1988. Current address: Intemational Crops Hesearch In!ltitute for the Semi·Arid Tropics (ICRISAl1. Sahalian Cenler, l!. P. 12'1().1, Xiamey. :-.Iiger.

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172 J. Agric. Entomol. Vol. 7, No.3 (1990)

Increasing population pressme and widespead food deficits in tropical developing countries have compelled national programs and international donors to place high priority on improving the agricultural productivity and the economic well-being of the small farmer (Matteson et al. 1984). Developing countries import pesticides, fertilizers, farm machinery, and improved varieties of crops because of the need for increased food production; however, pesticides are often used on cash crops before they are used on food crops. Efforts to increase food production in Africa previously emphasized developing technology for large~scale falming, and it omitted socioeconomic systems in rural communities. Traditional multiple cropping systems were thought to be less productive than large~scale monoculture. However, multiple cropping is a vital factol' in the food supply in Africa and contributes to increased agricultural production (Youtl~owei 1987).

Certainly, there are benefits associated with the use of pesticides, especially in the public sector (Schaefers 1990). Contribution to malaria control has been pesticides' greatest achievement. From 1955 to 1970, two billion cases of malaria have been prevented and fifteen million lives saved; however, numerous problems and setbacks such as resistance to insecticides by mosquitoes have resulted from pesticide use (Bull 1982). Widespread use of pesticides in developed and developing countries has contributed to increased crop yields and improved human health. However, avoiding unnecessary use of pesticides "is just as impOitant in protecting people and the environment as any form of regulating pesticides" (Tait and Napompeth 1987). Despite the fact that millions of people throughout the world have benefited from the increased food and economic benefits resulting from the introduction of modern agricultural technology, traditional agricultural systems sustained over centuries with low but stable food production can be seriously "jeopardized by untested and carelessly introduced modern inputs" (Glass and Thurston 1978). Fwthel1nore, a "change from traditional agriculture which provides food for half of the world population to a more modern agriculture should not and perhaps cannot be based on the intensive use of agricultural chemicals" (Glass and Thurston 1978). Experience in the USA, Great Britain, and other developed countries where pesticide overuse has been documented should alert developing countries to the hazards of pest.icide misuse (Atteh 1987).

NEED FOR PESTICIDES IN TRADITIONAL FARMING SYSTEMS

Crop production in West Africa's traditional farming system is faced with constraints such as availability of water und soil fertility. Furthermore, poor and nonproductive soils and the high cost of pesticides in developing countries often make pesticide purchase and use of marginal economic benefit. Coarse textured soils containing more than 65% sand and less than 18% clay comprise the major soil type on which subsistence crops such as millet are grown in the Sahelian zone of West Africa (Swindale 1982). Furthermore, low fertility, lack of water and poor physical conditions are important constraints to the use of these soils which are low in organic matters such as nitrogen and phosphorus (Jones and Wild 1975, Ahn 1970). Soils in Sahelian countries such as in Niger are usually comprised of over 92% of sand, and poor fertility of sandy soils in the Sahel is a major constraint (Spencer and Sivakumar 1987). Furthermore, low buffering capacity in these soils makes nitrogen management more difficult (Swindale 1982). In some West African areas, such as in Nioro du Rip in Senegal, annual rainfall has

YOUM ct al: Pesticides in Training Fanning Systems 173

declined since 1945, averaging 916 mm for the period 1945-1967,680 mm for 1968­1982, and 486 mm for 1983-1985 (Bhatnagar 1987). Lack of extension services and trained personnel (Nwanze 1985), lack of poison control centers, and limited currency to purchase and maintain pesticide application equipment reduce the practicality of pesticide use in developing countries in West Africa. Considering crop value, pest control is more expensive to peasant farmers than to high technology agriculture. Small fanners decide to use pesticides based on consideration of the crop, cost of pesticides, availability of watcr, and the nature and extent of crop injury by pests. The economics of pesticides is more easily justified in developing countries on irrigated land producing a high value crop, but is less economical on low value non·irrigated crops such as millet, sorghum, and cassava (Bull 1982). Chemical use by small farmers should be implemented in conjunction with sound pest management practices and only when feasible and cost effective. Pesticides in lraditional farming in West Africa are rarely justified except for emergency conditions such as locust outbreaks. During such emergency conditions, it is more appropriate to "seek remedial measures that cause minimum ecological disruption" (Bottrell 1979). However, this need does not endorse unsupervised, inefficient, and indiscriminate application of pesticides. Small farm production is characterized by limited acreage to grow a staple food crop such as millet, sorghum, or rice. Thus, improving traditional agricultural practices at the small farm level is far more practical than adopting practices which lead to pesticide dependency.

Traditional farming practices. such as multiple or mixed cropping are widely practiced in Africa and are good allernatives to heavy pesticide use. In these farming systems, pesticide applications are either impractical 01' pose problems to farmers. For example, problems associated with insecticide treatment in millet to control stalk borers and the millet head pests are low economic returns, risk of lodging in tall traditional millet varieties, phytotoxicity and pesticide residues remaining in harvested grain (Ndoye and Gahukar 1987). In the Kabba urea of I(wara State in Nigeria, a very small quantity of chemical pesticides is applied in food crops such as yams, cassava, sorghum, maize, beans and okra. This is primarily due to fanners' refusal to have their food crops sprayed with pesticides (Atteh 1984). The practice of mixed or multiple cropping has obvious pest control benefits, in that planting many crops together prevents the build up of a single pest. Mixed cropping has been ranked as one of the most widespread cropping approaches in Africa, and it gives the farmer higher overall yield and greater returns than pure culture cropping (Okigbo 1978). In Nigeria, farmers purposefully replant maize and random clusters of sorghum on the cassava plot until harvest time. This reduces damage to cassava by the voriegated grnsshopper (Atteh 1984). Millet yields me reportedly higher under intercropping than under single crop systems (Spencer and Sivakumar 1987). Millet/sorghum intercrop yield is reportedly as good or better than that from only millet or sorghum crops in the Felingue and Madarounfa areas in Niger (Swinton et al. 1985). Likewise, in Burkina Faso millet/ cowpea yields in intercrops are higher than millet crop yields (Sawadogo and Kabore 1985). In Senegal, cowpea/millet intercropping is beneficial in that it encourages transfer of parasites of Heliothis armigera and Heliocheilus albipunctella (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) between the two crops resulting in the reduction of both pest densities (Bhatnagar 1987). Although pesticide use in traditional cowpea/ millet intercropping reportedly has an adverse impact on parasites and predators;

174 J. Agric. Ent.omol. Vol. 7, No.3 (1990)

since 1985, a dramatic increase in pesticide use in cowpeas to control Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss) has been observed in Senegal (SODEVA 1986, Bhatnagar 1987). In West Africa "insect-susceptible" grain legumes such as cowpeas are often mixed with cereals, cotton, and peppel' (to reduce pest damage), and more resistant groin legumes such as soybeans and groundnuts are grown as monocultures (Kumar 1984). In a given agroecosystem, a p81ticular host can serve as a diversion8ly host to attract 8 pest, thus protecting other more susceptible crops from severe damage (McBeth and Taylor 1944). In Nigeria, unsprayed cowpeas are less subject to insect damage when intel'cropped with sorghum than when grown as a sale crop (Raheja 1977). In okra/cotton intercrop, okra appears to be a more useful diversionary crop for the flea beetle, Podagrica sp., a key pest of cotton in Nigeria (Usenbo 1976). Increasing the diversity of an agroecosystem as means of controlling insect pest populations has been discussed by Smith (1970) and Solomon (1973). Although intercropping is a cultural control based on the principle of diversity, the establish­ment of the right kind of diversity is paramount (Lawani 1982) because diversity "can be harmful in one instance and beneficial in another" (Smith 1970). For instance, in Tanzania and California, cotton intercropped with maize increased Heliothis damage to cotton; however, the same combination helped control Heliothis in Peru (Lawani 1982). Tn Niger, millet/cowpea intercrop is preferred over sale millet or sole cowpea cropping and is recommended in areas where rainfall starts between 20 May and 15 July. But the practice is not beneficial and not recom­mended when rainfall starts after 15 July because sole millet or cowpea yields more than either when in intercrop (Reddy 1988). It is obvious from these examples that traditional farming systems in West Africa are used, viable, and can be improved through research to minimize unnecessary use of pesticides.

STATISTICS ON PESTICIDE IMPORTS AND USE IN WEST AFRICA

Accurate estimates on the totnl amount of pesticide use in West Africa are very difficult to document. In fact, data on pattern and amount of pesticide use in Africa is VClY difficult to obtain and almost impossible to estimate for any single African country due to a lack of detailed lists of imports into these countries. However, pesticide imports and use in Africa are increasing (Abrahamse and Brunt 1984). In \rVest African countries, a dramatic increase in pesticide use is largely due to advertisements suggesting pesticide use will increase crop yields. These advertisements have resulted in the "displacement of traditional" pest control methods in areas such as Nigerin's l{wara State (Atteh 1984, 1987). Weir and Schapiro (1981) concluded that "indiscriminate and widespead promotion of pesticides is especially disastrous in the Third World." Due to massive publicity, most farmers are now convinced that the traditional pest control strategies are ineffective (Atteh 1984). Tn the Kabba area of Kwara State (Nigeria), the number of pesticide users has increased dramatically from 42% in 1971 to 78% in 198] (Atteh 1984). ImPOlts of agrichemicals into Sub-Sahara Africa increased in monetary values from $16.1 million in 1973 to S30A million in 1977 (Abrahamse and Brunt 1984). Importation of pesticides and fertilizers in Gambia increased by 27411~

between 1971 and 1979 (Skaf 1979). In West Afl'ican Sahel countries, where 85 to 95% of the entire population live 011 farm income, pesticides are used more often for cash crops such as cotton, groundnuts, sugarcane, coffee, and bananas than on food crops (Skaf 1979). For example in Senegal in 1981, an estimated $7.2 million

175 YOUr..·1 et al: Pesticides in Training Farming Systems

was spent on pesticides, and cott.on accounted for 48.4 % of the total pesticides used, vegetables L.3%, and sorghum and millcl only 0.27% (Anonymous 1985).

In ]980, the United Kingdom (UK) was among the biggest exporters of pesticides. UK pesticide exports to West African countries (excluding Mali and Guinea-Bissau) in 1980 were nbout 16,462 metric tons (Bull 1982, [Appendix IT, 'fable 21). Nigeria ranked first among West African countries in lerms of quantities of pesticides, having imported about ]5,346 melric tons of pesticides from the UK (Bull 1982), Ghana ranked second with 299.5 metric tons, and Gambia third with 237.6 metric tons. Thus, Nigeria alone accounted for nearly 93% of UK pesticide exports to West African countries. Pesticide UNe on cash crops such as cotton, groundnuts, and rice in \-Vest African Sahel countries is expected to increase at a rat.e of 15% per year through 1990, and demand for pesticides used against cereal pests is expected to increase fivefold by 1990 (Skaf 1979).

Small farmers in Africa will increasingly depend on pesticides alone to control insect pest.s, and without satisfactory understanding of the associated hazards. However, rPM can assist small·scale fanners to produce stable crop yields more cheaply through political, socioeconomic and environmental considerations (Youdeowei and Service 1983). Implementation of integrated pest management (rPM) tactics and collaborating with farmers, such as conducting pest management trials on their fields, can provide farmers with safer and more economical alternatives to pesticide dependency. Understanding and acceptance of [PM is often not easily achieved, especially in farming systems in countries such as Gambia where pesticides are applied in farmers' fields free of charge by mobile crop protection service teams (Sagnia 1983). Thus, educating farmers on patterns of pesticide use and pesticide safcty is essential. Village-based training programs, for example, have been initiated in Gambia since 1980, emphasizing traditional farming systems alrcady in place and discouraging the total reliance on chemical control (Sag-nia 1983). Tn other developing African countries such as Kenya, an increase from 1.5 to 2.5% in pesticide and fertilizer cost and a decline in price of coffee by 30% have added pressure on coffee growers and resulted in changes in pesticide spraying behavior and agronomic practices (Goldman 1987). Fanners have learned to adopt a "basic strat.egy" and spray fungicides when clitical and necessary, for a mean 4.9 times, which is much less than the recommended 9 times based on a calendar schedule (Goldman 1987). Thus, assisting farmers in decision making can help reduce the unnecessary overuse of pesticides and can lead to better pesticide management

PESTICIDE MISUSE AND CONSEQUENCES OF OVERUSE

Majol' causes of pesticide misuse include 1) nonexistent 01' poorly enforced pesticide laws and regulations, 2) poor chemical company participation in educating users, 3) inadequate labeling and documentation on correct usc of pesticides, 4) too few trained technicians or supervisors for pesticide use, 5) lack of appropriate application equipment, 6) illegal pesticide marketing channels, 7) government failure to enforce pesticide laws and create awareness of chemical dangers, and 8) a generally low literacy rate among users. These key elements in pesticide misuse, particularly the last, obviously vary in importance from country to country; however, most are common in \Vest Africa developing countries. Inadequate extension services and limited resources also contribute to the regular and widespread

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incidence of poisoning and misuse of pesticides (Bull 1982). Furthermore, lack of emergency medical centers, protective clothing, and decontamination facilities increase the chances for pesticide poisoning and death. In 1985, thirty people died from pesticide poisoning due to pesticide misuse in a cacao growing area in Ivory Coast (AGRIPROMO 1986). Pesticide·related poisoning deaths are often caused by using pesticide packages or containers after they are emptied of toxicants. In 1983, forty six residents in the JIlorin area of Nigeria were hospitalized as a result of "mistakenly drinking or eating pesticides" (Atteh 1987). Nineteen persons lost their lives in Diohine in the Senegal River Valley after an empty container of ethyl parathion was used to store cooking oil later used to cook food during a traditional family ceremony (Anonymous 1985). Empty pesticide containers are used to store food because of a lack of understanding on dangers of pesticides, poor pesticide labeling, and a low literacy rate. In 1982, the average literacy rate in the Sahelian West Africa was 14.8% (CILSS/CEA 1983). Fanners who use pesticides are often unaware of efficient spraying techniques, and pesticide applications as a result do not provide adequate protection of crop; thus, development of training programs involving rarmers should remedy the problem (Bhatnagar 1987).

Pesticides are abused through bad and dangerous practices. Farmers often substitute one type of pesticide for another, such as substituting a fungicide for an insecticide. Such situations usually occur when pesticides are distributed illegally. In some developing countries, various insecticides for crop and public health pests have been used for "harvesting" fish for human food. In Ghana some fishermen preferred to use lindane (insecticide) than their traditional fishing traps (Bottrell 1983). Pesticide misuse is also a result of chemical companies not translating their product labels into the local language.

Total reliance on the use of insecticides can result in problems such as l'esistance to insecticides, resurgence of target species and secondary outbreaks of non-target species (Stern et a1. 1959). For example, overuse of pesticides in Ghana to control cocoa mirids resulted in the killing numerous non·target beneficial organisms. As a consequence, the shield bug, Batl1ycoelia thalassina (Herrich­Schaeffer), a secondary pest resurged and caused a yield loss of 18% of the cocoa crop in Ghana's Eastern and Brong-Ahafo Regions (Owusu-Manu 1971). Pesticide overuse to control pests in agricultural crops such as cotton, coffee, cacao, groundnuts has resulted in the development of resistance to dieldrin and/or DDT by two mosquito species, Anopheles gambiae Giles and A. rofipes (Gough) in the \Vest African countries of Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Ghana, Mali, Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), Togo, and Senegal (Bull 1982).

Government attitude to pests and pesticides can affect the way pesticides are used, and thus, may also encourage misuse. For example, in Kwara State, Nigeria, the State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (SMANR) obtained agricultural pesticides from pesticide companies (or their local subsidiaries), the Federal Agency (Pest Control Division of Nigeria's Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources /FMANRI), and the Nigerian Commodity Marketing Boards (eMB's) (Atteh 1987). Pesticides purchased by SMANR's are sold to farmers at subsidized prices, often at one-third cost; whereas those donated by FMANR and CMB's are free of charge. Chemical companies advertise, and can directly sell their products to farmers through local retail shops and lobby innuential government officials. Furthermore, Kwara SMANR officials have little control over the kinds of

177 YOUM et al: Pesticides in Training Farming Systems

pesticides received from the FMANR 01' eMB's, have no control over when pesticides can be received and often receive no information concerning toxicity, application procedures, and hazards presented by pesticides (Atteh J987). It is obvious from this policy that chemical companies can easily sell a banned pesticide to farmers, and poor information on pesticides can lead to accidental misuse. Disposal or use of expired pesticides by farmers constitut.es a real problem facing many developing 'Vest African countries. In 1984, over 60% of pesticides purchased in 1982 in Kwara State in :'\ligeria were still in stock due to inadequate budget or low demand from farmers (At.teh J987).

Pesticide misuse in the developing countries is also at.tributed to an "error in transfer of technology," Pesticide technology developed by and for use in the developed countlies was transfen'ed to countries with cultures and social structures that were not prepared to absorb the technology" (Bottrell 1983). Some Third World government practices such as in West Africa encourage pesticide misuse or overuse. Farmers obtain chemicals as a "farm loan package" and have no choice over which pesticides they receive, and often, pesticides are obtained at a nominal subsidized cost (Goodell 1984, Atteh 1987). "Package deals" refers to those programs wherein farmel's are urged or required to buy fixed chemical inputs as part of a credit package and apply them on a lixed schedule basis (Matteson et aJ. 1984). Such practices lead to overuse of pesticides by shifting from the principle of "apply when necessary" to the principle "apply when pesticide is available." Monitoring fields for early warnings of pest attack, distributing free pesticides and spraying of farmers' lields during pest outbreaks are three common services provided to the furmer by Third World governments (Goodell 1984). In Senegal, fanners al'e pl'Ovidcd wit.h subsidized pesticides at 80-90% of original retail price and without considering the indirect environmental and economic impact of such policy. For instnnce, such subsidies encourage fanners to misuse (overuse) pesticides in a way which results in negative effects on programs such as biological contl'Ol in subsistence fanning (Bhatnagar 1987). Free pesticide application in a fanner's field without any basis such us economic thresholds or sampling is likely to create problems such as disruption of the environment, 01' pest/natural enemy unbalance. Such practices also convince the farmer that "chemical control is the only effective way in dealing with their pest problems" (Sagnia 1983). Due to the rising cost of chemicals and application equipments, it is doubtful that fanners in 'West Africa developing countries such as Gambia could adOl}t future pest control practices \\·hich Bl'e heavily pesticide-dependent (Sagnia 1983). The use of simple and more economical methods such as resistant variet.ies, biological control, and improved traditional fanning methods should provide better altel'l1utives to the present trend of pesticide use which will lead to disast.I'ous pesticide dependency. The growing problem of pesticide misuse indicates the urgent need for pest.icide training and regulation.

PESTICIDE USE AND NEED FOR REGULATION

Pesticide regulations are usually more rigidly enforced in developed countries such as the United States than in developing countries in West Africa where many countries cannot adequately regulate the importation, distribution and use of highly toxic pesticides (Schaefers 1979). In fact, many Third World countries simply lack the personnel required to develop and enforce pesticide regulations

178 J. Agric. Entomol. Vol. 7, No.3 (1990)

(Bottrell 1984). Purchase, application, handling, formulation, transpol'tion, and stocking of pesticides are often regulated based on text written during the "colonial era," and often with many inconsistencies (Anonymous 1985). Storage and disposal of pesticides is a crucial issue, since stored pesticides often exceed their expiration dates or the pesticide containers have no label or expiration date (Atteh ]987). West African governments should regularly update existing information pertaining to pesticide laws and regulations 1) to avoid importation of banned pesticides and 2) to reduce health or environmental hazards associated with the use of pesticides.

An estimated 400,000 metric tons of pesticides are used in developing countries, and 53,000 of the 210,000 metric tons produced in the USA (ca. 25%) are pesticides banned, heavily restricted, 01' not registered for use in the USA (Weir and Schapiro 1981). These banned or unapproved pesticides are sent to developing countries such as Nigeria where a majority of users are illiterate and do not understand the hazards of these materials (Atteh 1987).

Registration of agricultural or household pesticides for example is required by law in Senegal where the Governmental Approval Committee the Ministry of Rural Development is responsible for the registration process. Some of the Appl'Oval Committee considerations include level of risk to the consumer, to the user, to the Cl'Op, and to the environment, and include consideration of effectiveness, cost, ease of use, and efficacy under Sahel conditions (Durand 1979). Pesticide laws need to be more rigidly enforced, making education the number one priority. Until users of pesticides know the exact nature of the chemicals they handle, it will be difficult to enforce laws regulating pesticide use.

CONCLUSIONS

Little doubt exists that pesticide use will increase substantially in future years in West Africa. Nonetheless, before importing and using pesticides in West Africa, government agencies, intel118tional agricultural development or assistance institutions, donor countries 01' agencies, and chemical companies should determine the need for pesticides and the resulting socioeconomic and environmental impact upon the region. Pesticide laws are often nonexistent 01' poorly enforced in West Africa. Thus, organizations such as United States Agency for lntemational Development (USAID), United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAD), International Sorghum/Millet Collaborative Research Support Program (INTSORMIL) and many other international institutions must serve as linkages between local govern­ments and institutions abroad, working to promote pesticide safety and regulation in developing countries. Such a net\\'ork is a prerequisite for reducing 01' stopping exports of banned pesticides to developing countries in '"'Vest Afdca.

Safety and education must be encouraged in the use and maintenance of pesticide application equipment. Alternative pest management tools such as cultural control practices, resistant varieties, and biological control should be given serious consideration. Proper labeling will help avoid accidental poisoning of formers through propel' disposal of empty containers (some of which are often used to store food). Selling, purchasing, and distributing pesticides through proper channels is also strongly suggested.

YOUM et Ill: Pesticides ill Trainillg Farming Systems 179

In implementing integrated pest management tactics, existing: fanners' practices should be considered. fntemational organizations such as FAD, USAJD, INTSOR­M1L, the West Africa Rice Development Association ('NARDA), Intemational Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (lCRfSAT), International and Institute of Tropical Agriculture (rITA) and other international regional research organizations in collaboration with national research institutions and programs should play a pivotal role in developing viable integrated pest management schemes adapted to \-Vest African fanning systems. One of the major goals of such projects should be to minimize the health hazards posed by agrichernicals to humans and systems.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Authors wish to thank Dr. Winfield L. Sterling and Mr. Harry Howell for their critical review of this paper, and Dr. Bill Overholt for his useful comments on the subject. Funding for this work was provided by the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, with partial support from USAJD, AlD grant #AID/DSAN/XlJ/G·OI49.

Manuscript submitted as TA-25608 to the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.

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