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Pest Managementfor Small Animals:A Training Manual forCommercial Pesticide Applicatorsand Registered Technicians(Category 7G)

Edward D. WalkerJulie A. Stachecki

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PrefaceThis manual is intended to prepare pesticide

applicators in category 7G, pest management forsmall animals, for certification or registered tech-nician status under the Michigan Pesticide Con-trol Act of 1976, as amended. Read theintroduction to this manual to understand yourresponsibilities for obtaining the appropriate cre-dentials to apply pesticides and how to use thismanual.

ContributorsThis manual, “Pest Management for Small Ani-

mals: A Training Manual for Commercial Pesti-cide Applicators and Registered Technicians,”was produced by Michigan State University, Pes-ticide Education Program in conjunction with theMichigan Department of Agriculture. Principalparticipants in the project represented MSU,MDA and small animal industry professionals:Carolyn Bullock, CMG, Academy of Animal Arts,Dearborn, MIRobert Bullock, CMG, Academy of Animal Arts,Dearborn, MISally Chandler, East Michigan EnvironmentalAction Council, Birmingham, MIGina Davis, Certification Manager, Pesticide andPlant Pest Management Division, MichiganDepartment of Agriculture, Lansing, MIKatherine Fedder, Manager Pesticide Programs,Pesticide and Plant Pest Management Division,Michigan Department of Agriculture, Lansing, MIDr. Nancy Frank, D.V.M., Animal Industry Division, Michigan Department of Agriculture,Lansing, MIMarci Rich, CMG, The Posh Pup, Westland, MIDr Larry Herzog, D.V.M., Grosse Pointe AnimalHospital, Grosse Point Park, MILarry G. Olsen, Pesticide Education Coordinator,Michigan State University, East Lansing, MIDr. Peter A. Prescott, MVMA Executive Director,Okemos, MI Dr. Mary Grace Stobierski, D.V.M., Epidemiolo-gist, Bureau of Infectious Disease Control, Michi-gan Department of Public Health, Lansing, MI.

AcknowledgementsIn addition to the primary contributors, we

would like to express our thanks to the followingpersons for leading the companion animal indus-try toward improved industry cooperation andpractices. It was through their involvement andcoordination with the Michigan Department ofAgriculture that professional responsibilities wereclarified: Ms. Evie Bain, Regency Kennel,Belleville, MI; Ray Bauman, CKO, Carnich Inn,Holland, OH; Ms. Rita J. Biddle, Esq. Owner,Samarland Kennels, DeWitt, MI; Laurie Brush,Dewitt, MI; Ms. Phyllis Duncan, Doggie Designer,Jackson, MI.

The following people are recognized for theirreviews, suggestions and contributions to thismanual: Donn Miller, Veterinary Technology Pro-gram, Michigan State University, East Lansing,MI; Miller Animal Clinic staff, Lansing, MI; BrianRowe, Enforcement Manager, Pesticide and PlantPest Management Division, Michigan Depart-ment of Agriculture, Lansing, MI; Sally Walshaw,M.A., D.V.M., University Laboratory AnimalResources, Michigan State University, East Lans-ing, MI; Leslie Johnson, Michigan State Univer-sity, Outreach Communications; Paul Love,Photographer, St. Johns, MI; Ken Dettmer,Designer, Graphicom, E. Lansing, MI.

With permission, information has been adaptedfrom the Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council(PIJAC) training materials. We greatly appreciatetheir willingness to share information for the bet-terment of the industry to ensure animal well-being and safe practices.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Preface ........................................................................................................................................................................ 2

Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................................... 2

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................. 5

Chapter 1 Pesticide Laws and RegulationsFederal Laws ............................................................................................................................................................... 7Michigan Laws .............................................................................................................................................................9Review Questions ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

Chapter 2 Pests and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Insects ..........................................................................................................................................................................17Mites and Ticks ......................................................................................................................................................... 19Damage Caused by Insects and Insect-like Pests ................................................................................................. 19Integrated Pest Management for Animal Health ................................................................................................. 21Review Questions ..................................................................................................................................................... 27Key to Insects and Mites of Medical and Veterinary Importance....................................................................... 29

Chapter 3 PesticidesPesticide Classifications ........................................................................................................................................... 44Classes of Insecticides/acaricides Used in Animal Pest Management.............................................................. 45 Formulations Used in Managing Small Animal Pests ........................................................................................ 47Methods of Application ........................................................................................................................................... 48Pesticide Use Around Animals ............................................................................................................................... 49Compatibility of Pesticides ..................................................................................................................................... 51Special Concerns Associated with Pesticide Usage ............................................................................................. 51Review Questions ..................................................................................................................................................... 53

Chapter 4 Pesticides and the EnvironmentPesticide Fate ............................................................................................................................................................. 55Groundwater Contamination ................................................................................................................................. 57Effects on Nontarget Organisms ............................................................................................................................. 58Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................................... 60

Chapter 5 Pesticides and Human HealthExposure: How Pesticides Enter the Body ............................................................................................................ 62Toxicity and Potential Health Effects of Pesticides .............................................................................................. 63First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning ............................................................................................................................ 64Safety: Protect Yourself from Pesticides ................................................................................................................ 67Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................................... 71

Chapter 6 Pesticide Handling, Storage and DisposalHandle Pesticides Safely .......................................................................................................................................... 73Store Pesticides Safely .............................................................................................................................................. 74Dispose of Pesticides Safely .................................................................................................................................... 76Transport Pesticides Safely ...................................................................................................................................... 77Pesticide Fire Safety .................................................................................................................................................. 77Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................................... 79

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Chapter 7 The Pesticide LabelParts of the Label ...................................................................................................................................................... 81Additional Pesticide Information - MSDS ............................................................................................................ 85Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................................... 86

Chapter 8 FleasFlea Life Cycle ........................................................................................................................................................... 87Dog and Cat Fleas: Life History ............................................................................................................................. 88Flea Management ...................................................................................................................................................... 88Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................................... 92

Chapter 9 Mites and TicksMites ........................................................................................................................................................................... 93Mite Pests of Animals .............................................................................................................................................. 95Control of Mites on Animals or in Animal Environments ................................................................................. 98Ticks ............................................................................................................................................................................ 99Detection and Identification of Ticks ................................................................................................................... 100Important Ticks Affecting Animal Health .......................................................................................................... 101Management of Ticks on Animals ........................................................................................................................ 102Review Questions .................................................................................................................................................... 103

Chapter 10 Chewing and Sucking LiceLice Life Cycle ......................................................................................................................................................... 105Effects of Lice on Animal Health .......................................................................................................................... 106Lice Management .................................................................................................................................................... 106Review Questions .................................................................................................................................................... 107

Chapter 11 FliesBiting Flies ............................................................................................................................................................... 108Management of Blood-feeding Flies .................................................................................................................... 110Nuisance Flies .......................................................................................................................................................... 110Management of Filth Flies ..................................................................................................................................... 111Review Questions .................................................................................................................................................... 113

Appendix A: Caged Animals .................................................................................................................................. 114

Appendix B: Birds ................................................................................................................................................. 119

Appendix C: Resources ........................................................................................................................................ 124

Answers to Review Questions ............................................................................................................................ 126

Glossary ................................................................................................................................................................... 131

INTRODUCTION

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This manual presents basic pest, pest manage-ment and pesticide handling information for per-sons who apply pesticides on animals or in placeswhere animals are kept — pest management forsmall animals, category 7G.

People use pesticides for many purposes. Pesti-cides protect humans, food and non-food crops,homes, pets and livestock, and keep variousindustrial processes pest free and functioning effi-ciently. To better protect the environment andhuman health by assuring the safe use and appli-cation of pesticides, the Michigan Department ofAgriculture (MDA) administers the certificationand registration program for pesticide applica-tors. Certification or registration requires obtain-ing the necessary knowledge to purchase andsafely use pesticides.

In 1991, Regulation 636 was passed as part ofthe Michigan Pesticide Control Act amendmentsof 1988. This regulation requires persons whoapply pesticides for a commercial purpose or as ascheduled and required work assignment in thecourse of his or her employment to be either certi-fied pesticide applicators or registered techni-cians. Numerous types of businesses, activitiesand individuals are subject to this requirement.The following pest control categories are definedin Regulation 636:

(1A) Field crops(1B) Vegetable crops(1C) Fruit crops(1D) Livestock(2) Forest (2A) Wood preservation(3A) Turfgrass (3B) Ornamental (exterior trees, shrubs and

groundcovers)(4) Seed treatment(5) Aquatic (lakes, ponds, streams, etc.)(5A) Swimming pools(5B) Microbial (cooling towers, air washers,

etc.)(6) Right-of-way(7A) General pest management (pests in, on or

around human dwellings, institutions, food-handling establishments, etc.)

(7B) Wood-destroying organisms

(7C) Contractual public health(7D) Vertebrate (7E) Interiorscape(7F) Mosquito management(7G) Small animals(8) Public health (9) Regulatory (10) Demonstration and research

To become a commercial pesticide applicator incategory 7G, pest management for small animals,an individual must complete an application form,pay the $50 certification fee and pass a writtenmultiple-choice/true-false examination relating tothe information found in this manual. Obtain anapplication form for commercial pesticide applica-tor certification from the nearest MDA office (tele-phone numbers and addresses are listed inAppendix C) or from your county MSU Extensionoffice. When you are prepared to take the exam,call the MDA to reserve a seat at a scheduledexamination time and location. Take your com-pleted application form and check or money orderfor the $50 certification fee to the exam site. Thecertification credentials you receive after passingthe exam are valid for three years.

To become a registered technician in category7G, you must pass an examination that tests yourknowledge of the general, “core” pesticide infor-mation found in this manual, chapters 1-7 only.Follow the same procedures as above for takingthe exam. Next, you must undergo category-spe-cific training. This training must deliver specificinformation to properly prepare you for your jobtasks. The training must be approved by theMDA and administered by an MDA-approvedtrainer. Obtain an application for registered tech-nicians and bring it to the exam site with the $25registration fee. The registered technician creden-tials you earn by passing the exam and goingthrough training are valid for three years. Formore information, refer to Chapter 1: Laws andRegulations, or call your regional MDA office.

This manual is not intended to provide all theinformation necessary for effective pest controlwith pesticides labeled for use on or around ani-mals. Obtain up-to-date information about rec-ommended materials and methods from labels,manufacturers, reference manuals, Extensionspecialists and professional associations. The

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label carries important information about properdilution rates, timing, placement and precau-tions when using pesticides for animal healthreasons. The label is the law. Follow all direc-tions on pesticide labels.

Suggestions for Studying This ManualThis manual is designed to help applicators

meet pesticide certification requirements. Youmay already know some of the material fromyour experience with pesticides. This manual has11 chapters. A list of self-help questions isincluded at the end of each chapter. These ques-tions are to help you study and are not necessar-ily the questions on the certification examination.If you have problems using the manual, pleaseconsult your county Extension agent, your super-visor or a representative of the MDA for help.

1. Find a place and time for study where youwill not be disturbed.

2. Read the entire manual through once tounderstand the scope of the material and the

manner in which it is presented. A glossary at theback of the manual defines some of the termsused in the chapters.

3. Study one chapter of the manual at a time.Consider underlining important points or takewritten notes as you study the chapter.

4. Answer, in writing, the self-help questions atthe end of each chapter. These questions areintended to help you study and evaluate yourknowledge of the subject. They are an importantpart of your study.

5. Reread the entire manual once again whenyou have finished studying all of its sections.Review with care any sections that you feel youdo not fully understand.

This manual is intended to help you use pesti-cides effectively and safely when they are needed.We hope that you review it occasionally to keepthe material fresh in your mind.

CHAPTER 1

PESTICIDE LAWS AND REGULATIONS

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Pesticide use increased from approximately 300million pounds of active ingredient in 1964 toapproximately 1 billion pounds of active ingredi-ent in 1991. Approximately 275 million pounds ofactive pesticide ingredients were used for non-agricultural purposes in 1991. New highly sensi-tive measuring devices are detecting pesticides ingroundwater and other parts of our environment.To protect the environment and human health,federal and state laws regulate the proper, safeuse of pesticides. In this chapter, you will learnabout the state and federal laws that regulate pes-ticide applicators.

FEDERAL LAWSSeveral federal laws regulate pesticide use. Both

state and federal agencies enforce these laws. Thefollowing sections describe requirements of pesti-cide laws and which agency enforces each.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Have a general understanding of the types of

laws and regulations that may affect com-mercial pesticide applicators.

■ Explain the difference between restricted usepesticides and general use pesticides andwho can purchase and use them.

FIFRA The basic federal law regulating pesticides is

the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenti-cide Act (FIFRA), enacted in 1947. This law wasamended in 1972, 1978 and 1988.

FIFRA is administered by the U.S. Environmen-tal Protection Agency (EPA). The MichiganDepartment of Agriculture (MDA) has a coopera-tive agreement with the EPA to enforce the provi-sions of FIFRA in Michigan. The major provisionsof FIFRA are:

■ All pesticides must be registered with theEPA before they can be used or sold.

■ States have the authority to certify applica-tors, register selected pesticides for use inthose states, and initiate programs designedto meet local needs.

■ The EPA has authority to develop rules estab-lishing national standards for safe use, stor-age, transportation and disposal of pesticides.

■ Pesticides must be classified as either “gen-eral use” or “restricted use.”

■ Applicators who violate the provisions ofFIFRA can be served a civil or criminal penalty:

Civil penalties – A private applicator who vio-lates FIFRA after a written warning or other cita-tion for a prior violation may be fined up to$1,000 for each offense. A commercial applicatormay be fined up to $5,000 for each such offense.

■ Know what agencies administer and enforcethe laws and regulations that affect commer-cial pesticide applicators.

■ Determine who needs to be either a certifiedpesticide applicator or registered technician.

■ Be aware of the importance of having up-to-date knowledge about how to comply withall laws and regulations.

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Criminal penalties – An applicator who know-ingly violates FIFRA is guilty of a misdemeanor.A commercial applicator may be fined up to$25,000 and may be imprisoned for up to oneyear. A private applicator may be fined up to$1,000 and imprisoned up to 30 days.

FIFRA defines the term “misuse” as “to use anypesticide in a manner inconsistent with its label-ing.” It specifies that the following activities donot constitute misuse:

■ Using a pesticide for a pest not noted on thelabel if the application is made to the plant,animal or site specified on the label.

■ Any manner of application unless expresslyforbidden by the label.

■ Using a pesticide at dosages less (but notmore) than the labeled dosage or frequency.

These exemptions apply only if the pesticide isotherwise used according to the label. Do not usethese exemptions unless you are certain of theirresults. The exempted uses may not be coveredby the pesticide manufacturer’s warranty.

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACTThe Endangered Species Act became effective in

the early 1990s. The MDA will enforce the pesti-cide-related provisions of the Endangered SpeciesAct. The Act protects endangered species ofplants and animals from pesticides by prohibitingapplication of specific pesticides within endan-gered species habitat ranges. For each pesticideproduct that has an effect on an endangeredspecies, the Act requires that the labeling includea list of states and counties where the productmay affect the endangered species and thenrestricts its application. County maps will beavailable where pesticides are sold or from yourlocal county Extension office to further definehabitat areas. For further information on endan-gered species, call the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-vice, Department of the Interior, at (517) 337-6650.

SARA TITLE IIITitle III of the federal Superfund Amendments

and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) is alsocalled Emergency Planning and CommunityRight-to-Know. This legislation provides a meansto protect people from chemical emergencies byrequiring state and local agencies to gather infor-mation about the quantity and location of haz-ardous chemicals in their community. Dealers,pesticide application businesses, farmers andindustrial facilities requiring pesticide applica-tions are some of the groups that must complywith this law. The law is divided into numeroussections.

Section 302 (facility notification) requires any-one who stores a specified quantity of an EPA-designated “extremely hazardous substance” tonotify proper authorities and provide the name ofthe person responsible for the storage facility.Examples of chemicals on this list include chlo-rine, bromine, formaldehyde and lindane.

Section 304 (emergency notification) requiresthat applicators or businesses report any release(spills, leaks, etc.) of an “extremely hazardoussubstance” above specific reportable quantities.

For more information on SARA Title III and theEPA-designated “extremely hazardous substance”list, call the DNR SARA Title III office (517-373-8481). Two MSU Extension bulletins also explainSARA Title III and how to comply with its require-ments: Extension bulletin E-2173 is for pesticideusers and Bulletin E-2174 is for pesticide dealers.

FEDERAL FOOD, DRUG AND COSMETIC ACTThe EPA sets residue tolerances which are

enforced by the federal Food and Drug Adminis-tration (FDA) under the Federal Food, Drug, andCosmetic Act. The pesticide that stays in or onraw farm products or processed foods is called aresidue. A tolerance is the concentration of a pes-ticide that can legally remain on the produce atharvest. The same pesticide may have a differenttolerance on different products. Residues inprocessed foods are considered to be food addi-tives and are regulated as such.

TRANSPORTATION REGULATIONSShipping of pesticides and other dangerous

substances across state lines is regulated by thefederal Department of Transportation (DOT). TheDOT issues rules for hauling these materials.DOT standards tell you which pesticides are dan-gerous to people and may create a health hazardduring transportation.

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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT(OSHA)

The federal Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) is in the Department ofLabor (DOL). OSHA recordkeeping and reportingrequirements apply to employers with 10 or moreworkers. The records must include all work-related deaths, injuries and illnesses. Minorinjuries needing only first aid treatment need notbe recorded. A record must be made if the injuryinvolves any of the following:

■ Medical treatment■ Loss of consciousness■ Restriction of work or motion■ Transfer to another job.

Regardless of the number of employees you have,if a work-related death occurs or if five or moreemployees are hospitalized, OSHA must be notifiedwithin 48 hours. (Also, see Michigan OccupationalSafety and Health Act in this chapter.)

WORKER PROTECTION STANDARDS (WPS)In October 1992, federal worker protection stan-

dards for agricultural employees were enacted.Requirements include but are not limited to:

■ Establishment of restricted entry intervals■ Posting and notification of treated areas■ Use of protective clothing, safety devices,

hand washing, and other methods of protec-tion and decontamination

■ Notification of poison treatment facilitiesand access to them.

These rules apply to persons involved with theproduction of agricultural plants. The WPS ruledoes not apply to pest management for smallanimals.

MICHIGAN LAWSThe Michigan Pesticide Control Act primarily

regulates pesticides and their use in Michigan.Pesticide applicators must be familiar with thisAct, as well as the other state regulations below.

MICHIGAN PESTICIDE CONTROL ACTTo assure that pesticides are properly registered

and applied, the Michigan Legislature passed thePesticide Control Act of 1976. The Act wasamended in 1988. This legislation gives the directorof the MDA authority to register or certify privateand commercial applicators and to prescribe stan-dards for certification and registration. The MDA

also registers, suspends and cancels pesticide regis-trations; investigates the use and misuse of pesti-cides; enacts rules; licenses restricted use pesticidedealers and firms performing pesticide applicationsfor hire; and issues oral and written orders.

Certification/registration requirements. The Michi-gan Pesticide Control Act, P.A. 171 as Amended,requires any person who applies a pesticideproduct for a commercial purpose, or applies anypesticide in the course of his or her employmentor other business activity for any purpose otherthan a private agricultural purpose, to be either acommercially certified applicator or a registeredtechnician.

Pesticide applicators not required to be licensedby the Act, and who use only general use, ready-to-use pesticide products, are exempt from thecertification and registered technician require-ments. For example, a person who works at ahospital, school, factory, golf course or an apart-ment complex who uses only a general use,ready-to-use product for controlling a pest wouldnot be required to be a certified applicator or aregistered technician. (See page 10 for definitionsof general use and ready-to-use pesticides.)

Two classes of applicators are defined under thelaw: private and commercial. Within each class,applicators may be certified applicators or regis-tered technicians.

1) Private applicators. Persons using or super-vising the use of restricted use pesticides to pro-duce an agricultural commodity on their own ortheir employer ’s land, or on lands rented bythem, are private applicators. “Production of anagricultural commodity” means production forsale into commerce and includes crops, livestock,ornamentals, forest products and other productsregarded as agricultural commodities.

2) Commercial applicators. A commercialapplicator is any person other than private applicators applying pesticides. There are twosubclasses of commercial applicators:

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Subclass A - Any person (including homeowners)who uses or supervises the use ofrestricted use pesticides (RUPs) for anon-agricultural purpose.

Subclass B - Any person who applies pesticidesthat are not ready-to-use in thecourse of his or her employment.

Applicators included in subclass A must be certi-fied as commercial applicators. Those in subclass Bhave the option of becoming certified commercialapplicators or registered technicians. Because pes-ticides are used in a wide variety of operations,commercial applicators are certified or registeredin special commodity or site-specific categories (alist is provided in the introduction of this manual),such as small animal pest management.

To become a commercial applicator in category7G, pest management for small animals, an indi-vidual must complete an application form, paythe $50 fee and pass a written multiple-choiceexamination relating to the information found inthis manual. Application forms can be obtainedfrom the MDA or from MSU Extension offices.Persons should obtain the training manual(s)from the Extension bulletin system. When youfeel you understand the contents of the manual,call the regional MDA office and schedule a timeto take the examination on this material. Takeyour completed application form and certificationfee to the exam site.

Commercial applicators who purchase or applypesticides must keep records. (See State Law:Regulation 636 in this chapter.)

Registered technicians. The 1988 amendments tothe Michigan Pesticide Control Act established anew classification of applicators: registered techni-cians. This classification includes people who areauthorized to apply general use pesticides for acommercial purpose or apply general-use pesti-cides as a scheduled and required work assign-ment. A registered technician working for alicensed pesticide applicator firm may apply gen-eral use pesticides under supervision of a certifiedapplicator and restricted use pesticide (RUPs)while under direct supervision. The intent of thisportion of the Act is to establish minimum compe-tency standards for all commercial applicators.

To become a registered technician in category7G, you must pass an examination that tests yourknowledge on the general “core” pesticide infor-mation found in this manual, chapters 1-7. Next,you must undergo category-specific training. Thistraining must deliver specific information toproperly prepare you for your job tasks. Thetraining must be approved by the MDA andadministered by an MDA-approved trainer.

All employees of kennels, dog grooming facili-ties, veterinary clinics, golf courses, hospitals,schools, municipalities, etc., who apply pesti-cides other than general use, ready-to-use pesti-cides, must either be certified applicators orregistered technicians.

Reciprocity. Each state has its own certificationregulations. An agreement between states toallow certified applicators in one state to use pes-ticides in the other state is called reciprocity. Cur-rently, Michigan has reciprocal agreements withIndiana, Ohio and Wisconsin.

Commercial pesticide application business license.Any business established to apply pesticides forhire, including pesticides applied to animals,must obtain an annual commercial pesticideapplicator license by sending an application andfee to MDA. Such businesses must employ atleast one certified commercial applicator beforethe license can be issued. The certified applicatorsupervises the use of any general use or restricteduse pesticides by registered technicians. (Notethat the business is licensed, not the applicator.)The business must also provide proof of insur-ance as required by Regulation 636.

An applicator may not obtain a commercialpesticide applicator license without first meetingthe necessary hands-on experience requirements.Individuals applying for a new business licensemust have at least two years of pesticide applica-tion experience or the equivalent — one year ofapplication experience and a four-year collegedegree in a related discipline.

Restricted use pesticide dealer’s license. Any per-son or business wishing to sell or distribute RUPsfirst must obtain an RUP dealers license from theMDA. The licensed dealer must keep records onthe sale of any RUP and submit those recordseach month to the MDA. It is illegal to sell or dis-tribute RUPs to anyone who is not a certifiedapplicator.

Penalties. Significant criminal penalties exist forviolators of the Pesticide Control Act:

■ Private applicators can be fined up to $1,000.■ Commercial applicators who knowingly vio-

late this act can be fined up to $5,000. If theviolation is with malicious intent, the appli-cator can be fined up to $25,000.

The MDA is responsible for investigating pesti-cide misuse and failures of pesticides to performwhen used in accordance with label instructions.If you have a complaint involving a pesticide,notify the nearest MDA office. Delays in making acomplaint greatly reduce the chances of a satisfac-tory investigation. The MDA needs to receive the

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complaint within 60 days of the action. Make thecomplaint as soon as possible if you have reasonto suspect pesticide misuse or failure.

State Law: House Bill 4344 House Bill 4344, Public Act 131, amends the

Pesticide Control Act 171. Among other things,this bill defines general use pesticide and ready-to-use pesticides as follows:

General use pesticide means a pesticide that is notclassified as a restricted use pesticide.

Ready-to-use pesticide means a pesticide that isapplied directly from its original container con-sistent with label directions, such as an aerosolinsecticide or rodent bait box, which does notrequire mixing or loading prior to application.

Persons who use pesticides for a non-licensed,commercial purpose and who apply general usepesticide directly from the manufacturer’s con-tainer (i.e. “ready-to-use”) are exempt from certi-fication or registration requirements. Aerosols,pump sprays, strips, ready-to-use baits, etc. areincluded in the “ready-to-use” group.

This bill amends Section 21A of Michigan Pesti-cide Control Act, making it illegal for a local unitof government to enact, maintain, or enforce anordinance, regulation or resolution that is differ-ent from the Pesticide Control Act unless anunreasonable adverse effect is present or the localunit will be in violation of another Act. In bothcases, the Agriculture Commission must approvethe local ordinance.

State Law: Regulation 636 – PesticideApplicators

Regulation 636 was issued and implemented in1991 as part of the Michigan Pesticide Control Actamendments of 1988. This regulation directlyaffects persons and businesses that apply pesti-cides for hire, such as performing flea shampoos,or dips on animals for pay. The following aresome of the primary components of Regulation636 of the Michigan Pesticide Control Act and arenot intended to represent the regulation in itsentirety. Check the actual regulation for details.

Regulation 636 expanded the pesticide record-keeping requirements. All commercial applicatorsshall maintain records of pesticide use for a timeperiod not less than the following:

■ General use pesticides. One year followingapplication.

■ Restricted use pesticides. Three years followingthe application.

All records shall contain the following:A) The name and concentration of the pesticide

appliedB) The amount of pesticide appliedC) The target pest or purposeD) The date the pesticide was appliedE) The address or location of pesticide applica-

tionF) Where applicable, the method of application.The records must be made available to the

MDA upon request.Regulation 636 also enacted the registered tech-

nician classification for pesticide applicators as aminimum competency standard. Part of Regula-tion 636 and the registered technician programinvolves approved trainers.

Approved trainers are certified applicators whohave two years’ experience in the category theyintend to train in and who have participated in adesignated seminar to earn credentials makingthem eligible for training registered technicians.

Regulation 636 also provides an exemptionfrom some provisions of the Act for incidentaluses. An individual or firm may make a writtenrequest to the MDA for an exemption to the regis-tered technician or certified applicator require-ment if they meet the following conditions:

■ A general use pesticide is used

■ The person is not regularly engaged in theapplication of pesticides for hire

■ The pesticide application is an integral partof another operation.

State Law: Regulation 637Regulation 637 of the Michigan Pesticide

Control Act primarily affects commercial pes-ticide applicators and their pest managementoperations in several ways. RULE -1-3) Establishes definitions and terms

4) Requires specific conduct of pesticide appli-cators to protect people and the environment

5) Establishes a registry of persons who mustbe notified before pesticides are applied onadjacent properties

6-7) Requires the use of containment structuresfor certain mixing/loading and washing/rinsing operations

8) Defines acceptable means for disposing ofpesticides and pesticide-containing materials

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9) Requires the use of protective equipment

10) Addresses avoidance of off-target drift anduse of drift management plans

11) Calls for the posting of certain areas treatedwith pesticides and notification of the publicprior to right-of-way and community pesti-cide applications

12) Requires the use of service agreements

13) Prohibits false claims regarding pesticidesafety

14) Requires applicator training in integratedpest management and use of IPM programsin certain areas

15) Describes manners of pesticide use in andaround schools

16) Establishes a registry of certified organicfarms.

Obtain a copy of Regulation 637 to understandthe components of each rule and how your pestmanagement practices must comply. Regulation637 became effective in 1992.

FEDERAL LAW: ANIMAL WELFARE ACT OF1976 (9 CFR PARTS 1, 2 AND 3)

The federal Animal Welfare Act of 1976 isadministered and enforced under the authority ofthe United States Department of Agriculture,APHIS, Veterinary Services, Regulatory Enforce-ment and Animal Care (REAC). This regulationoutlines specifications for the humane handling,care, treatment and transportation of dogs, catsand other small animals being used for certaintypes of activities such as research and exhibition(zoos, circuses, etc.). Large-scale breedersinvolved with sales to pet shops are also coveredunder this law. Persons working in the small ani-mal industry should obtain a copy of this regula-tion and become familiar with and comply withits contents. This Act establishes practices thataim to accomplish complementary goals to theMichigan Pesticide Control Act: proper manage-ment of the environment and control of pests ofsmall animals in a way that protects humans, ani-mals and the environment.

Requirements of the Animal Welfare Act sup-port the activities of an integrated pest manage-ment program by requiring sanitary andhusbandry practices for animal well-being. Forinstance, specifications for maintaining accept-able housing to prevent pest or disease problemsare outlined. Cleaning, sanitization and pest con-trol information are in Part 3 – Standards, Subpart

A of the Animal Welfare Act. As stated in thisAct, Part 3, Subpart A Sec 3.11:

(a) Cleaning of primary enclosures. Excreta andfood waste must be removed from primaryenclosures daily, and from under primaryenclosures as often as necessary to prevent anexcessive accumulation of feces and food waste,to prevent soiling of the dogs or cats containedin the primary enclosures, and to reduce dis-ease hazards, insect pests and odors.

(b) Sanitation of primary enclosures and food andwater receptacles. ((4)) Pens, runs, and outdoorhousing areas using material... such as gravel,sand, grass, earth, or absorbent bedding, mustbe sanitized by removing the contaminatedmaterial as necessary to prevent odors, dis-eases, pests, insects, and vermin infestation.

(c) Pest control. An effective program for thecontrol of mammals that are pests, insects andexternal parasites affecting dogs, cats and birdsmust be established and maintained so as topromote the health and well-being of the animals and reduce contamination by pests inanimal areas.

STATE LAW: ACT 224 OF 1969, USE OFDOGS AND CATS FOR RESEARCH

Act 224 of 1969 is administered and enforced bythe Michigan Department of Agriculture AnimalIndustry Division. This Act regulates activitiesassociated with dealers and facilities using ani-mals in research. For more information, obtain acopy of the regulation or contact the MDA Ani-mal Industry Division at (517) 373-1077.

STATE LAW: ACT 287 OF 1969, PET SHOPS,DOG POUNDS, AND ANIMAL SHELTERS

Act 287 of 1969 is administered and enforced bythe MDA Animal Industry Division. This Act reg-ulates activities associated with pet shops andanimal shelters, including the licensing and regis-tration of those facilities. Certain activities associ-ated with the sale of dogs and cats are alsooutlined.

The humane treatment of animals is a priority ofthe MDA Animal Industry Division. The MDAAnimal Industry Division realizes this priority byauthorizing and administering Act 224 (see above)and Act 287 of 1969, Pet Shops, Dog Pounds, andAnimal Shelters. Both Act 224 and Act 287 stressthe importance of sanitation and appropriatehousing and care in the prevention of pests.

13

The above mentioned establishments areinspected to assure that animal facilities are cleanand not overcrowded, and that wholesome food isproperly provided to the animals. If problems arefound, inspectors work with the company person-nel to bring conditions up to high standards for thewelfare of the animals. For more information,obtain a copy of the regulation or contact the MDAAnimal Industry Division at (517) 373-1077.

HAZARDOUS WASTE REGULATIONSThe Michigan Department of Natural Resources

(MDNR) Waste Management Division administersboth the federal Resource Conservation RecoveryAct (RCRA) and state hazardous waste regulations(Act 64). Pesticide applicators must be aware ofthese regulations because many of the waste mate-rials generated by an applicator may be hazardous.When waste is classified as hazardous, strict dis-posal and handling requirements must be fol-lowed. Questions about hazardous wasterequirements should be directed to the MDNRWaste Management Division at (517) 373-2730.

Containers that have held certain products orwastes can be hazardous if they are not emptyand triple-rinsed or power-rinsed. To ensure thata container is non-hazardous, triple-rinse orpower-rinse (with a high-pressure nozzle) the

empty container before disposal. Such containersmay be placed in a licensed Type II sanitary land-fill. Remember that no free liquid chemicals canbe placed in any landfill in the state.

MICHIGAN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ACT

The Michigan Department of Public Health(MDPH) and the Michigan Department of Labor(MDOL) jointly enforce the Michigan Occupa-tional Safety and Health Act (MIOSHA), Act154, which was amended in 1986 to include whatis commonly known as the Michigan Right-to-Know Act. This act incorporated the Federal Haz-ard Communication Standard into the MIOSHARight-to-Know Act.

The MIOSHA Right-to-Know Act requiresemployers to:

■ Obtain and retain Material Safety DataSheets (MSDS) on all hazardous chemicals,including pesticides, for employee review.These can be obtained from pesticide distrib-utors at the time of purchase or later uponrequest.

■ Develop and implement a written employeetraining program.

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■ Ensure that all containers of hazardous materials are properly labeled.

If you have concerns or complaints related toMIOSHA Right-to-Know Act, notify either the

MDPH Division of Occupational Health at (517)335-8250 or the MDL Division of Safety Standardsat (517) 322-1809. Pesticides are not exempt fromthe provisions of the MIOSHA Right-to-Know Act.

15

Write the answers to the following questions,and then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. The basic federal law regulating pesticides isreferred to as ___________.

2. Restricted use pesticides can be sold only to__________________________________________.

3. Restricted use pesticides can be used by anyperson at any time, as long as they are pur-chased by a certified applicator. True or False?

4. For each pesticide product that may have aneffect on an endangered species, the Endan-gered Species Act requires that the pesticidelabeling include a list of states and countieswhere the product affects the endangeredspecies and pesticide application is restricted.True or False?

5. SARA Title III requires that _________________who store(s) a specified quantity of an EPA des-ignated “extremely hazardous substance” mustnotify proper authorities.a. commercial applicatorsb. veterinariansc. farmersd. anyone

6. The pesticide that stays in or on raw farmproducts or processed foods is called a -__________________. A ___________________isthe concentration of a pesticide that can legallyremain on produce at harvest. a. residue, toleranceb. tolerance, residuec. reciprocity, toxicityd. toxicity, reciprocity

7. Shipment of pesticides and other dangeroussubstances across state lines is regulated by the

__________________________________________.

8. Who administers the pesticide applicator certifi-cation program in Michigan?

9. Any person (including homeowners) who usesor supervises the use of RUPs for a non-agricul-tural purpose must be a:a. private applicatorb. commercial applicator

10. Employees who apply pesticides for hire(license required) as part of their work assign-ment must be either certified or registered.True or False?

11. Commercial applicators are not required tokeep records of RUP applications. True orFalse?

12. What is reciprocity?

13. Any business established to apply pesticidesfor hire must obtain a commercial pesticideapplicator license and employ:a. three or more people.b. at least one certified commercial applicator.c. at least one registered technician.d. none of the above. There are no hiring

requirements.

14. Commercial and private applicators may befined for unlawful conduct under the Michi-gan Pesticide Control Act. True or False?

15. Who investigates complaints about pesticidemisuse and pesticide failures in Michigan?a. Cooperative Extension Serviceb. Farm Bureauc. Michigan Department of Agricultured. Department of Natural Resources

Chapter 1 – Review Questions

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16. The ____________________________________administers both the federal (RCRA) and state(Act 64) hazardous waste regulations in Michi-gan.

17. Pesticide containers may be placed in alicensed Type II sanitary landfill only if theyhave been triple-rinsed or power rinsed. Trueor False?

18. SARA Title III requires that you notify authori-ties if you are responsible for storing a speci-fied quantity of an EPA-designated “extremelyhazardous substance.” True or False?

19. What three Acts does the MDA Animal Indus-try Division administer and enforce?

CHAPTER 2

PESTS ANDINTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:

■ Explain the importance of correctly identify-ing pests.

■ Explain the importance of understanding thelife cycles and habits of pests.

■ Name two physical characteristics that allinsects have in common.

■ List the four primary types of insect mouth-parts and give an example of an insect thathas each type.

■ Define “metamorphosis”.

■ List other types of pests that resemble insectsor cause similar damage.

■ Understand how endoparasites and ectopar-asites are pests of animals.

■ Explain the factors you should considerwhen deciding whether control of a pest isnecessary.

■ Discuss the five steps of an integrated pestmanagement program.

■ List and give an example of techniques usedin pest management.

Accurately identifying pests is extremelyimportant because different pests respond to dif-ferent types of management tactics. Failure toidentify the pest properly may result in wastedtime, money, chemicals and effort. Each species ofplant and animal can be identified by its scientificname. Although most plants and animals alsohave common names, the scientific naming sys-tem is universal — it assigns each organism onename to be used regardless of where it is found.This naming system categorizes animals based ontheir similarities: organisms with common char-acteristics are placed into large groups, then sub-divided into smaller groups and finally givenunique names.

In this chapter, you will learn to identify com-mon characteristics of insect and insect-like pestsof small animals. Examples of the types of animalinjury caused by these pests will be discussed.

INSECTS All insects and related animals such as mites

and ticks belong to a large group (phylum) called

Arthropoda. Members of this group are calledarthropods and have segmented bodies; seg-mented appendages, some of which are modifiedfor feeding; and a hard exoskeleton (exteriorskeleton). On the basis of common characteristics,arthropods are separated into smaller groupscalled classes. The common classes of arthropodsare Insecta, Arachnida, Crustacea, Chilopoda andDiplopoda. Most arthropod pests are insects orarachnids (mites or ticks from the class Arach-nida).

Insects have unique external features andundergo developmental processes unlike those ofother organisms in the animal kingdom. Correctidentification of pests and a knowledge of theircharacteristics, development and behavior arekeys to effective pest control.

Physical Characteristics of InsectsThe external characteristics of insect adults that

set them apart from other animals are bodies withthree regions — head, thorax, and abdomen —and three pairs of jointed legs.

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1. Head. The head contains one pair of anten-nae, eyes and mouthparts. Antennae containmany sensory receptors for smell, wind and tem-perature. The four general types of mouthpartsare chewing, piercing-sucking, sponging andsiphoning.

Chewing mouthparts have toothed jaws that biteand tear food. Cockroaches, grasshoppers, antsand beetles have chewing mouthparts.

Piercing-sucking mouthparts consist of a long,slender tube that penetrates plant or animal tis-sue to suck out fluids. True bugs, aphids, mos-quitoes and sucking lice have this mouth type.

Sponging mouthparts are tubular, tongue-likestructures with a spongy tip to suck up liquids.This type of mouthpart is found on flies.

Siphoning mouthparts form a long tube for suck-ing nectar. Butterflies and moths have this typeof mouth.

2. Thorax. The thorax consists of three seg-ments with one pair of jointed legs per segment.If one pair of wings is present, they will be on the

Head Thorax Abdomen

Types of mouthparts

EyeEye

Eye

Sponge

Eye

Sheath

Piercing stylets

Beak

Mandible

Chewing Siphoning

SpongingPiercing – Sucking

Antenna

second segment. If two pairs of wings are present,they will be on segments two and three and arecalled forewings and hindwings. The forewingsare modified in some insect groups. Beetles haveshell-like forewings; grasshoppers have leatheryforewings. Forewings of true bugs are part mem-branous, while forewings of moths and butterfliesare membranous but covered with scales. Mosthindwings of insects are membranous.

3. The abdomen has as many as 11 segments,though eight or fewer visible segments are common.

Insect Development and Metamorphosis

The series of events from egg to adult is calledthe insect’s life cycle. Life cycles vary amongspecies and knowledge of the life cycle isabsolutely essential to apply correct and timelypest management procedures.

Most insect reproduction is sexual — that is, afemale’s egg cell develops only after union withthe male’s sperm cell. The females of many insectspecies lay eggs. Some insects have special modesof reproduction such as those that develop fromunfertilized eggs. The number of eggs producedby females varies from one egg to many thou-sands for some social insects.

A newly hatched insect differs in size and oftenin form from the parents. The change that takesplace before the young insect assumes the adultform is called metamorphosis. The degree ofchange varies widely. In some insects, it is slightand gradual; in others, it is abrupt and complete.Insects fall into three groups according to degreeof metamorphosis:

■ No metamorphosis. Body proportions andinternal organs of these primitive insectsremain similar after each molt. Examples:Collembola (springtails) and Thysanura (sil-verfish).

■ Gradual metamorphosis. Changes are slight andgradual. The young or nymphs resemble theadults and feed in the same habitat, andwing development is external. Example:grasshoppers.

■ Complete metamorphosis. Drastic alterationsoccur as insects grow through the egg, lar-val, pupal (an inactive, resting stage) andadult stages. This classification includes themajority of insects, such as flies and fleas.

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Gradual metamorphosis

Complete metamorphosis

Egg

Egg Larvae Pupa

Nymphs Adult

Adult

MITES AND TICKSMites and ticks belong to the class Arachnida.

Though they are relatives of spiders, scorpionsand daddy longlegs, mites and ticks belong totheir own scientific grouping within this class,called the Acari (a-CAR-ee). Two features distin-guish mites and ticks from insects. Mites andticks have:

1. Four pairs of legs (insects have three pairs).2. Two major body units—the cephalothorax and

abdomen (insects have three body units —- head,thorax and abdomen).

Unlike insects, ticks and mites do not have seg-mented abdomens.

Mite Development The generalized mite life cycle begins when

mites mate and the females lay eggs. The eggshatch and six-legged larvae emerge. These larvaefeed and molt to become eight-legged nymphs.Later, after feeding, the nymphs molt and becomeadult male or female mites. This entire life cyclecan take as little as eight days to as long as fourweeks, depending on the species of mite and thetemperature and humidity.

Tick DevelopmentTick development starts with the egg stage,

followed by six-legged larvae, eight-leggednymphs and eight-legged adults. Hard tickshave only one nymphal instar (that is, one moltto the nymph stage, followed by a molt to theadult stage). Soft ticks may go through up toseven nymphal molts, depending on the speciesof tick and its life cycle.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY INSECTS ANDINSECT-LIKE PESTS

Insects, ticks and mites injure animals, plantsand structures in a variety of ways. The damageor discomfort of the host often provides clues tothe identity of the pest, as well as the fate of thehost (the organism the insect is on). For exam-ple, hair loss (alopecia) under the eyes and nearor on the ears of puppies may be the first recog-nizable symptoms of demodectic mange mites.Consult with a veterinarian for correct diagno-sis — sampling for burrowing mites requires askin scraping. Scratching may be symptoms offleas or ticks, and head shaking may indicatethe presence of ear mites.

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Animals can be troubled with pests on theirbodies, in their bodies or in their environment.Many arthropods (spiders, mites and ticks) haveevolved to live in close association with animals,and some have become true pests of animals.Arthropods may use animals as hosts for food,hosts to lay their eggs in, sites for resting and forother uses.

Arthropods may be endo- or ectoparasites.Ectoparasites live on the outside of the body ofthe host (animal the pest is associated with) moreor less in permanent association. Fleas are anexample of ectoparasites. They are pests of ourpet dogs and cats. All the many species of fleasare ectoparasites on the bodies of wild or domes-tic animals. Even human beings can have ectopar-asites such as head lice, follicle mites and crablice. Arthropod pests that invade internal parts ofthe body are called endoparasites. Roundwormsand hookworms are endoparasites.

Arthropods can be pests of animals in severalways:

■ They may invade and infest the skin and tis-sues of animals, causing direct damage suchas hot spots (moist eczema) and weakness.

■ Arthropods can cause blood loss and tissuedamage by blood feeding.

■ Infestation and blood feeding can open theskin to secondary infection by bacteria.

■ Blood-feeding can also cause anemia (weak-ness, lack of vitality due to blood loss or irondeficiency).

■ Some arthropods have venomous bites andstings or have body secretions that cause theanimal to have toxic or allergic reactions.

The direct damage and inflammatory reaction ofanimal skin to arthropod bites or body secretionsis called dermatitis . Some animals developextreme allergies to insect bites, stings or secre-tions. This kind of allergic reaction is called hyper-sensitivity. Veterinarians should be consulted todiagnose the cause of dermatitis. Once the cause isidentified, the licensed veterinary technician, ani-mal groomer, kennel manager or other trainedanimal pesticide applicator can be involved intreating the animal and controlling the problem.

Animals can be greatly annoyed by the pres-ence and activity of certain arthropods. For exam-ple, cattle will bunch up and put their loweredheads together to seek relief when “fly strike” issevere. Dogs can be greatly bothered by biting flyattacks to the ears.

Many arthropods transmit disease-causingagents to animals, either by contact, body secre-tions or biting. For example, mosquitoes transmitviruses that cause encephalitis (inflammation ofthe brain) in horses and black-legged ticks cantransmit Lyme disease among animals andhumans.

The arthropod pests of animals fit into manygroups or taxonomic categories. Table 2.1 liststhese groups and gives both common and scien-tific names with an example of each group. Thefollowing chapters discuss in detail how each ofthese groups affects agricultural and companionanimals, as well as how to detect, identify andmanage the arthropod pests.

Among these arthropods are arachnids (theclass Arachnida), including mites, ticks and poi-sonous spiders. Spiders will not be consideredfurther in this manual, because they are not nor-mally pests of domesticated animals.

Among the insects (the class Insecta), theimportant pests of animals belong in the follow-ing groups:

■ Biting and non-biting flies.■ Invasive flies (flies whose maggots invade

and infest animal flesh).■ Chewing and sucking lice.■ Fleas.

Stinging wasps and ants sometimes bothercompanion animals but will not be discussed inthis manual.

The “key” at the end of this chapter, is an illus-trated guide to identifying arthropods of medicaland veterinary importance. To use the key, readthe choices given by each number and select thechoice that best describes the arthropod specimenyou are trying to identify. Some knowledge of thebody structure and life cycles of insects, ticks andmites is required to use this identification key. So,it is an educational tool as well as an identifica-tion guide. Give it a try! You will not be requiredto use the key to answer questions on the Michi-gan Department of Agriculture pesticide certifica-tion exam. You will need to be able to identify thegeneral appearance of arthropod pests of animalsby looking at a drawing similar to those found inlater chapters, i.e., the difference between a miteand a flea.

Tick

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Table 2.1 Major groups of arthropods affecting animal health.Group Scientific Name Example

Class ArachnidaMites Order Acari Sarcoptes scabei

Scabies or itch mite

Ticks Order Acari Dermacentor variabilisClass Arachnida American dog tick

Class InsectaBiting flies Order Diptera Stomoxys calcitrans

(Mosquitos, Black flies, Biting midges, Stable fly, dog flyDeer and horse flies,Stable fly, horn fly, sheep ked)

Nonbiting flies Order Diptera Musca domestica(Face fly, house fly, eye nats,other filth flies)

Fleas Order Siponaptera Ctenocephalides felisCat flea

Chewing lice Order Mallophaga Trichodectes canisDog chewing louse

Sucking lice Order Anoplura Linognathus setosusDog sucking louse

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT FORANIMAL HEALTH

Agricultural animals (those used for produc-tion of food and fiber—livestock) and companionanimals (pets such as dogs and cats) may beaffected by arthropod pests. These pests mustoften be managed, controlled or prevented. Man-aging arthropod pests of animals can improve theliving conditions, health and well-being of ani-mals and humans. The principles of integratedpest management (IPM) apply to the operationalpractice of pest control for animals, whether thepests are actually on the animals or in the envi-ronment the animals occupy. IPM can be definedas “the use of all available tactics or strategies tomanage pests so that an acceptable yield andquality can be achieved economically with theleast disruption to the environment.”

Establishing an IPM program for pests of ani-mals follows the same five steps outlined formanaging any pest (weeds, diseases, etc.).

1. DetectionThe first step in an IPM program is pest detec-

tion. Detection requires thorough and regular

monitoring of animals for pest infestations orother signs and symptoms that indicate a pest ispresent on the animal or in the environmentwhere animals live. Observing an animal’s body,feces, living quarters, bedding, surroundings andbehavior will help you discover potential pestproblems. For example, if a pet dog is scratchingor chewing more than usual, this behavior maycause the owner to suspect fleas and, therefore, toinspect the dog’s body to see if fleas are present.More severe conditions will require a veterinari-an’s diagnosis of the health condition. The prob-lem may be inhalant allergies or a secondarybacterial infection that should be treated only bya licensed veterinarian.

Animal health management requires frequentand routine monitoring. Frequent observationsallow for early pest detection. Early detection ofsmall pest populations may allow for more con-trol options. Some control measures may work onlimited numbers of pests but not on larger popu-lations. Early pest detection also reduces or pre-vents the discomfort that would be caused by thepest if its population were to increase.

Commonly the pet professional is not aroundthe pet routinely enough to maintain a pest moni-toring program. The groomer is often faced with

Group Scientific Name Example

Table 2.2 Common Questions Asked by Pet Professionals

1. Where on the body is the pet scratching?

2. Have you recently bathed your pet?

3. Did you use a pet shampoo appropriate for this breed?

4. Does your pet scratch all the time or only during certain times of the year? Have you looked for fleas?

5. Was your carpet recently cleaned at home?

6. Have you recently installed new carpet?

7. Are you using carpet fresheners?

8. In the winter, does the pet lie in front of heat vents? Do you use a humidifier?

9. When was the last professional grooming of your pet?

10. If the pet is scratching the head area, have you looked into the ears for hair, insect-type pests or infection?

11. If the pet is chewing or scratching the anal area, have you consulted with a veterinarian?

12. Has your animal’s veterinarian prescribed drug therapy for a scratch-itch syndrome, and are you administering it per directions?

13. What type of food are you feeding your pet? Has this been a recent diet change recommended by your pet’s veterinarian?

14. Have you treated for fleas? Did you treat the pet, its bedding and the entire house at the same time? (See Chapter 8 for flea management and control information.)

You may have other questions that lead to answers for easing a pet’s discomfort. Pet professionalsshould never attempt to make veterinarian diagnoses.

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a one-time opportunity to determine if an insectpest is causing the animal’s discomfort. When apet owner brings in an animal and says, “My petis scratching,” information must be obtained fromthe pet owner. Table 2.2 lists some questions thatmay help you get the information you need toprovide the animal relief. Never attempt a diag-nosis that should be made by a veterinarian.Always refer your client to a veterinarian if youdon’t find or cannot identify the pest problem.

Persons who handle animals should be trainedin correct handling and restraining techniques toavoid injury to the handler and the animal. Ani-mals are often apprehensive when at veterinaryclinics or grooming facilities and should be han-dled with extreme caution. A pet owner may beable to examine a pet easily at home in familiarsurroundings and the animal may show no Source: Manual of Clinical Procedures in the Dog and Cat

23

resistance. Animal aggression may become obvi-ous in strange surroundings or the animal mayreact unpredictably out of fear. Correct use ofrestraining holds and devices may benefit boththe animal and the handler. Inspecting an animalfor pests may be accomplished effectively withtwo persons—one handler-restrainer and theother as examiner. Wrapping a cat in a heavytowel, making sure the forelegs and hindlegs aresecure, can prevent handlers from beingscratched or bitten.

Not all animals will require firm restraining. Theamount of restraint needed will depend on theenvironment and the animal’s behavior. Animalbehavior will vary greatly and handlers must learnto “read” the animal’s body language. Speak to theanimal initially in a soothing voice to prevent star-tling it. Use the animal’s name when approachingit. If necessary, speak firmly to the animal. Verbalrestraint can be a useful supplement to the physi-cal restraint of pet animals. Obtain animal han-dling training from an experienced professional toprotect yourself and the animal.

Source: Practical Animal Handling

2. IdentificationAfter a possible pest has been detected, the sec-

ond step in an IPM program is to identify theorganism to determine whether it is indeed theorganism causing the discomfort or disorder. Theidentification of the problem, pest and/or theproblem the pest is causing the animal, such asdermatitis, should be made by a veterinarian.Correct pest identification allows the animal man-ager to gain information about its life cycle andbiology so management measures can be targetedat the pest’s susceptible life stage. To follow theexample of our pet dog’s scratching behavior, itwould not make sense to apply flea control mea-sures to alleviate the itching symptoms if the dogactually has a scabies mite infestation or a dermalallergy to house dust mites or a food allergy.

3. Economical or Medical Significance After detection and identification of the pest,

the animal owner, groomer, kennel operator, vet-erinarian or pest management applicator mustdecide if the pest is present at an economicallyor medically significant level. A veterinarianmust be consulted on medical conditions, such asdermatitis and its cause.

In agricultural settings involving livestock, it isoften difficult to establish an economic injurylevel above which pest damage occurs. Forinstance, owners may observe scratching, lickingor other behaviors and signs that the animals areirritated. These irritations may not cause anydirect or topical (skin surface) problems. But ifthe irritation persists it may cause the animalsenough stress to result in reduced milk or meatproduction—an indirect effect and an economicloss. Just before or at the point of economic loss,the pest should be controlled to relieve the stressand prevent further losses.

For companion animals, pest problems are oftennot tied to yield or economic loss but rather a per-ception by the owner or kennel person that theanimal suffers from the presence and activitiesof a pest. Animal owners or veterinarians maymake medical judgments on the basis of symp-toms caused by pests. These judgments then areused as a basis for pest management decisions.

4. Method SelectionAfter detection and identification of a pest on

an animal and determination that the pest is caus-ing harm, it is time to select a method or meth-ods for managing the pest. Depending on thesituation and the nature of the problem, pesti-cides may or may not be required. Usually a com-

24

bination of pest control methods results in themost effective pest management. In any case, themethods should be effective, practical, economi-cal and environmentally sound. Consult with alicensed veterinarian before treating pregnant orlactating dogs or cats for flea or mite infestations.These animals or their young may be negativelyaffected by a pesticide treatment.

5. EvaluationAfter applying the chosen pest management

procedures, evaluate their effectiveness. Keepingrecords and evaluating pest control techniques isnecessary in a successful IPM program. Evalua-tion can include inspection of the animal and itspremises to determine the level of pest controlachieved and regular checks thereafter to deter-mine if the pest returns to unacceptable levels.

Techniques Used in Pest ManagementAll types of pest management strategies that

protect animals from arthropod pests should beconsidered. Combining several strategiesachieves the most effective and efficient control.Integrated pest management strategies includebiological, cultural, mechanical, physical, chemi-cal (pesticides), use of resistant breeds, sanitationin the animal’s environment and legal quaran-tines to prevent spread of pests.

Biological controls introduce, encourage and artifi-cially increase plants and animals that are parasitesor predators of pests. Biological controls are mostcommonly used to manage insects, mites andsome weeds in agricultural or landscape settings.

Cultural pest control includes maintaining overallgood health of the animals. A healthy animal can

tolerate low levels of pests better than a weak orstressed animal. Animal diets should be well bal-anced and provided at consistent intervals and inappropriate portions. If animals are kept indoors,provide adequate ventilation to prevent heatstress or the spread of diseases such as kennelcough. Provide outdoor animals shelter, espe-cially during severe weather. Population densitiesmust be proportional to available space, foodsupply and water. Overcrowding may encouragepest outbreaks, whether in a cage, kennel, barn orpasture setting. Proper and routine groomingreduces the opportunity for pests to becomeestablished.

Animal ailments can be influenced by thespecies, diet, living conditions and treatment ofthe animal by the owner/manager. When any oneor a combination of these things is unsatisfactory,the animal is predisposed by poor living condi-tions to acquire a pest problem. A healthy animalliving in a stress-free and sanitary environment isless likely to suffer pest problems.

Mechanical tools for animal pest managementmay include grooming combs, brushes and fleacombs with closely spaced teeth to monitor forinsects and ticks. The pet owner should beinstructed to vacuum living quarters regularly toremove flea larvae, eggs and their food. The vac-uum bag should be changed and discarded aftereach use if a known flea problem exists. Elec-tronic devices such as lights that attract flyinginsects may be used around barns or other animalquarters to reduce some nuisance pests. Trappingrodents that may be carriers of pests is also a pre-ventive mechanical control measure. Ultrasoniccollars and other devices have not been found tobe effective.

Physical control of animal pests may include theuse of sticky flypaper to reduce nuisance flyinginsects in confined areas. Physical control mayalso include cages that separate the animals inyour care from one another. Preventing contact

tiate between pest management and medicaltreatment of the animal. Heavy flea infestationson dogs, for example, can lead to secondary der-matitis and flea bite allergies that require veteri-nary care. The fleas are considered the arthropodpest that caused these undesirable conditions onthe animals but the conditions are being treatedmedically. To treat the wounds without eliminat-ing the cause (fleas) would be pointless.

25

between animals will reduce the spread of insectsfrom infested animals to non-infested animals.When an infested animal is removed from a cageor kennel, the area should be thoroughly cleanedand disinfected to prevent contamination of thenext animal placed in this confinement area.

Use of pest-resistant breeds and breedsadapted to the conditions of the area where theyare raised will avoid or reduce the effect of pests.Using breeds that tolerate the climatic changesand temperature extremes that occur in Michiganwill help reduce the likelihood of stress and pestproblems. Some animals have been bred for dis-ease resistance and other qualities that result inreduced problems, while other species still showsigns of intolerance even in low-stress situations.

Sanitation is the foundation of most animal pestmanagement programs. Keeping kennels, petexercise areas and homes as clean as possible dis-courages pest invasion by eliminating foodsources and places to breed and live. Cleaninganimal bedding and the surfaces of cages andother animal confinement with disinfectants killspathogens and reduces the spread of disease. Isolating new animals and observing them for a period of

time, confirming that they are pest free, will prevent thespread of unknown pests. Clean environments are alsoessential to pest management.

Quarantines help reduce the spread of pest prob-lems. When introducing a new animal to an exist-ing laboratory setting, kennel or other group ofanimals, isolate the new animal and observe it fora period of time to confirm that it is pest freebefore grouping it with other animals. Within anestablished group of animals, separate those thatare suspected to be sick or infested with a pestuntil the problem is identified and corrected.

In some pest situations, veterinarians orlicensed veterinary technicians may not differen-

Adopting a holistic, “IPM attitude” toward themanagement of pests of animals will help reducepest problems. It is possible to manage a pestwithout any true medical treatment. Simplychanging environmental conditions may preventor eliminate a pest. Veterinarians may need toconsult entomologists or commercial pesticideapplicators for advice on pest life cycles or man-agement strategies.

Pesticides are used in IPM programs for animalpests. Often, they are used in combination withother methods of prevention and control or usedwhen other methods have failed or do not apply.For example, there currently are no effective envi-ronmental, cultural or other management optionsfor deer flies and horse flies. Thus, insecticides orrepellents on animals are the most reliable pestmanagement alternatives.

Sometimes pests can be effectively managedwith drugs, chemicals that veterinarians adminis-ter or prescribe. When a product is labeled as adrug, it is approved and regulated by the Foodand Drug Administration, not the EnvironmentalProtection Agency. An example of a drug that hasantiparasitic properties is ivermectin (under tradenames such as Ivomec®). This drug is injected orgiven orally to an animal to rid the animal of cer-tain ectoparasites and endoparasites. An exampleof an insecticide that is given to animals like a

26

drug is Proban® for the management of fleas.Some animals treated with a drug and laterexposed to another pest management chemicaltreatment have gotten sick. It is important thatowners are made aware of the treatments admin-istered to their animals and that they communi-cate this information to other handlers of theanimal. Animal groomers, kennel owners andfarm workers should ask for this informationbefore administering any type of pest treatment.Ask product sales representatives, the manufac-turer or a veterinarian about any possible nega-tive interactions that may result between theproducts you use and other products that the ani-mal may be exposed to. You are responsible forthis knowledge. Obviously the animal cannotcontrol these situations.

People responsible for maintaining a pest-freeand healthy environment for animals must oftendecide whether to deal with pests as a medicalproblem with drugs as the sole treatment, or as apest management problem, where IPM and possi-bly pesticides or drugs would be used. Treatingonly the damage caused by a pest and not control-ling the pest will result in future injury. Animalpest problems should be controlled through envi-ronmental management and animal treatment.

Pesticide use on and around animals requiresspecial care. Pesticides may be toxic to the ani-mals being treated. The applicator must considerdose-response relationships and pesticidechoice carefully when making applications.Smaller animals cannot tolerate the same dose ofcertain pesticides as well as larger animals. Anapplicator may need to consult a veterinarian to determine the appropriateness and timing ofpesticide applications on animals. Before any

Professionals know the proper techniques for applyingpesticides to animals and wear the proper personal pro-tective equipment.

pesticide application is made to an animal or inits environment, the applicator should read andthoroughly understand the directions for use onthe label. When heavy infestations occur, petowners should consider obtaining professionalpesticide applicator pest management help.

27

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What unique external characteristics do adultinsects have?

2. Which is NOT a type of mouthpart for insects?a. Piercing-suckingb. Filteringc. Siphoningd. Sponginge. Chewing

3. ____________________________ is characterizedby egg, larval, pupal and adult stages andincludes the majority of insects.a. Gradual metamorphosisb. No metamorphosisc. Complete metamorphosis

4. What is a host?

5. Endoparasites live INSIDE the host body. Trueor False?

6. What are the causes of dermatitis?

7. List the four groups of important animal insectpests.

8. Define IPM and explain the five components ofan IPM program.

Chapter 2 – Review Questions

28

9. Why is early detection of pests important?

10. Why must the animal manager identify thepest?

11. In what settings are economic injury levels ofgreatest concern?

12. Identify and describe the fifth and final step ofan IPM program.

13. What must be considered when pesticides areused on or around animals?

14. List five or more strategies/techniques used inIPM programs and briefly describe each.

29

Key To Insects, Ticks and Mites of Medical and Veterinary ImportanceSource: North Carolina State University Cooperative Extension Service

1. Having 6 or 8 legs (Fig. 2) ................................................................................................................................... 2Legless and wormlike maggots (Fig. 3) .......................................................................................................... 34

2. Having 6 legs and a distinct head (Fig. 2A) ..................................................................................................... 3Having 8 legs without a distinct head (Fig. 2B) ............................................................................................. 32

3. One pair of wings (Fig. 4A) ............................................................................................................................... 4Two pairs of wings or no wings (Fig. 4B, C) .................................................................................................. 21

4. Antennae (feelers) with 10 or more distinct segments (Fig. 5A) ................................................................... 5Antennae with 3 segments (Fig. 5B) or the apical segments more or less fused (Fig. 5C) ......................... 7

2A

2B

4A 4B4C

5C 5C 5C

3

30

5. Short antennae with 10 or 11 segments (Fig. 6A); wing veins slender at rear (Fig. 6B); slightly hump-backed fly 4 mm long or less; bite usually painless at first but later causes swelling and pain............................................................................................................................ BLACK FLY or BUFFALO GNATLonger antennae with 12 to 16 segments (Fig. 6C); wing veins all about the same width (Fig. 6D) ....... 6

6. Wings not very hairy, costa vein ending before wing tip (Fig. 7A); bloodsucking fly (Fig. 7B) 0.5 to 5.0mm long ...............................................................................................BITING MIDGE, PUNKIE, NO-SEE-UMWings scaly and with numerous veins, costa vein continuing around wing tip (Fig. 7C); slender, long-legged fly (Fig. 7D) with wings 3 to 4 mm long; has slender proboscis for sucking blood ..... MOSQUITO

7. Each wing with 4 or 5 cells along rear edge (Fig. 8A) ..................................................................................... 8

Each wing with 3 or fewer cells along rear edge (Fig. 8B) .............................................................................. 9

8A 8B

7D

7B

7A

costa

subcosta

7C

6A 6B6C

6D

31

8. Third wing vein branched with vein 3A long and vein 3B ending behind wing tip (Fig. 9A); abdomen-flattened; small- to large-bodied fly (Fig. 9B) 10 to 19 mm long; female inflicts painful bite............HORSEor DEER FLYThird wing vein branched with vein 3A short and vein 3B ending before wing tip (Fig. 9C); dusky-winged, nonbiting fly (Fig. 9D) 15 to 20 mm long; wasplike in appearance; bronze or primarily blackabdomen .......................................................................................................................... BLACK SOLDIER FLY

9. Second antennal segment with seam (Fig. 10A); mesonotal suture on thorax goes all the way across(Fig. 10B) ............................................................................................................................................................. 10

Second antennal segment without seam (Fig. 10C); mesonotal suture absent or note reaching all theway across (Fig. 10D) ........................................................................................................................................ 11

10. Hypopleura (area just above base of hind legs) bare or with sparse, fine hairs (Fig. 11A) ................... 13

Hypopleura with row of strong bristles or with long, dense hairs (Fig. 11 B) ......................................... 19

11. Oral vibrissae (hairs near the front of the mouth) usually present (Fig. 12A); nonbiting, gray to blackfly only about 1.2 mm long; passes easily through 16-mesh screen ........................................... EYE GNATOral vibrissae usually absent (Fig. 12B); fly 15 to 18 mm long ................................................................. 12

9A 9C

9B9D

10A10B 10C

10D 11A 11B

32

12. Spurious (extra) vein present (Fig. 13A) and anal cell nearly reaches wing margin (Fig. 13B);hairy,brownish to black, beelike fly about 15 mm long; has mouthparts but doesn’t bite.... DRONE FLYAnal cell short (Fig. 13C); hairy, brownish to reddish fly about 18 mm long; mouthparts absent................................................................................................................................................................. BOT FLY

13. Slender, shiny black, nonbiting fly (Fig. 14) about 5 mm long ......................... GARBAGE or DUMP FLY

Fly dull, not shiny ............................................................................................................................................ 14

14. Fly usually less than 6 mm long .................................................................................................................... 15

Fly usually longer than 6 mm ........................................................................................................................ 16

15. Brownish-gray to black with yellowish cast to body; blood-sucking; 3.5 to 4 mm long; set of parallelstripes just behind head (Fig. 15A); brownish-red antennae; usually a pest of cattle and horses............................................................................................................................................................ HORN FLYSlender, nonbiting fly 5 to 6 mm long; dark-colored body with or without stripes (Fig. 15B); hoveringand jerky pattern of flight .............................................................................................. LITTLE HOUSE FLY

16. Blood-sucking fly with sharp mouthparts which protrude from head (Fig. 16A); body 6 to 8 mm long; 4dark, longitudinal stripes on thorax; several dark spots on abdomen’ “squats” when at rest ...... STABLEFLY

Mouthparts blunt, not protruding (Fig. 16B); nonbiting fly ...................................................................... 17

12A 12B13A

13B

13C

14

15A 15B

33

17. Pale spot on top of thorax near abdomen; 4 dark, sometimes indistinct, stripes on thorax; abdomenblack or black and red; body about 8 mm long (Fig. 16B) ............................................ FALSE STABLE FLYNot as above ..................................................................................................................................................... 18

18. Abdomen yellow or partially yellow with dark line down the middle; gray fly (Fig. 17A) about 6.5mm long with 4 dark, lengthwise stripes on thorax ................................................................. HOUSE FLYAbdomen primarily black with orange base (female) or orange-brown with black base and dorsalstripe (male); thorax gray with 4 dark, lengthwise stripes (Fig. 17B); body 6 to 8 mm long; commonlyfeeds on moist animal secretions ............................................................................................................... FACE

19. Hypopleura (area above base of hind legs) obscured by long, usually dense hairs; mouthpartsabsent; body about 13 mm long with 2 bands of yellow and white hairs across it (Fig. 18A); reddish-orange hairs at tip of abdomen and on legs; wings dark brown to black .................. CATTLE GRUB FLY

Hypopleura with a row of strong bristles (Fig. 18B) ..................................................................................... 20

16A16B

17A

17B

18A 18B

34

20. Notopleura (“shoulder” of the thorax) usually with 4 bristles (Fig. 19A); gray fly about 10 to 13 mmlong; 3 black stripes on thorax; light and dark checkerboard pattern on abdomen (Fig. 19B) ...... FLESHFLYNotopleural with only 2 bristles (Fig. 19C); black or metallic-colored fly 6 to 14 mm long; no stripesor checkerboard pattern (Fig. 19D) ............................................................................................... BLOW FLY

21. Two pairs of wings; constricted “waist” without nodes (bumps); smooth-bodied, stinging insect (fig.20A) 13 to 25 mm long; color variable; associated with papery nests under or above ground................................................................................................................... HORNET, WASP, YELLOW JACKETNo wings; “waist” constricted with nodes (Fig. 20B) or note constricted (Fig. 20C) ............................. 22

22. Constricted “waist” with nodes (Fig. 20B); body usually reddish or dark brown and 3 to 6 mm long;stinging ant associated with mounds 35 cm or more in diameter and 20 to 25 cm high .... ...... FIRE ANTNo constricted “waist” as above ................................................................................................................... 23

23. Body flattened laterally (from side to side); spiny, hard-skinned insect (Fig. 20C) 1 to 2.5 mm long;hind legs modified for jumping ................................................................................................................. FLEABody not flattened laterally .............................................................................................................................. 24

19A 19B

19C19D

20A 20B 20C

35

24. Pest 1 mm or less in length; associated with slightly larger, 8-legged animals which are otherwise simi-lar in appearance (Fig. 21A, B) (key out the larger, 8-legged pests) ........................................................... 31No association as above; all animals with 6 legs; size variable; body somewhat flattened dorsoven-trally (from top to bottom) (Fig. 21C) .............................................................................................................. 25

25. Chewing mouthparts; yellowish-white louse with broad, flat, reddish head (Fig. 22A); body up to 1.5mm long with 8 dark crossbands on abdomen .............................................................................................. 26Piercing-sucking mouthparts; body somewhat flattened dorsoventrally (from top to bottom) (Fig. 22 B)................................................................................................................................................................................... 27

26. Feeding on cattle ........................................................................................................ CATTLE BITING LOUSEFeeding on skin or feathers of poultry .............................................................................. CHICKEN BODY

27. Jointed beak (Fig. 23A); reddish-brown, oval, flattened insect up to 9 mm long; small, padlike wingremnants (Fig. 23B); pronotum (just behind head) collarlike ........................................................ BED BUG

Beak not jointed, sometimes retracted into head ........................................................................................... 28

21A 21B 21C

22A 22B

36

28. Needlelike mouthparts exposed (Fig. 24A); short, thick legs with apical spurs; body about 6 mm long;blood-sucking parasite of sheep ..................................................................................................... SHEEP KEDMouthparts retracted into head; blood-sucking louse (Fig. 24B) ................................................................ 29

23A

23B

24A24B

29. Parasite of hogs; oval, grayish-brown louse up to 6 mm long; brown and black markings on body; legsclawlike (Fig. 25A) .......................................................................................................................... HOG LOUSEParasite of man; grayish-white louse 4 mm or less in length .................................................................... 30

30. Abdomen longer than wide; body up to 4 mm long without hairy tubercles (Fig. 25B); all legs aboutequal in size .............................................................................................................. HEAD and BODY LOUSEAbdomen about as long as wide; body up to 2 mm long with hairy tubercles (Fig. 25C); front pair oflegs more slender than other pairs .......................................................................................... CRAB LOUSE

31. Abdomen constricted to form a narrow “waist” (Fig. 26A) ...................................................................... 32

No constricted “waist” (Fig. 27); bloodsucking parasite of man and animals; some immature stages 6-legged ............................................................................................................................................................ 33

25A 25B25C

37

32. Spider with black, globular abdomen about 9 by 13 mm with red or yellow, hourglass marking onunderside (Fig. 26A, B) ............................................................................................. BLACK WIDOW SPIDERGrayish- to reddish-brown spider with black, fiddlelike marking on the head and thorax; body 7 to13 mm long with a leg span about the size of a half dollar (Fig. 26C) ......... BROWN RECLUSE SPIDER

33. Hairless body from 0.5 mm up to 7 mm long (immature to adult) (Fig. 27A); usually brown, reddishbrown or gray ............................................................................................................................................... TICKBody with long or short hairs (Fig. 27B, C); body usually 1.25 mm long or less; color variable.............................................................................................................................................. CHIGGER or MITE

34. With a definite head (Fig. 28A) ...................................................................................................................... 35

Without a definite head (the mouthparts are tucked into the thorax, Fig. 28B) ...................................... 36

26A

26B

26C

27A 27B27C

38

35. Body large and flattened, 12 to 27 mm long when fully grown; creamy white to reddish brown; develops in decaying organic matter (Fig. 28A) ......................................... BLACK SOLDIER FLY LARVASlender, aquatic larva up to 10 mm long or curled pupa; transparent to greenish brown; develops instill rather than running water (Fig. 29A and B) ............................... .MOSQUITO LARVA and/or PUPA

36. Body with pointed projections on each segment (Fig. 30A); posterior spiracles (breathing openings) onsmall bumps; white to light brown body up to 8 mm long .......................... LESSER HOUSE FLY LARVABody smooth or with short spines; no long pointed projections; posterior spiracles not on bumps(Fig. 30B) ........................................................................................................................................................... 37

28A 28B

29A 29B

30A 30B

39

37. Leathery; aquatic; larva up to 20 mm long, with long, taillike breathing tube (Fig. 31A) .................. RAT-TAILED MAGGOTLarva without a taillike process (Fig. 31B) ................................................................................................... 38

38. Hard, dark line (peritreme) present around hind spiracles; each spiracle with 3 distinct slits (Fig. 32A)................................................................................................................................................................................ 39No peritreme around hind spiracles (Fig. 32B); or, if peritreme present, then 3 slits absent (Fig. 32C) .......................................................................................................................................................... 45

39. Slits of hind spiracles straight (Fig. 33A) ...................................................................................................... 40

Slits of hind spiracles strongly curved (Fig. 33B) ........................................................................................ 44

31A31B

32A 32B 32C

33A 33B

40

40. Peritreme of hind spiracle very thin on top and bottom (Fig. 34A); spiracles slightly elevated and,when viewed from rear, slanted toward each other; hardened, spiny larva at least 10 mm long whenfully grown; develops in decaying organic matter ................ BLACK GARBAGE or DUMP FLY LARVAPeritreme complete (Fig., 34B) or with only lower portion missing (Fig. 34C) ...................................... 41

41. Hind spiracles with peritreme complete (Fig. 35A); at least one of the two prothoracic spiracles (closeto front end) with 8 or more openings (Fig. 35B, a green bottle fly) or prothoracic spiracles with 6 orless openings (Fig. 35C, a bronze bottle fly); yellowish to white maggot up to 14 mm long; develops indecaying organic matter, sometimes carrion or animal wounds ............................... .BOTTLE FLY LARVAHind spiracles with peritreme incomplete, not enclosing a “button,” (the “button” is a tiny, roundpale area which is sometimes hard to see, Fig. 35D) .................................................................................. 42

42. Slits of hind spiracle not pointing toward opening in peritreme (Fig. 36A); white to yellowish maggot10 t0 22 mm long when fully grown; develops in wounds, carrion or excrement .... FLESH FLY LARVASlits of hind spiracle pointing toward opening in peritreme {Fig. 36B); at least one of the prothoracicspiracles (close to front end) with 10 or more openings (Fig. 36C) .......................................................... 43

34A 34B 34C

35A

35B 35C

35D

36A 36B

36C

41

43. Hind spiracle with button distinct or absent, walls of slits with lateral swellings (Fig. 37A); white oryellowish maggot up to 18 mm long; develops only on dead animal tissues .................... SECONDARYSCREWWORMHind spiracle with button present, walls of slits without lateral swellings (Fig. 37B); white or yellow-ish maggot up to 17 mm long; develops in decaying organic matter, carrion or animal wounds................................................................................................................................ BLACK BLOW FLY LARVA

44. Peritreme of hind spiracle thick (Fig. 38A); nearly white maggot up to 13 mm long; common in moistfeces and decaying organic matter .................................................................................. HOUSE FLY LARVAPeritreme of hind spiracle thin (Fig. 38B); white maggot 6.5 to 7.5 mm long when fully grown; com-mon in fresh bovine feces ................................................................................................ HORN FLY LARVA

45. Small or slender, maggot-type larva usually, but not always, less than 13 mm long, tapering towardthe head (Fig. 39A); develops in decaying organic matter ........................................................................... 46Large, robust larva with very stout spines (Fig. 39B); over 15 mm long when fully grown; internalparasite of animals .......................................................................................................................................... 48

46. Button of hind spiracle centrally located (Fig. 40A); creamy white to pale yellow maggot up to 12 mmlong; develops in moist, decomposing organic matter (usually not in manure piles)............................................................................................................................................... STABLE FLY LARVAButton of hind spiracle not centrally located (Fig. 40B) ............................................................................. 47

47. Slits of hind spiracles strongly curved (Fig. 41A); yellowish maggot up to 13 mm long; develops infresh bovine manure ............................................................................................................. FACE FLY LARVASlits of hind spiracles not strongly curved (Fig. 41B); grayish to cream-colored larva 12 to 18 mm longwhen fully grown; develops in decaying organic matter, including manure .......... FALSE STABLEFLY LARVA

37A37B 38A 38B

39A 39B

40A40B 41A 41B

42

48. Hind spiracles with 3 distinct, slightly curved slits (Fig. 42A); yellowish- to dirty-white larva 17 to 24mm long when fully grown; spines dark brown; internal parasite of horses ..... HORSE BOT FLYLARVAHind spiracle without 3 distinct slits ............................................................................................................ 49

49. Button of hind spiracle not centrally located or enclosed; opening toward button wide (Fig. 42B); whitewhen young; mature larva black, up to 28 mm long and 13 mm wide; subcutaneous along back line ofcattle ......................................................................................................................... COMMON CATTLE GRUBButton of hind spiracle enclosed, centrally located (Fig. 42C); larva more than 15 mm long whenmature; body with stout spines ............................................................................................ SHEEP BOT FLY

42A 42B 42C

43

CHAPTER 3

PESTICIDES

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:After you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Explain four methods for classifying pesti-

cides.■ Understand the difference between contact

and systemic pesticides and how they con-trol pests.

■ Explain what organic and inorganic pesti-cides are.

■ Differentiate between several pesticidechemistries registered for use on animalsand the precautions necessary when han-dling or using them.

■ Distinguish between active and inert ingredi-ents.

■ Identify the factors to consider when choos-ing a formulation.

■ Explain the various methods of pesticideapplications appropriate for small animalsand their environment.

■ Perform the precautions necessary for safepesticide applications on an animal or in itsenvironment.

■ Recognize symptoms associated with smallanimal pesticide poisoning.

■ Explain how and when pesticides may beincompatible.

■ Understand how pesticides can harm nontar-get organisms.

Pesticides are substances or mixtures of sub-stances intended to prevent, destroy, repel or man-age pests. In addition, the Federal Insecticide,Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) hasextended the legal definition of a “pesticide” toinclude compounds intended for use as plantgrowth regulators, defoliants or desiccants, eventhough they are not normally used as pest manage-ment agents, and are usually not effective as such.

More specifically a pesticide may be defined asany chemical used to control pest populationsdirectly or to prevent or reduce pest damage.Though the ending “cide” is derived from theLatin word cida, meaning “to kill,” not all pesti-cides actually kill the target organism. For exam-ple, some fungicides may simply inhibit thegrowth of a fungus without killing it; attractantsand repellents lure a pest to or divert it from aparticular site.

The following chapters discuss a wide varietyof insects, mites and ticks that afflict companionanimals. Activities or infestations by these pestscan, in many cases, severely compromise thehealth and well-being of individual animals.

Though insecticides (control insects) and acari-cides (control arachnids) are not the only meansfor controlling or preventing these pests frombecoming problems, they often play an impor-tant or even a key role. Sometimes, one mustchoose between insecticide applications anddrug treatments to deal with insect pests that aretrue parasites.

Pesticides are a mixed blessing. For example,they contribute significantly to agricultural pro-ductivity and to improved public health by man-aging disease-carrying pests, but they canadversely affect people, nontarget organisms suchas fish and wildlife, and the environment.

Before using insecticides, one should thinkabout the components of an integrated pest man-agement program (see Chapter 2). For insect, miteor tick pests of animals, this means developingmanagement systems that employ the full rangeof physical and cultural methods available tomanage the pests before insecticides are used. Forexample, in the case of filth fly problems in ken-nels or pet exercise areas, insecticides should notbe used until good sanitation practices have been

44

established. Also, purchasing pets from reputablebreeders is a cultural preventive measure thatmay mean lice and mange mites can be avoidedor kept in check.

In another example, flea control for pet dogs orcats must include sanitation and control aroundthe home to eliminate larval fleas and flea eggs.Fleas do occur in very clean houses, but sanitationis essential for a successful flea management pro-gram. Attaching flea collars or medallions to petsduring seasons of high flea pressure may helpreduce the chance of new infestations. Check theanimal frequently, especially after it has been at aboarding or grooming facility or veterinarian’soffice. Other animals at these locations mayspread fleas to non-infested animals. Typically,only after an infestation occurs should you con-sider insecticide use in the home or on the pet,and then only in conjunction with good sanitationpractices. The exception may be when a pet hasflea bite sensitivity. Treatment after a flea popula-tion has become established would be too late toavoid the animal’s discomfort. In this case, insectgrowth inhibitor products may be effectively usedto prevent a problem from becoming established.

In this chapter, you will learn how pesticidesare classified, the types of formulations, applica-tion methods, basic concepts of pest control onanimals, and special concerns with pesticide useon and around animals. This knowledge will helpyou to use pesticides safely and effectively.

PESTICIDE CLASSIFICATIONSPesticides are classified according to a number

of methods. Each method serves specific pur-poses. The four most common methods of classi-fying pesticides are based on (1) the group ofpests managed by the pesticide, (2) how the pesti-cide works, (3) the chemical nature of the pesti-cide, and (4) the pesticide formulation.

Method 1: Types of Pests ManagedThis pesticide grouping system is as follows:

PesticideClassification Pests ManagedInsecticide Insects and other related animals Acaricide Mites, ticks and spidersMiticide MitesFungicide FungiHerbicide WeedsRodenticide RodentsAvicide BirdsPiscicide FishOvicide Eggs of organisms

Method 2: How Pesticides WorkThese common terms classify pesticides based

on how they work: Protectants – Pesticides applied to plants, ani-

mals, structures and products to prevent pestestablishment. These may include repellents.

Sterilants – Pesticides that manage pests by ren-dering them incapable of normal reproduction.

Broad-spectrums – Pesticides that control two ormore pests. They are sometimes labeled as multi-purpose chemicals. A material capable of control-ling fleas and ticks for, example, is broadspectrum. This category of pesticides is some-what more general than the others because abroad spectrum pesticide may be a protectant, aneradicant or a systemic in its action.

Contacts – Pesticides that kill pests simply bycoming into contacting with them.

Contact

Systemic

45

Systemics – Pesticides that are absorbed by onepart of the animal or plant and distributed inter-nally to other parts of the plant or animal. Forexample, some flea control agents are given orallyto dogs. The flea is killed when it bites the dogand ingests the insecticide.

Many synthetic organic pesticides work in oneor more of the ways listed above. Read the pesti-cide label to find out how the pesticide you areusing works.

Method 3: Pesticide ChemistryPesticides can be divided into two chemical

groups: inorganic and organic compounds. Inorganic pesticides are of mineral origin and

therefore do not contain carbon. They commonlycontain either copper, boron, sulfur or zinc.Examples are lime-sulfur and Bordeaux mix.Inorganic pesticides are used primarily to man-age plant diseases or for controlling certain pestson young, pregnant or stressed animals. Exam-ples are given in later chapters.

Organic pesticides contain carbon. They also con-tain hydrogen and often oxygen, nitrogen, phos-phorus, sulfur or other elements. Most pesticidesin use today are organic compounds. Most aresynthetic or manmade compounds. These com-pounds have been primarily responsible for therapidly expanding use of pesticides since the1940s. They are often extremely effective and easyto use, they have been relatively inexpensive, andsome are quite specific in their activity. Theyhave, however, been the principal focus of healthand environmental concerns and have been pri-marily responsible for problems associated withpesticide use and misuse.

The synthetic organic pesticides (i.e., man-made, carbon-containing chemicals) include thechlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates,carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, phenoxy her-bicides and a number of other chemical classes.

Several types of insecticides and acaricides areused to control pests on or around animals.Classes of drugs used for pest control on animalsare not reviewed in this manual. A drug is a treat-ment chemical approved and regulated by theFood and Drug Administration and is not classi-fied by the EPA as a pesticide. Certain drugs andinsecticides may control the same pest, however.

Under present regulations, pesticide labels mustcarry warnings against use of many compoundson certain animals or under certain circum-stances. These warnings may pertain to acute orchronic toxicity or to residues in livestock ani-mals. Label changes may arise from state or fed-

eral legislative action, changes in executive inter-pretation or changing ecological interests, so it iscritical to read and follow current label directionsevery time a product is used.

Method 4: Pesticide FormulationsThe component of a pesticide that controls the

target pest is called the active ingredient (a.i.).Before a pesticide product is sold, active ingredi-ents are mixed with liquid or dry inert ingredi-ents (non-pesticidal). Though inert ingredients donot kill the target pest, they may be capable ofcausing adverse environmental and humanhealth effects. Mixtures of active and inert ingre-dients are called pesticide formulations. Formu-lations make an active ingredient moreconvenient to handle; safer and easier to applymore accurately; and in some cases, more attrac-tive to the pest.

Classes of Insecticides/acaricidesUsed in Animal Pest Management:

Eleven chemical classes of insecticides and acaricides are used to control pests on or aroundanimals.

1. Chlorinated hydrocarbons. This class includeslindane and methoxychlor. Lindane has become arestricted use pesticide for mange mites and lice.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons are easily absorbedthrough the skin and accumulate in the body.Overexposure can occur from excessive use.These products are not recommended for catsand, several feline poisonings have occurred.Common symptoms of companion animal chlori-nated hydrocarbon poisoning may includeseizures, salivation, vomiting, tremors and death.

2. Organophosphates (OP). An organophosphate isa synthetic organic pesticide containing carbon,hydrogen and phosphorus. If the product labelbears chemical names containing “phosphoro”and recommendations to use atropine plus

46

pralidoxime (2-PAM) as an antidote for poison-ing, you can assume the product is an OP insecti-cide. Organophosphate compounds inhibitcholinesterase (see Chapter 5, Pesticides andHuman Health). Cholinesterase is a chemical cat-alyst (enzyme) found in mammals that helps reg-ulate the activity of nerve impulses.

This class of pesticides includes a broad rangeof insecticides/acaricides such as chlorpyrifos,malathion, DDVP, ronnel, stiriphos and others.Organophosphates are effective against a widerange of insects including fleas and ticks. OPs arecommercially available as ready-to-use insectici-dal solutions, emulsifiable concentrates, dips,dusts, baits and flea collars.

These products range from acutely to mildlytoxic to animals. The body has the ability to breakthese compounds down, usually in the first 24hours. Though they are less likely to accumulatein the body than chlorinated hydrocarbons,organophosphates cannot be used in conjunctionwith one another because they can accumulateduring a short period of time immediately follow-ing exposure. Find out whether the animal hasbeen administered an oral, systemic OP. If so, donot treat with a topically applied OP. The twoproducts can have a combined effect oncholinesterase activity.

Overexposure to OPs commonly causes suchsymptoms as tremors, vomiting, salivation, ataxia(inability to coordinate voluntary muscularmovements), loss of appetite, diarrhea, seizures,breathing difficulty (dyspnea), weakness anddeath.

A large percentage of serious OP poisoningshave been related to the more toxic dip solutionsdispensed by veterinarians. Major problems com-monly result when canine products are used oncats. Deaths associated with chlorpyriphos poi-sonings have also been attributed to dip solutions.Cats topically exposed to chlorpyriphos may havedelayed signs of poisoning, and these symptomsmay persist for weeks. Abnormal behavior andloss of appetite may be most noticeable.

The third most commonly reported organo-phosphate insecticide-related poisoning among allanimal types has been dichlorvos (DDVP). Manyfoggers contain DDVP in combination with othercholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides. DDVP-based flea collars have been involved with poison-ings, especially in cats. Reading product labelsand following all precautions and directions foruse greatly reduces the chance of poisonings.

Onset of symptoms after excessive OP exposureusually occurs within hours but may be delayedup to two days. Severity and development of

symptoms are influenced by the dosage and theroute of exposure (dermal, oral, etc.). If poisoningfrom an OP is suspected, obtain immediate assis-tance from a veterinarian and take the label of thesuspect insecticide with you.

3. Carbamates. Carbamates are similar toorganophosphates in activity—they inhibitcholinesterase. Carbaryl, propoxur and methomylare carbamates. Small animals have been the vic-tims of carbamate poisoning by products labeledfor use on sites other than on the animal. Theseinclude ant traps, products used for home insectcontrol and agricultural products. Methomyl isparticularly hazardous to dogs and cats becauseof its inherent toxicity (LD50 of 17 mg/kg) andthe apparent palatability of the sugar baits inwhich it is often formulated.

Carbamate poisoning is characterized by exces-sive salivation, tremors, vomiting, seizures, diar-rhea and loss of muscle control. If you suspectcarbamate poisoning, obtain immediate assis-tance from a veterinarian and take the label of thesuspect insecticide with you.

4. Synthetic pyrethroids. This class of insecti-cides/acaricides includes permethrin, resmethrinand allethrin. Often the formulations contain asynergist (something that enhances the effective-ness of the active ingredient) called piperonylbutoxide, or PBO. By itself, PBO is relatively non-toxic. The synthetic pyrethroids show propertiesof low mammalian toxicity but good activityagainst insects, ticks and mites. They do notappear to be readily absorbed through the skin.

Animals mildly affected by pyrethroids andthose in the early stages of pyrethroid poisoningoften display hypersalivation, vomiting, diarrhea,mild tremors, hyperexcitability or depression.These symptoms may be confused with symp-toms of organophosphate or carbamate poison-ing. More severely affected animals can have highfevers or lowered body temperature, difficultybreathing, severe tremors, disorientation andseizures. Death is due to respiratory failure. Gen-erally, these signs begin within a few hours ofexposure. In the case of excessive dermal expo-sure, the animal should be bathed using milddetergent and rinsed repeatedly. Initial assess-ment of the animal’s respiratory and cardiovascu-lar condition is important. Further treatmentrequires veterinarian assistance.

5. Botanicals . Rotenone and pyrethrin arederived from plants. They may be synergized incertain formulations with PBO. With the excep-tion of nicotine, plant-derived insecticides haveshown low mammalian toxicity.

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6. Repellents. Repellents, though not strictlyinsecticides, help prevent animal pest establish-ment. Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), butoxy-polypropylene glycol and dipropylisocinchomeronate are repellents with activityagainst certain arthropods. Some formulationscontaining synthetic pyrethroids are repellents.There have been reported deaths of both cats anddogs after excessive exposure to DEET. The mostcommon signs of poisoning include vomiting,tremors, ataxia and incoordination, hyperactivity,hypersalivation, depression, loss of appetite,seizures and breathing difficulty.

7. Lime sulfur (calcium polysulfide). Sulfur andlime-sulfur are two of the oldest insecticides.Lime-sulfur is an inorganic chemical option forlice control. Lime-sulfur may cause the animalirritation, discomfort or blistering, but it rarelycauses death. If overexposure is suspected, bathethe animal to remove any residues and rinserepeatedly with clean water.

8. Mineral oil. Mineral oil is useful as a barrieragainst biting flies in ears of horses. It is also adiluent in some ear mite treatments that containcarbaryl.

9. Amitraz. Amitraz is a formamidine chemicalwith insecticidal and acaricidal properties.

10. Insect growth regulators and hormone mimics.This class of insecticides prevents development ofimmature insects to the adult stage. Methopreneis formulated as a spray for flea control (eggs onanimals, larvae in the environment). These chemi-cals simulate the activity of juvenile hormone, thehormone in insects that maintains immature char-acteristics in insects.

11. Ivermectins. The ivermectin/avermectingroup of insecticides are labeled as drugs, andthey often come into use for pest control on ani-mals. Because they are drugs, they must beobtained and administered by a veterinarian forcompanion animal use.

FORMULATIONS USED IN MANAGINGSMALL ANIMAL PESTS

It is important to choose the formulation that isbest for a particular job based on its effectiveness,cost, practicality, and relative safety to you, theanimal being treated and the environment.

Insecticide and acaricide formulations varywidely and must be chosen to fit the particularsituation. A high-pressure hydraulic sprayerwould be inappropriate for applying a flea sham-poo to a puppy, to give one extreme example.Under certain conditions, the application methodrequires a particular formulation. Sometimes theformulation and application method aredescribed by the same word (e.g., shampoo). For-mulations used for small animal pest manage-ment include:

1. Ready to use (RTU). Ready-to-use formulationsrequire no mixing or combining with other ingredi-ents or diluents. They usually come in a containerthat serves as the application device, such as anaerosol can, pour-on bottle, roll-on, spot-on or spraybottle. These formulations tend to be the mostexpensive options because they are convenient andpackaged for application. These may include oint-ments or gels that help prevent fly bites.

2. Wettable powders. Wettable powders must bemixed with water before application. They areconcentrates in solid, powdered form. They canbe sprayed after mixing.

3. Emulsifiable concentrates. Emulsifiable concen-trates are liquids that must be mixed with waterbefore application. They can be sprayed aftermixing or sponged on the animal.

4. Shampoo. A shampoo is a formulation ofinsecticide and other ingredients that is appliedto an animal’s wet fur and worked into a lather.Label directions may indicate a length of timethat the shampoo must remain on the animal to

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achieve effective pest control before being thor-oughly rinsed off. Shampoos should be pH bal-anced and labeled for use on the pet to be treated.Industrial shampoos and dish detergents are notacceptable products for use on small animals.Exercise all caution when applying pesticideproducts to debilitated animals (animals weak-ened by injury, illness or some other stress). Theseanimals should be referred to a veterinarian forclose observation during and after application.

Insecticides for treating pests on animals are often for-mulated as shampoos.

5. Dust. A dust is a ready-to-use dry formula-tion. Protect the animal’s eyes from the dust.Applicators must wear appropriate personal pro-tective equipment to protect exposed skin, therespiratory tract and eyes.

6. Feed additive or bolus. These formulations aremixed with feed or, in the case of a bolus, feddirectly to an animal. Proban® is an FDA-regu-lated product available for companion animal usein a pill or liquid form. If a client is administeringan oral formulation, be sure the shampoo orproduct you select to use is compatible.

7. Collars and medallions. Some insecticides andacaricides are formulated with plastics, such as col-lars and medallions that are fixed to an animal andleft attached for a period of time. Collars and

medallions are used on small animals to controlfleas and ticks. Plastic straps containing an insecti-cide can be fixed to horse halters for biting fly con-trol. In these formulations, the insecticide movesfrom the plastic to the hair or coat of the animal.

8. Pastes, liquids, powders and tablets/pellets.These formulations are given orally to animals tocontrol internal parasites. Some products haverestrictions, are regulated as drugs by the FDA,and may be purchased and administered only bylicensed veterinarians.

9. Baits. Baits are either commercially preparedas dry granules or made as mixes of insecticides,sweeteners and water, as discussed in “Methodsof Application” below.

METHODS OF APPLICATIONThe methods of application of insecticides/acari-

cides to animals or the animals’ environmentdepend on the target pest, the formulation chosenand the number of animals or size of area to betreated. Sometimes the limiting factor will be theavailability of application equipment or suitablefacilities and helpers. Applicators must wear allthe protective equipment required on the pesticidelabel. Labels list minimum requirements. Theapplicator should use common sense and protectbody areas that may be at risk of exposure. Water-proof aprons, gloves, boots and goggles are alwaysa wise choice, especially when bathing animals.

Always wear the appropriate personal protection equip-ment when making a pesticide application.

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A premise spray is an insecticide application thatwill persist on the surfaces in an animal’s livingarea for a period of time. Pest insects, such as filthflies or fleas, will contact these surfaces,encounter the insecticide and die. The spray isintended to offer a few days to a few weeks ofcontrol.

An area spray or space spray does not involve aninsecticide with long residual qualities. Instead,the spray, aerosol or fog kills the insects in thearea at the time of the application. Thus, a spacespray is much more temporary than a premisespray. A space spray may involve ultra-low vol-ume equipment—small droplets of insecticide aresprayed at a low rate of application into thespace.

An insecticidal bait can be purchased ready touse (generally dry, as granules) or can be mixed.Baits can be established at bait stations that lurethe pest toward the insecticide source. Some flybaits contain attractants to draw flies in, such asmuscamone. Some fly baits are made by mixingsugar, corn syrup or molasses with water andinsecticide, and then applied as a slurry with abrush to surfaces in confined settings. Caution:Do not apply this sweet mixture where animalscan lick it from treated surfaces.

Dips are another method of insecticide applica-tion to animals. “Dip” is often the term used todescribe the shampoo procedure performed oncompanion pets in kennels, grooming salons andin veterinary clinics. These situations do notrequire that the animal be immersed, nor does theanimal stand in treated water. Dips may also bepour-on products that do not require total immer-sion of the animal.

The person bathing or dipping the animalshould wear a water- and chemicalproof apronand gloves. As noted in Chapter 5, Pesticides andHuman Health, a human’s groin area is the mostabsorptive part of the body and should be com-pletely protected from pesticide exposure. Gog-gles will prevent splashing water from enteringthe eyes. Always wear the minimum amount ofpersonal protective equipment required on thelabel. It’s OK to wear more.

Pour-ons and spot-ons are high-concentrate, low-volume formulations applied directly to animals.The materials are applied with the container theyare purchased in. Because of the toxicity of theproducts, spot-ons are typically applied by a vet-erinarian. These products may require that afterbeing applied, the animal be completely driedbefore it contacts humans or other animals. Wipesare also used as direct applications to animals—cloths or sponges are saturated with the pesticide

and used to wipe the animal. Wipes are not com-monly used for small animal treatments.

Animals can be dusted with the use of theshaker in which the product is packaged. Theeyes of the animal and the applicator should beprotected from dusts.

Collars and medallions, though technically formu-lations as described above, are also methods ofapplication. These formulations come ready touse and are applied by fastening them to the ani-mal. They offer long-term release of insecticide oracaricide onto the animal.

Feeding insecticides to animals can be accom-plished with drugs prescribed by or obtainedfrom veterinarians. Of course, only those insecti-cides labeled for oral delivery can be provided inthis manner. In other cases, every attempt shouldbe made to avoid contaminating water and feedwith insecticides.

PESTICIDE USE AROUND ANIMALSPesticide use on animals or in their environ-

ment must be done with the safety of the animalsand the applicator in mind. Remember that insec-ticides and acaricides are toxic not only to the tar-get pest but also to the animals at certain doses.Thus, the dose-response relationship of the insec-ticide and the targeted animal must be consid-ered. Many insecticides are labeled withrestrictions and are not to be used on animals ofcertain ages (especially young ones), in certainreproductive states (pregnancy, nursing), or oncertain breeds. Also, use extreme caution or avoid

Protect the animal’s eyes from pesticides by applying anophthalmic ointment before the pesticide treatment.

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using pesticides on animals just before or justafter surgery. The product may interact with theanesthesia.Apply all insecticides with extremecare. Insecticides should never be applied to theeyes, nostrils or mouth. When treating dogs andcats for fleas using a spray, the applicator shouldwear appropriate protective gear and shieldhis/her eyes and those of the animal. It is stan-dard practice to apply an ophthalmic (eye) oint-ment to protect a dog or cat’s eyes before dipping,spraying or shampooing. Petroleum jellies are notan acceptable substitute for ophthalmic ointment.Be sure not to contaminate ointments. Handlecarefully and wash your hands between animaltreatments.

Insecticides must be applied at the rates andwith the application methods described on thelabel. Labels also usually state to avoid testicleand vulva areas and mammary gland areas if theanimal is nursing young.

Application of certain insecticides or acaricideson animals is done with the intent of creating aresidual of systemic insecticide in the body tis-sues of the animal. These insecticides are used inways that do not differ greatly from the waydrugs are used for animal health. In such cases,there may be dose limits established in relation tothe weight of the animal. Thus, only a certainamount of insecticide per unit of body weight canbe applied at any one time.

Many kinds of pesticides are commercially avail-able. Though different products may have thesame active ingredient, the formulations can varysignificantly. The result may be that one product issafe for animal applications and others are deadly.Use only products specifically labeled for use onanimals or in animal habitats. Consult withexperts such as veterinarians, licensed veterinarytechnicians, Extension specialists or product

Ophthalmic ointment will help prevent pesticide irritation.Extra caution will be necessary when working with ani-mals with flat profiles such as the one on the right.Source: Canine Terminology

representatives for help in selecting the best prod-uct for your situation. These experts can provideverbal advice and specialized literature to helpmake your decision and support your action.When selecting an insecticide, the label is a pri-mary source of information. If the label does notallow the use or method of application you intendto use on the animal, then that insecticide formula-tion cannot be used.

When several product choices are available,consider the type and percent of active ingredi-ent, toxicity, formulation, equipment required tomake the application and requirements forretreatment later.

In general, observe the following guidelines forinsecticide use on or around animals:

1. Use only products labeled for use on animalsor in animal environments.

2. Do not exceed label dosages; measure care-fully.

3. Read labels before using and follow allinstructions.

4. Provide adequate ventilation while usingpesticides.

5. Prevent drift or drainage to adjacent crop-land, yards, woodlots, lakes or ponds. (Someinsecticides may severely harm fish and wildlife.)

6. Avoid treatment of animals that are sick,overheated or stressed (such as after shipping,surgery or heartworm treatment, or recentlyweaned).

7. If available, use a dust formulation instead ofsprays on outdoor animals on cold winter days.

8. Avoid contaminating feed (feeders and/orfeed in storage) and water (including waterers,wells and reservoirs). See Chapter 6, PesticideHandling, Storage and Disposal.

9. Use all appropriate personal protectiveequipment during applications of any pesticide.

10. Do not add new insecticides to old, previ-ously used dipping water. Start with fresh water.

11. Do not reuse towels used for drying animalswithout washing them. Launder towels on thehottest and longest wash cycle, using heavydetergent, between uses.

12. Avoid using pesticides when an animal hasbeen, will be or is anesthetized.

13. Keep records of pesticide applications. SeeChapter 1, Laws and Regulations.

14. Always store and dispose of pesticide con-tainers according to label directions.

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COMPATIBILITY of PESTICIDES In some situations, applicators may attempt to

manage more than one pest with a single applica-tion by combining pesticides. Such a practice cancreate problems, sometimes more serious andcostly than applying the chemicals alone. There isno question that product mixing requires exten-sive knowledge of pesticide formulations, timingof application and application techniques.

The important issue is to determine the compat-ibility of the products involved. In simple terms,we are concerned about whether the mixtures canbe used in combination without reducing thesafety and effectiveness of the compounds. Beforecombining any pesticides, check labels, productinformation sheets, company representatives orExtension agents for information on compatibilityof the products in question.

Below are important areas of incompatibilitythat you should consider before attempting tomix products.

Host ToleranceAs mentioned earlier, problems can arise when

more than one organophosphate is applied to ananimal at any one time, or when a residual is stillpresent from a previously applied dose. Neveruse more than one OP insecticide on an animal.The combined effects of the OPs may cause irre-versible damage to the animal or even kill it.Also, some animals are more sensitive to certainproducts than others. Always read the labelbefore applying a pesticide on an animal.

Cats are more sensitive to pesticides than most dogs.

Physical IncompatibilityPhysical incompatibility occurs when two or

more pesticides are mixed together and the resultis an unsprayable mixture because of excessivefoaming, curdling or a gummy deposit. Hardwater and cold water can also cause some physi-cal incompatibilities.

Chemical IncompatibilityThis type of incompatibility occurs when mix-

ing pesticides reduces or destroys the effective-ness of one or all of the compounds. This happensfrequently when materials with a high pH areadded to the mixture. Chemical incompatibility isnot evident in the spray tank but becomes appar-ent when the application fails to control the targetpest adequately.

Timing IncompatibilityPesticides must be applied when the pest is at a

vulnerable stage of development. With manyinsects, diseases or weeds, this may be a rela-tively short period. It is of utmost importancewhen using two or more chemicals to managemore than one pest to apply the mixture at thecorrect time in the pests’ life cycles to be effective.

This has been a brief summary of pesticidecompatibility problems. Remember, you shouldnever assume that pesticides can be mixedtogether unless the combination is specificallyindicated on a product label. If recommendationsfor use are not given on the label, the products inthe mix must be applied at a rate not to exceedthe label directions for use of any componentproduct applied alone for the same purpose.Many product labels have toll-free numbers. Callwith any questions you may have before using aproduct.

SPECIAL CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITHPESTICIDE USAGE

Careless pesticide use can create pest resistanceand may harm nontarget species. The followingsections explain precautions that applicators cantake to avoid these problems.

Pest ResistanceCross-resistance and multiple resistance to

some pesticides (especially insecticides) arebecoming common. Cross-resistance occurs whena pest develops resistance to two or more com-pounds that are usually chemically related withsimilar modes of action. (Mode of action refers tothe chemical’s means of exerting a toxic effect.)Multiple resistance occurs when a pest can toler-ate pesticides from different classes of com-pounds with unlike modes of action. Some fleapopulations have shown resistance to variousinsecticides.

The possible solutions to a resistance problemmay involve using new or altered pesticides,

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changing pesticide use patterns and, when treat-ing an area repeatedly, alternating the type ofinsecticide used.

Hazard to Nontarget OrganismsAnother problem associated with pesticide

usage is potential injury to nontarget organisms.Most pesticide poisonings of humans and ani-mals are caused by insecticides. Great care mustbe taken in selecting and using insecticides so asto minimize injury to pesticide handlers and oth-ers who may come in contact with pesticideresidues. Explain to the pet owner precautions tobe observed after a pet has been treated. Take carealso to safeguard bees, birds, fish and otherwildlife and nontarget plants. Bathe or dip pets sothat drift, runoff or disposal options do notthreaten nontarget organisms or water sources.

Information on pesticides and their uses is avail-able on the label and from your county Extensionoffice, the manufacturer’s technical service repre-sentative and state regulatory agencies. Thesesources can provide the best information availableon pesticides, their potential adverse effects andtheir place in a total pest management program. Consider potential hazards to nontarget organism

Using new compounds with different modes ofaction will lessen the likelihood of resistance devel-opment. These include compounds that are veryselective in which pests they kill and compoundsthat modify the pest’s mating or feeding behavior.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. A pesticide is a chemical that:a. manages only insects and vertebratesb. directly controls pest populationsc. prevents or reduces pest damaged. only a certified applicator may applye. b and c

2. List the four classification methods of pesticidesand give an example of each.1.2.3.4.

3. An insecticide is a pesticide used to manage_____________________________.

4. Pesticide products labeled for use in controllingfleas are:a. potentially toxic to the host animals.b. formulated as shampoos and dusts.c. insecticides.d. available in collars.e. all of the above.

5. Pesticides with chlorinated hydrocarbon chem-istry are not recommended for use on cats. Trueor False?

6. What are the symptoms that a small animalmay exhibit as a result of overexposure to anorganophosphate pesticide?

Chapter 3 – Review Questions

7. Which two types of pesticide chemistry inhibitcholinesterase? What types of pests of smallanimals do these pesticides control?

8. If an animal is overexposed, it can be killed bypesticide products even though the productsare labeled for use on small animals. True orFalse?

9. Protectants are pesticides applied to managepests by rendering them incapable of normalreproduction. True or False?

10. A pesticide that controls more than one pest iscalled:a. systemic.b. broad-spectrum.c. multipurpose.d. a and ce. b and c

11. What is the difference between a contact and asystemic pesticide?

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12. Pesticides that contain carbon are called:a. organic pesticides.b. inorganic pesticides.c. synthetic pesticides.d. These don’t exist.e. carbonic pesticides.

13. The component of the pesticide that controlsthe target pest is called the active ingredient.True or False?

14. List four types of synthetic organic pesticides.

15. Explain the difference between a premisespray and an area or space spray.

16. When choosing among several insecticideproducts, what are some of the things thatmust be considered?

17. What does the term “incompatibility” meanwith reference to mixtures of pesticides?

18. List three types of pesticide incompatibilityand give a brief definition of each.1.

2.

3.

19. Where can you find information on the com-patibility of pesticide mixtures?

20. What are nontarget organisms?

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CHAPTER 4

PESTICIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Understand the various processes that affect

pesticides after they are released into theenvironment.

■ Describe ways that pesticides move off sitein or on objects, plants or animals.

■ Explain what groundwater is and where it isstored.

■ Distinguish between point sources and non-point sources of pesticide contamination.

■ Describe the actions that pesticide users cantake to avoid pesticide contamination ofgroundwater.

■ Recognize that nontarget organisms can beharmed by both pesticides and pesticideresidues.

As our population continues to grow, so do ourdemands for clean water and air and an environ-ment that does not threaten our health and safety.We have become increasingly concerned aboutthe quality of our environment. We worry that theearth’s natural resources are not only beingdepleted, but are also becoming polluted andunfit for human use. As a result, many of theactivities that we used to take for granted arenow being carefully examined for potential dam-age to the environment. Pesticides are just onegroup of chemicals being blamed for environ-mental degradation.

Pesticides include the products used for flea,tick and other pest control on animals and in theirsurroundings. How these products are used bythe applicator affects the animals’ well-being andcan have a positive or negative impact on theenvironment. These products must be handledand disposed of correctly to avoid negativeimpacts to the applicator, the animal and theenvironment.

This chapter explores what happens to pesti-cides (their fate) after application. You will learnabout groundwater and how it can be contami-nated. We will discuss the effects of pesticides onnontarget organisms and the environment. Forour purposes, environment means all of ourphysical, chemical and biological surroundings,such as climate, soil, water and air, and all speciesof plants, animals and microorganisms.

PESTICIDE FATEIt is important to understand the behavior of

chemicals used as pesticides after they have beenapplied according to label directions. We willdescribe some of the processes that change orinfluence the availability, effectiveness, structureor physical identity of chemicals used as pesti-cides.

When a pesticide is released into the environ-ment, it is affected by various processes. Some-times these processes are beneficial. For example,

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pesticide degradation (deterioration) can removenon-essential pesticide residues from the environ-ment. The leaching of a root-absorbed herbicideinto the root zone can enhance weed manage-ment. However, some processes can be detrimen-tal. Runoff can move a pesticide away from targetsites and pests. As a result, chemical is wasted,control is reduced, and the chanced of damage tonontarget plants, hazard to human health, andpollution of nearby soil and water increase.

AdsorptionAdsorption is the binding of chemicals to soil

particles. (This term is sometimes confused withabsorption. See the next section.) The amount andthe persistence of pesticide adsorption vary withpesticide properties, soil moisture content, soilacidity and soil texture. Soils high in organic mat-ter or clay are the most adsorptive; coarse, sandysoils that lack organic matter or clay are muchless adsorptive.

A soil-adsorbed pesticide is less likely tovolatilize, leach or be degraded by microorganisms.When pesticides are tightly held by soil particles,they are less available for absorption by plants oranimals and other processes to affect them.

No small animal pest control measures areintended to be applied directly to soils. However,pesticides used in the animal’s environment or onthe animal and then rinsed off may come in con-tact with soil when the rinse water is released. Atthis point, the soil environment will have aneffect on the persistence of the pesticide in theenvironment.

AbsorptionAbsorption is the process by which plants, ani-

mals, humans or microorganisms take up chemi-cals. Absorption is another process that cantransfer pesticides in the environment.

VolatilizationVolatilization occurs when a solid or a liquid

turns into a gas. A pesticide in a gaseous state canbe carried away from a treated area by air cur-rents—the movement of pesticide vapors in theatmosphere is called vapor drift. Unlike the driftof sprays and dusts that can sometimes be seenduring an application, vapor drift is invisible.

RunoffRunoff occurs as water moves over a sloping

surface, carrying pesticides either mixed in thewater or bound to eroding soil. Runoff may occur

after a spill, when an agricultural or home lawnapplication is followed by a heavy rain or whengray water from an animal dip is discharged to aninappropriate site (such as open gray lines onmobile grooming units).

LeachingLeaching is another process that moves pesti-

cides in water. In contrast to runoff, which occursas water moves on the surface of the soil, leachingoccurs as water moves downward through thesoil. Several factors influence the leaching of pes-ticides. These include the water solubility of thepesticide. A pesticide that is dissolved in watercan move readily with the water as it seepsthrough the soil. Soil structure and texture influ-ence soil permeability (how fast the water movesthrough soil) as well as the amount and persis-tence of pesticide adsorption to soil particles.Adsorption is probably the most important factorinfluencing leaching of pesticides. If a pesticide isstrongly adsorbed to soil particles, it is less likelyto leach.

Groundwater contamination is a major concernassociated with the leaching of pesticides frommixing and rinsing sites, waste disposal areas andmanufacturing facilities. Refer to the next sectionin this chapter, “Groundwater Contamination,”for information on how to prevent contamination.

Microbial DegradationMicrobial degradation occurs when microor-

ganisms such as fungi and bacteria use pesticidesas food sources. One gram of soil may containthousands of microbes. Microbial degradationcan be rapid and thorough under soil conditionsfavoring microbial growth. Those conditionsinclude warm temperatures, favorable pH levels,adequate soil moisture, aeration (oxygen) and fer-tility. The amount of adsorption also influencesmicrobial degradation. Adsorbed pesticides,because they are less available to some microor-ganisms, are more slowly degraded.

Chemical DegradationChemical degradation is the breakdown of a

pesticide by processes not involving a livingorganism. The adsorption of pesticides to the soil,soil pH levels, soil temperature and moisture allinfluence the rate and type of chemical reactionsthat occur. Many pesticides, especially theorganophosphate insecticides, are susceptible todegradation by hydrolysis in high pH (alkaline)soils or spray mixes.

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PhotodegradationPhotodegradation is the breakdown of pesti-

cides by the action of sunlight. Pesticides appliedto foliage, the soil surface or structures vary con-siderably in their stability when exposed to nat-ural light. Like other degradation processes,photodegradation reduces the amount of chemi-cal present and can reduce the level of pestc1ontrol. Soil incorporation by mechanical meth-ods during or after application or by irrigationwater or rainfall following application can reducepesticide exposure to sunlight.

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATIONGroundwater is the water beneath the earth’s

surface occupying the saturated zone, the areawhere all the pore spaces in the rock or soil arefilled with water. It is stored in water-bearing geo-logical formations known as aquifers. Groundwa-ter moves through aquifers and can be obtained atpoints of natural discharge such as springs orstreams or by wells drilled into the aquifer.

The upper level of the water-saturated zone inthe ground is called the water table. The watertable depth below the soil surface fluctuatesthroughout the year, depending on the amount ofwater removed from the ground and the amountof water added by recharge. Recharge is waterthat seeps through the soil from rain, meltingsnow or irrigation.

Surface waters are visible bodies of water suchas lakes, rivers and oceans. Both surface waterand groundwater can be contaminated by non-point source pollution. This type of pollutiongenerally results from land runoff, precipitation,

acid rain or percolation rather than from a dis-charge at a specific, single location (such as a sin-gle pipe). Nonpoint source pollution occurs whenthe rate at which pollutant materials enteringwater bodies or groundwater exceeds natural lev-els. Contamination from discharge at a singlelocation (such as a single discharge pipe from afactory) is point source pollution.

The potential for groundwater pollution fromimproper pesticide use is a significant concern.

Pesticides in GroundwaterEarlier in this chapter, we discussed pesticide

fate and the numerous transfer and breakdownprocesses that occur in the environment. Thoseprocesses help determine whether pesticidesreach groundwater or are degraded before reach-ing these underground waters. Geological charac-teristics, such as the depth of the water table andthe presence of sinkholes, are also critical. If thewater table is close to the soil surface, there maybe few opportunities for adsorption and degrada-tion to occur.

On the soil surface and within the first fewinches of soil, pesticides can be volatilized,adsorbed to soil particles, taken up by plants orbroken down by sunlight, soil microorganisms andchemical reactions. The extent of pesticide leachingis affected by both pesticide and soil properties.Weather conditions and management practicesalso affect leaching of pesticides through the soil.Too much rain or irrigation water can leach pesti-cides or cause runoff beyond the treatment area. Apesticide that is not volatilized, absorbed byplants, bound to soil or broken down can poten-tially move through the soil to groundwater.

WHERE GROUNDWATER OCCURS

Water table Unsaturated zone

Saturated zone

Groundwater

GravelFractured bedrock

Surface water

Well

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Keeping Pesticides Out of Groundwaterand Surface Water

Michigan’s aquifers currently provide a vastsupply of clean water for agriculture, homes andindustry. They can ensure high quality ground-water for future needs only if they are protectednow. Be sure to understand how your activities,including pesticide usage and disposal, can affectgroundwater and surface water.

It is very difficult to purify or clean contami-nated groundwater. Treatment is complicated,time consuming, expensive and often not feasible.The best solution to groundwater contamination isto prevent it in the first place. The following pesti-cide applicator practices can reduce the potentialfor surface and groundwater contamination:

■ Use integrated pest management programs —Minimize pesticide use by combining use of chemicals with other pest managementpractices.

■ Select pesticides carefully — Read labels care-fully and consult a specialist if necessary.

■ Follow label directions — The label carries cru-cial information about the proper rate, tim-ing and placement of the pesticide in thatcontainer. The label is the law. Follow alllabel directions.

■ Calibrate accurately — Equipment should becalibrated carefully and often. During thecalibration procedure, check the equipmentfor leaks and malfunctions. Be sure you areapplying the label rates.

■ Measure accurately — Concentrates need tobe measured carefully before they arediluted and applied. Do not “add a littleextra” to ensure the pesticide will do a betterjob. Such practices only increase the likeli-hood of injury to the treated area or animal,the cost of pest management and the chanceof groundwater contamination.

■ Avoid back-siphoning — The end of the fill hoseshould remain above the water level in thetub or spray tank at all times to preventback-siphoning of chemical into the watersupply. Use an anti-backflow device whenappropriate. These practices also reduce thelikelihood that the hose will become contam-inated with pesticides.

■ Clean up spills—avoid spills. When spillsoccur, contain and clean them up quickly.Chemicals spilled near wells and sinkholescan move directly and rapidly into ground-water. (See Chapter 6, Pesticide Handling,Storage and Disposal.)

After pesticides reach groundwater, theymay continue to breakdown but at a muchslower rate because of less available light,heat and oxygen. The movement of ground-water is often slow and difficult to predict.Substances that enter the groundwater inone location can turn up years later in otherlocations. This means that your contamina-tion eventually becomes someone else’s con-tamination: if you contaminate your well,you are likely contaminating your neigh-bor’s well and many others, too. A major dif-ficulty in dealing with groundwatercontaminants is that the sources of pollutionare not easily identifiable. The problem isoccurring underground, out of sight.

■ Dispose of wastes properly — All pesticidewastes must be disposed of in accordancewith local, state and federal laws. Instruc-tions for triple-rinsing are included in thepesticide storage and disposal chapter.Never pour unused pesticides or rinse waterinto sewers, streams or other places wherethey will contaminate the water.

■ Store pesticides away from water sources —Pesticide storage facilities should be situatedaway from wells, cisterns, springs and otherwater sources.

EFFECTS ON NONTARGET ORGANISMSApplying pesticides carelessly can harm nontar-

get organisms that are beneficial to agriculture,our environment and our existence. It is crucialthat we protect ourselves and these species. Con-sider what happens to the pesticide after it hasbeen applied to the animal you are treating. Is itrinsed off, or does it stay on the animal? Who orwhat may contact the residues left on the animal?What kind of fish, fowl and other organisms livewhere treated water is released?

Bees and Other PollinatorsBees and other pollinating insects are essential

for successful production of many crops such as

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deciduous tree fruits, small fruits, most seedcrops and certain vegetables. Many pesticides,particularly insecticides, are highly toxic to polli-nating honeybees and wild bees. Be aware of howbee poisonings can occur and how they can beprevented. If treating an animal’s environment,do not treat or dispose of rinse water near hivesor flowering plants.

Other Beneficial Insects and Microorganisms

The best way to avoid injury to beneficialinsects and microorganisms is to minimize pesticide usage. Use selective pesticides when-ever possible and apply them only when neces-sary as part of a total pest management program.

Fish and Other WildlifePesticides can be harmful to all kinds of verte-

brates. Direct effects from acute poisoning are themost recognizable impacts. Fish kills often are adirect result of water pollution by a pesticide. Pes-ticides can enter water via drift, surface runoff,soil erosion, leaching and, in some cases, deliber-ate or careless release of pesticide directly into thewater. Fish kills are most often caused by insecti-cide contamination of small ponds or streams

with low water volume or turnover. Mobile ani-mal grooming units must dispose of their usedbath water (gray water) in a manner that does notcontaminate surface or groundwater.

Bird kills from pesticides can occur in a numberof ways. Birds can ingest the toxicant in granules,baits or treated seed; they may be exposeddirectly to the spray; they may consume a treatedcrop or drink or use contaminated water; theymay feed on pesticide-contaminated prey.

To avoid environmental damage, use pesticidescarefully, wisely and according to the instructionson the product label.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. List four processes that affect pesticides as theyare released into the environment.

1.

2.

3.

4.

2. Airborne movement of a pesticide from the tar-get area occurs only during application and isclearly visible when it occurs. True or false?

3. ________________ occurs when water moves onthe soil surface. ________________ occurs whenwater moves through the soil.

4. Groundwater is stored in ___________________.

5. If a contaminant reaches groundwater, it maycontinue to break down but at a much slowerrate than if it were at the soil surface. Why?

6. What is the difference between point source andnonpoint source pollution?

7. What is the best solution to groundwater contamination?

8. List five or more practices that reduce thepotential for groundwater and surface watercontamination.

9. Fish kills most commonly result from pollutionof water by _______ in small ponds or streamswith low water volume or turnover.a. herbicidesb. fungicidesc. insecticidesd. rodenticidese. avicides

10. List some of the ways nontarget animals maybe killed by pesticides.

Chapter 4 – Review Questions

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CHAPTER 5

PESTICIDES AND HUMAN HEALTH

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ List the four routes by which your body can

be exposed to pesticides.■ Understand acute toxicity and the effects.■ Understand chronic toxicity and the effects.■ Explain what the signal words on a pesticide

label represent.■ Recognize some general signs and symptoms

of pesticide poisoning.■ Perform appropriate first aid for pesticide

exposure.

■ Explain the concepts of risk, toxicity andexposure and how they relate to one another.

■ Describe your legal responsibility for follow-ing personal protective requirements in pes-ticide labeling.

■ Explain the importance of wearing gloveswhen you handle pesticides.

■ Explain some basic guidelines for cleaning andmaintaining personal protective equipment.

Pesticides are generally toxic to living organ-isms. They are specifically designed to be toxic tothose organisms we consider pests. However, liv-ing organisms share some basic features, and asubstance that is toxic to one species may beharmful to another, including humans.

This chapter explains how pesticides enter thebody, how to protect yourself from contaminationand how to perform first aid if contaminationdoes occur. An explanation of terms will help

clarify this information. The words “toxicity” and“hazard” often are used interchangeably whendescribing a pesticide’s toxic effects. However,they are not the same. Toxicity is a measure of thecapacity of the pesticide to cause injury. It is aproperty of the chemical itself and its concentra-tion. Hazard, on the other hand, is the potentialfor injury. It reflects both the toxicity of the pesti-cide and the likelihood that significant exposurewill occur in a particular situation. Pesticideapplicators should be concerned with the hazardsassociated with exposure to the chemical notexclusively with the toxicity of the chemical itself.

To avoid or minimize the hazards of pesticideuse, know what you are using and how to use it.This means you must read the label carefully andfollow the instructions. Poisonings do occur asthe result of occupational exposure, careless use,misuse or mishandling. The attitude of the appli-cator is of utmost importance. If applicators mis-takenly think they know exactly how to use apesticide or neglect or ignore precautions theyshould take, accidents are more likely to occur.Taking adequate precautions and practicing goodcommon sense with safety in mind minimizes thepotential for accidents from pesticide usage.

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EXPOSURE: HOW PESTICIDES ENTER THE BODY

To cause an adverse effect (including death), apesticide must first enter the body and reach asusceptible site. Four primary routes throughwhich a pesticide can enter the human body are:the skin (dermal), the lungs (inhalation), themouth (oral) and the eyes (ocular).

Dermal ExposureThe skin is an important route of pesticide entry

into the body. Dermal absorption may occur froma splash, spill or drift when mixing, loading,applying or disposing of pesticides. It may alsoresult from being exposed to plant residue orcleaning or repairing contaminated equipment.

Even small amounts of chemical allowed toremain on the skin and be absorbed into the body,can poison a person. Parts of the body vary intheir ability to absorb pesticides. The statistics inTable 1, obtained from a study of volunteers, showthat you should take special care to protect thescalp, ear canal and forehead, as well as the groinarea. Note that the scrotal area is 100 percentabsorptive. A hat with a wide brim and or faceshield would serve to protect the three head areas,and a waterproof apron can protect the groin.

Table 1

Anatomy Percent Absorption*

Scalp 32.1Ear canal 46.5Forehead 36.3Forearm 8.6Palm of hand 11.8Abdomen 18.4Scrotum 100.0Ball of feet 13.5_______________________________________*Parathion, an agricultural pesticide, was used inthis study.

The scrotal area and the head tend to be themost absorptive areas, though cuts, abrasions andskin rashes can enhance absorption in other partsof the body. Pesticide formulations vary in theirabsorbency through skin. In general, wettablepowders, dusts and granular pesticides are not asreadily absorbed as oil-based liquid formulationssuch as emulsifiable concentrates.

Ocular (Eye) ExposureUnder certain conditions and with certain pesti-

cides, absorption through the eyes can be signifi-cant and particularly hazardous. Eyes are verysensitive to many pesticides and, consideringtheir size, are able to absorb surprisingly largeamounts of chemical. Serious eye exposure canresult from a splash or spill, drift, or rubbing theeyes with contaminated hands or clothing. Avoidthis type of exposure by always wearing protec-tive eye covering such as goggles or a face shield.

Inhalation ExposureProtecting the lungs is especially important

because pesticide powders, dusts, gases, vaporsand especially very small spray droplets can beinhaled during mixing, loading or application orwhen pesticides are applied in confined areas.Once breathed into the lungs, pesticides can enterthe bloodstream rapidly and completely. Ifinhaled in sufficient amounts, pesticides candamage nose, throat and lung tissue. The labelwill indicate whether face masks or respiratorsare required when using specific pesticides.

Wear the correct amount of personal protective equip-ment when working with pesticides.

Anatomy Percent Absorption*

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Oral ExposureAccidental oral exposure occurs most fre-

quently when pesticides have been taken fromthe original labeled container and put into anunlabeled bottle or food container. Unfortunately,children are the most common victims. Childrenunder age 10 are the victims of at least half of theaccidental pesticide deaths in the United States.Keep pesticides in their original containers.

Oral exposure also occurs when liquid concen-trates splash into the mouth during handling orwhen cleaning equipment. The mouth shouldnever be used to clear a spray line or to beginsiphoning a pesticide. Chemicals can also be swal-lowed when eating, drinking or smoking, or evenlicking one’s lips. Many pesticides are rapidly andcompletely absorbed by the intestinal tract, so it issound advice to wash hands and face thoroughlybefore eating, drinking or smoking. Do not eat orsmoke while handling pesticides.

TOXICITY AND POTENTIAL HEALTHEFFECTS OF PESTICIDES

The toxicity of a particular pesticide is deter-mined by subjecting test animals (usually rats,mice, rabbits and dogs) to various dosages of anactive ingredient and to each of its formulatedproducts. From these studies, acute and chronictoxicity and effects are determined. Then signalwords are assigned and proper handling proce-dures are determined to reduce risk.

Acute Toxicity and Acute EffectsAcute toxicity is the capacity of a pesticide to

cause injury from a single exposure. This is themost common type of pesticide poisoning.

Acute toxicity is determined by at least threemethods:

1. Dermal toxicity is determined by exposing theskin to the chemical.

2. Inhalation toxicity is determined by permit-ting the test animals to breathe vapors of thechemical.

3. Oral toxicity is determined by feeding thechemical to test animals.

The harmful effects that occur from a singleexposure by any route of entry are termed acuteeffects. In addition, the effect of the chemical asan irritant to the eyes and skin is examined underlaboratory conditions.

Acute toxicity is usually expressed as LD50(lethal dose 50) and LC50 (lethal concentration50). This is the amount or concentration of a toxi-cant required to kill 50 percent of a test popula-tion of animals under a standard set ofconditions. LD50 values of pesticides arerecorded in milligrams of pesticide per kilogramof body weight of the test animal (mg/kg) or inparts per million (ppm). LC50 values of pesticidesare recorded in milligrams of pesticide per vol-ume of air or water (ppm). To put these units intoperspective, 1 ppm can be compared to 1 inch in16 miles or 1 minute in 2 years.

The LD50 and LC50 values are used to comparethe toxicity of various active ingredients as wellas different formulations of the same active ingre-dient. The lower the LD50 value of a pesticide,the less it takes to kill 50 percent of the popula-tion, and therefore the greater the acute toxicity ofthe chemical. Pesticides with high LD50 valuesare considered the least acutely toxic to humanswhen used according to the directions on theproduct label. If the label does not state the LD50,this information can be obtained from the pro-duct’s Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

Acute toxicities are the basis for selecting theappropriate signal word (toxicity categories) to beused on a product label.

Signal WordsSignal words indicate the toxicity of a pesticide.

The signal word may reflect the active ingredien-t’s toxicity, the inert ingredient’s toxicity, or thetoxic affect of their combined activity. Those pes-ticides that are classified as “highly toxic,” on thebasis of either acute oral, dermal or inhalation

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toxicity, must have two signal words: DANGERand POISON (in red letters) and a skull andcrossbones prominently displayed on the packagelabel. PELIGRO, the Spanish word for danger,must also appear on the labels of highly toxicchemicals. Acute oral LD50 values for pesticideproducts in this group range from a trace to 50mg/kg. As little as a few drops of such a materialtaken orally could kill a 150-pound person.

Some pesticide products carry the signal wordDANGER without the skull and crossbones sym-bol. This occurs when possible skin irritation oreye effects are more severe than suggested by theacute toxicity (LD50) of the product.

Pesticide products considered “moderatelytoxic” must have the signal words WARNINGand AVISO (Spanish) displayed on the productlabel. Acute oral LD50 values range from 50 to500 mg/kg. From 1 teaspoonful to 1 ounce of thismaterial could kill a 150-pound person.

Pesticide products classified as either “slightlytoxic or relatively nontoxic” are required to havethe signal word CAUTION on the pesticide label.Acute oral LD50 values are greater than 500mg/kg.

Chronic Toxicity and Chronic EffectsChronic toxicity is the ability of repeated, pro-

longed exposure to a pesticide to cause injury. Anumber of pesticides cause this type of effect.Chronic toxicity is very dangerous because pesti-cide applicators do not realize anything is wronguntil the injury has progressed. Applicatorsshould remember that the absence of any imme-diate effect is not necessarily an indication of noexsposure or safe use.

The chronic toxicity of a pesticide is determinedby subjecting test animals to long-term exposureto an active ingredient. The harmful effects thatoccur from repeated doses over a period of timeare termed chronic effects. Some possible chroniceffects from exposure to certain pesticides includebirth defects (teratogenesis); toxicity to a fetus(fetotoxic effects); production of tumors (oncoge-nesis), either benign (non-cancerous) or malig-nant (cancerous; the process is carcinogenesis);genetic changes (mutagenesis); blood disorders(hemotoxic effects); nerve disorders (neurotoxiceffects); and reproductive effects. Pesticides arerequired to include chronic toxicity warningstatements on the product label if effects mayoccur. The chronic toxicity of a pesticide is moredifficult to determine through laboratory analysisthan the acute toxicity.

Because of the variety of effects that pesticidescan cause and the amount of time it might take

for the effects to appear, it is prudent to reduceexposure as much as possible to all pesticides.When effects do occur, treatments are generallyavailable, but prevention is much preferable totreatment, especially because some of the effectsare irreversible.

FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONINGMost pesticide poisonings result from careless

use, improper storage or ignorance. By law,everything you need to know to apply pesticidessafely is on the pesticide label. Therefore, themost important rules to follow when using pesti-cides are to read and follow the instructions andprecautions on the label. Read the label beforebuying the product, opening the container, mix-ing or applying the solution, and before dispos-ing of unused product or empty containers.

Symptoms and Signs of Pesticide Poisoning

Pesticides are designed to be toxic to pests.Human exposure to toxic levels results in a vari-ety of general symptoms and signs of poisoning.These vary with the pesticide, the amountabsorbed and the general health of the individual.Some of the most common symptoms and signsare:

■ When a substance is touched: skin irritation(drying and cracking), skin discoloration(reddening or yellowing) or itching.

■ When the substance is inhaled: burning sinuses,throat and lungs, accompanied by coughing,hoarseness and upper respiratory congestion.

■ When the substance is ingested: mouth andthroat irritation, chest pains, nausea (stom-ach ache), diarrhea, muscle twitching, sweat-ing, headache and weakness.

Some of the symptoms begin immediately uponexposure; others are delayed for several hours oreven days.

Insecticides. Insecticides are the type of pesticidethat the small animal manager will most com-monly be using. Symptoms differ with variousinsecticides, but all depend on both the amountand duration of exposure. Insecticides of mostconcern are the organophosphates and carba-mates, which inhibit cholinesterase, a chemicalcritical for normal functioning of the nervous sys-tem. Symptoms may begin almost immediatelyafter exposure to a direct cholinesterase inhibitor.Symptoms may be delayed several hours. Onset

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of symptoms more than 12 hours after exposuregenerally excludes organophosphate or carba-mate insecticide poisoning, unless it is chronicpoisoning from repeated exposures.

The most commonly reported symptoms, whichoften appear in progression and depend, in part,on whether the chemical was touched, inhaled oringested, are:

■ Headache.■ Visual disturbances (blurred vision).■ Pupillary abnormalities (primarily pinpoint

pupils, but on rare occasions, dilated pupils).■ Greatly increased secretions such as sweat-

ing, salivation, tearing and respiratorysecretions.

More severe poisonings result in nausea andvomiting, pulmonary edema (the air spaces in thelungs begin to fill with fluid), changes in heartrate, muscle weakness, respiratory paralysis,mental confusion, convulsions or coma, anddeath.

Groomers may be especially vulnerable tointoxication from pet insecticides if they are care-less in their daily work practices. Inhalation andabsorption through the skin are the most commonmeans of insecticide exposure. Groomers dippingor spraying animals in a poorly ventilated areawith skin exposure to the chemicals may expectto absorb considerable amounts of insecticide.The symptoms of over-exposure may not benoticeable in the early stages, but prolongedexposure may result in frequent headaches, irri-tability, lack of energy and depression.

Groomers and veterinary clinic personnel musttake special precautions to protect their healthwhen working regularly with pet dips andsprays. A basic understanding of the insecticidesused in dips, sprays and collars is essential forthose frequently using the products. Review theinformation found in Chapter 3, Pesticides.

Normal Pupils

Constricted (pinpoint) pupils

Applicators can use EPA-approved flea and tickinsecticides daily by following the products’ labeldirections, wearing the appropriate PPE andworking in a well ventilated workplace.

Cholinesterase TestsCholinesterase tests are used only for

cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides:organophosphates and carbamates. These classesof insecticides are found in products commonlyused to control and manage small animal pests.Urine and blood analysis, together with symp-toms, are used to diagnose most herbicide, fungi-cide and non-cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticideexposure and poisonings.

If you work with organophosphate or carbamateinsecticides for an extended time (small animalmanagers/groomers, farmers, pesticide applica-tors, pesticide manufacturers, formulators), youshould establish a regular cholinesterase test pro-gram with your doctor. For a groomer, such a pro-gram might consist of one (initial) cholinesterasetest to determine a baseline level. This test shouldbe made in the off-season (possibly when flea con-trols are not being applied.) Then, during a high-use period for insecticides, similar tests areconducted and the results are compared with thebaseline level. Through this testing procedure,you can learn of any changes in cholinesterase lev-els when you are exposed to pesticides. Whencholinesterase levels are low, your doctor mayadvise you to limit or possibly stop your exposureto these pesticides until the cholinesterase levelreturns to normal.

For more information, contact your doctor orthe state health department.

First Aid When you are working with pesticides, it is

always best to work with someone. Arranging tohave someone with you may sometimes be aninconvenience, and it may seem like an unneces-sary precaution—until something happens.

If you are with someone who is exposed to apesticide, immediately begin first aid treatmentor assist the victim in any way you can. Alwaysbe careful not to contaminate yourself. If there isany cause to seek medical attention, either call adoctor or take the victim directly to a doctor. Takethe pesticide label or labeled container with you.

First aid treatment varies according to the typeof exposure. Become thoroughly familiar with allof the appropriate procedures. Learn them aheadof time—you probably won’t have time to lookthem up if you ever need them.

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Dermal Exposure

Observe the manufacturer’s recommendationsfor first aid. In addition, and if the situationdemands:

■ Remove clothing, if it has been contami-nated.

■ Drench skin with water.

■ Wash thoroughly, including hair if necessary.Detergents and commercial cleansers are bet-ter than soap.

■ Rinse thoroughly, using lots of soap andwater.

■ Wash again and rinse.

■ Dry and wrap the person in a blanket.

■ Where chemical burns of the skin haveoccurred, cover the area loosely with a clean,soft cloth. Avoid the use of ointments,greases, powders and other medications.

Inhalation ExposureObserve the manufacturer’s recommendations

for first aid. In addition, and if the situationdemands:

■ Get to fresh air immediately.■ If you are with someone who has been poi-

soned, move the victim to fresh air immedi-ately.

■ Do not attempt to rescue someone who hasbeen poisoned in an enclosed area if you donot have the proper respiratory equipment.

■ Loosen all tight clothing.■ If breathing has stopped or is irregular, give

mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.■ Keep the victim as quiet as possible.■ Prevent chilling (wrap in blankets, but do

not overheat).■ If you are with a victim who is having con-

vulsions, watch his/her breathing and pro-tect the person from falling and striking thehead. Keep the chin up so the air passageswill remain free for breathing. Do not putanything in the victim’s mouth.

■ Do not give alcohol in any form to the victim.

Eye ExposureObserve the manufacturer’s recommendations

for first aid. In addition, and if the situationdemands:

■ Hold eyelids open and wash eyes with agentle stream of clean running water. Uselarge amounts of water immediately—delay of even a few seconds greatlyincreases the possibility of injury. Continuewashing for 15 minutes or more.

■ Do not use medications in the wash water—use pure water.

Oral ExposureObserve the manufacturer’s recommendations

for first aid. In addition, and if the situationdemands:

■ If a pesticide has gotten into your mouth buthas not been swallowed, rinse your mouthwith large amounts of water.

■ If the pesticide has been swallowed, the mostimportant consideration is whether toinduce vomiting—the decision must bemade quickly and correctly. Where specificinstructions are given, always follow labeldirections. Beyond that, never induce vomit-ing if:

1. The victim is unconscious or is havingconvulsions.

2 The pesticide is corrosive. A corrosive sub-stance is any material, such as a strongacid or alkali (base), that causes chemicaldestruction of living tissues. Poisoningsymptoms include severe pain and a burn-ing sensation in the mouth or throat.

In attempting to induce vomiting, it is impor-tant to use safe and effective procedures. Vomit-ing should be induced for an adult with twotablespoons (1 ounce) of Syrup of Ipecac (this canbe obtained from your pharmacist without a pre-scription) and two glasses of water. Induce vomit-ing in a child with 1 tablespoon (1/2 ounce) ofSyrup of Ipecac and one glass of water.

Use clean water to gently flush pesticides from the eyesfor at least 15 minutes.

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If Syrup of Ipecac is not available, induce vom-iting by drinking one or two glasses of water andthen touching the back of the throat with yourfinger. Salt water should not be used to inducevomiting.

■ The victim should be lying face down orkneeling forward while retching or vomit-ing, thus preventing vomitus from enteringthe lungs and causing further damage.

■ Collect some of the vomit for the doctor—itmay be needed for chemical tests.

■ .Do not waste a lot of time attempting toinduce vomiting—get to a hospital as soonas possible.

Where the label identifies specific antidotes, thisinformation is intended for use by a doctor. Anti-dotes should not be administered except underthe direction of a physician or other medical pro-fessional. Taken improperly, antidotes can bemore harmful than the pesticide itself.

The name, address and telephone number ofthe physician, clinic or hospital emergency roomthat will provide care in the event of a pesticidepoisoning should be clearly posted at all worksites.

SAFETY: PROTECT YOURSELF FROMPESTICIDES

The greatest risk to the pesticide applicatoroccurs during application and mixing and load-ing of pesticide concentrates. Though applicationof diluted material is usually less hazardous, thehazard increases when significant drift occurs orwhen appropriate safety and application proce-dures are not followed. The danger of exposurealso exists when people are cleaning up pesticidespills, making equipment repairs and enteringtreated areas prematurely.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is clothingand devices that are worn to protect the humanbody from contact with pesticides or pesticideresidues. Personal protective equipment includessuch items as coveralls or protective suits,footwear, gloves, aprons, respirators, eye-wearand head gear. Remember:

RISK = toxicity x exposure

To reduce risk, choose pesticides with lowertoxicity and reduce exposure by wearing PPE.Pesticide labeling lists the minimum personalprotective equipment you must wear while

handling that pesticide. Sometimes the labelinglists different requirements for different activities.

The following is a brief discussion of the vari-ous types of protective clothing and equipment,and a review of some important considerationsfor their selection.

ClothingAt a minimum, protective clothing should

include a long-sleeved shirt and long trousersthat are clean and made of a tightly woven fabricor a water repellent material. A T-shirt and shortsare not adequate protection when applying pesti-cides. Common denim provides good protection.Specific items of protective clothing are describedin the following sections. For more information,see Extension bulletin E-2150, “Choosing Cloth-ing for Pesticide Safety.”

Choosing Chemical-resistant Materials Always read the pesticide labeling to see what

materials are resistant to the pesticide product.The Extension agents, pesticide producers, or per-sonal protective equipment manufacturers anddistributors may also offer guidance. Refer to theMSDS sheets to obtain information that may helpin the selection process.

Remember, all PPE has a limited life (length oftime it will provide adequately protection). Pro-tection, durability and longevity differ amongmaterials. How they are used, the length of time,and the type of chemicals to which they areexposed affect their performance. Replace yourPPE frequently.

Neoprene, nitrile, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) andbutyl rubber are chemical-resistant materialsavailable in various thicknesses as gloves, cover-alls, hoods, boots and other PPE. Each varies inthe ability to withstand chemical permeation.Select the material that best suits your particularneeds. Latex rubber has natural pores and holesand is not recommended for protection againstchemical exposure.

Coveralls, Aprons, Raincoats Coveralls, whether disposable or reusable, vary

in their comfort and durability and in the degreeof protection they provide. Coveralls should bemade of sturdy material such as cotton, polyester,a cotton-synthetic blend, denim or a non-wovenfabric. A liquidproof apron, raincoat or rainsuitshould be worn when pouring and mixing con-centrates and when using highly toxic pesti-cides—coveralls usually do not provide adequateprotection against spills and splashes of these

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chemicals. Wear a rainsuit whenever mist orspray drift are likely to substantially wet workclothes or coveralls. Liquidproof aprons and rain-suits should be made of rubber or a syntheticmaterial resistant to the solvents in pesticide for-mulations. The apron should cover the body fromthe chest to the boots.

GlovesWear unlined, chemical-resistant gloves when

handling or applying pesticides. Gloves shouldbe long enough to cover the wrist and should nothave a fabric wristband. Check gloves carefully tobe sure there are no holes—fill them with waterand squeeze. Each exposure to a pesticide reducesthe gloves’ ability to protect you the next timeyou wear them. Gloves are intended to be dispos-able—replace them often. Be certain gloves areapproved for use with the chemicals you intendto use. Some rubber products react with certainsolvents and become sticky as the rubber dis-solves. If this occurs, dispose of the gloves anduse gloves approved for use with the specific pes-ticide. For most jobs, wear shirt sleeves outside ofthe gloves to keep pesticides from running downthe sleeves into the gloves. But if you are workingwith your hands and arms overhead, put thegloves outside of the sleeves and turn up the cuffof the gloves to catch material that might rundown your arms. Wash chemicals off the gloveswith soap and water before removing them soyou don’t contaminate your hands when remov-ing the gloves.

HatsWear head covering when handling pesticides.

A hat should be liquidproof and have a widebrim to protect the face, ears and neck. Hatsshould be either disposable or easy to clean withsoap and water—they should not contain anyabsorbent materials such as leather, straw orcloth. Baseball caps do not provide adequate pro-tection.

Shoes and Boots Boots should be unlined and made of rubber.

Because of their absorbency, never wear boots ofleather, canvas or cloth when handling pesticides.Wear trouser legs outside the boots to preventpesticides from running down the leg and intothe boot. Wash your boots after each use. Replacethem after repeated chemical exposure and wear.

Goggles and Face Shields Wear tight-fitting, non-fogging goggles or a

full-face shield when there is any chance of get-ting pesticide in your eyes. This is especiallyimportant when pouring or mixing concentratesor handling dusts or toxic sprays. Those whowear contact lenses may want to consult an eyedoctor or physician before using pesticides.

Goggles provide a secure shield around theentire eye area, protecting against hazards com-ing from many directions. Wear goggles withindirect ventilation when exposed to splash haz-ards. Face shields that are cupped inward towardyour throat give better protection than straightface shields. Goggles and face shields should bekept clean at all times. Wash them with soap andwater, and sanitize by soaking equipment for twominutes in a mixture of 2 tablespoons chlorinebleach in a gallon of water. Rinse thoroughly witha clean cloth and allow to air dry. Pay particularattention to the goggle headbands. They are oftenmade of absorbent materials and require regularreplacement.

Respirators For many toxic chemicals, the respiratory

(breathing) system is the quickest and most directroute of entry into the circulatory system. Fromthe blood capillaries of the lungs, the toxic sub-stances are rapidly transported throughout thebody. Respiratory protective devices vary indesign, use and protective capability. In selectinga respiratory protective device, first consider thedegree of hazard associated with breathing thetoxic substance, and then understand the specificuses and limitations of the available equipment.

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Select a respirator that is designed for theintended use, and always follow the manufactur-er’s instructions on use and maintenance of yourrespirator for various chemicals or groups ofchemicals. Select only equipment approved bythe National Institute of Occupational Safety andHealth (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and HealthAdministration (MSHA). The NIOSH approvalnumbers begin with the letters TC.

You can check the fit of a respirator by placingyour hands over the cartridges, inhaling andholding your breath. The respirator should col-lapse and stay collapsed on your face. Also, checkthe information provided by the cartridge manu-facturer to determine when the respirator car-tridges will expire. Be aware that beards andother facial hair keep the respirator from sealingaround your face and therefore make the respira-tor useless.

After each use of the respirator, remove allmechanical and chemical filters. Wash and sani-tize the face piece using the same procedure rec-ommended for goggles. Store the respirator facepiece, cartridges, canisters and mechanical filtersin a clean, dry place, preferably in a tightly sealedplastic bag. Do not store your respirator with pes-ticides or other chemicals.

The following table suggests additional consid-erations for pet groomers to consider when striv-ing for improved working and breathingconditions.

Six Steps to Breathing Easy in the Grooming Shop

1. Identify possible lung irritants in your shop. For example: animal dander, animal antigens, animal hair, bacteria, chemicals and other synthetic products.

2. Reduce the amount of lung irritants. For example: use a hair removal system, keep your shop clean, use proper ventilation when using chemicals, and adjust your shop size to recommended standards (150 sq. ft. per groomer).

3. Obtain regular medical care. Explain to your physician your profession and the hazards you are exposed to when you work.

4. Limit or eliminate smoking.

5. Recognize signs and symptoms of lung disorders, including shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, sneezing and chest tightness.

6. Start prevention BEFORE symptoms appear.

Adapted from the National Dog Groomers Association

Laundering Pesticide-contaminated Clothing

Wash all protective clothing and equipment atthe end of each day of use. Store and wash pesti-cide-contaminated clothing separately from thefamily laundry. Remember to wear gloves duringthese handling and laundering steps and be sureto check the label for any specific instructions.Note: Discard clothing that has become saturatedwith a concentrate.

Some residues may be removed by hosing thecontaminated clothing with water or presoaking itin an appropriate container. Washing in hot waterremoves more pesticide from the clothing thanwashing in cooler water. The hotter, the better.Cold water might save energy, but it is relativelyineffective in removing pesticides from clothing.

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Laundry detergents—whether phosphate, car-bonate or heavy-duty liquids—are similarly effec-tive in removing most pesticides from fabric.However, heavy-duty liquid detergents typicallyremove oil better and therefore are more effectivethan other detergents in removing emulsifiableconcentrates. The ease of pesticide removalthrough laundering does not depend on toxicitybut on the formulation of the pesticide. Bleach orammonia may possibly help remove or breakdown certain pesticides. Never mix bleach andammonia because they react to form chlorinegas, which can be fatal for those who inhale it.

Wash clothing at the highest water level. Afterwashing, it is important to rinse the washingmachine by running it through the complete cycleusing hot water and the same detergent. Line-drying clothing is recommended for two reasons.First, it eliminates the possibility of residues col-lecting in the dryer; second, residues of manypesticides will break down when exposed to sun-light. Wash hands and arms after the launderingprocedure. Keep protective clothing separatefrom the pesticide storage area. For more laun-dering information, see Extension bulletin E-2149,“10 Tips for Laundering Pesticide Soiled

Clothing.” Magnets that can be placed on thewashing machine with these instructions are alsoavailable as Extension bulletin E-2413.

Personal Care After ApplicationAfter cleaning application equipment and pro-

tective clothing, personal cleanup is next. In par-ticular, wash your hands and face thoroughlywith soap and hot water before eating, drinkingor smoking. Shower and change clothing as soonas possible. Be sure to scrub your scalp, neck, andunder your nails.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What is the difference between toxicity and haz-ard?

2. The scalp, ear canal and forehead are especiallyvulnerable to dermal exposure to pesticides.True or False? What could you wear to protectthese areas?

3. Pesticide residues are absorbed through the skinat relatively the same rate on different parts ofthe body. True or false?

4. _______________________ are the most commonvictims of oral exposure.

5. Give an example of inhalation exposure andoral exposure.

6. Toxicity from small, repeated exposures to apesticide over a period of time is called_________________________. Toxicity from oneexposure is __________.

7. Which LD50 is representative of a highly toxicpesticide?a. 640 mg/kgb. 5,800 mg/kgc. 12,840 mg/kgd. 380 mg/kge. 46 mg/kg

8. The signal word on a pesticide label indicatesthe pesticide’s:a. effectiveness.b. toxicity.c. compatibility.d. formulation.e. ability to cause tumors.

9. Which signal word(s) would indicate the prod-uct is least toxic to an applicator? a. DANGERb. CAUTIONc. WARNINGd. DANGER-POISONe. Skull and crossbones

10. Where can the applicator find out what he orshe needs to know to apply pesticides safely?

11. Insecticides of most concern are the______________________________________and______________________________which inhibitcholinesterase.

12. ______________________________ is a chemicalcritical for normal functioning of the nervoussystem that may be inhibited by some insecti-cides.

13. Who should receive regular cholinesterasetesting?

14. What pesticide-related document should youtake with you when you take a pesticide poi-soning victim to the doctor?

Chapter 5 – Review Questions

72

15. List the first aid measures you should do when someone has been dermally exposed to pesticides.

16. Never induce vomiting in a pesticide poisoning victim if:a. the victim is a child.b. the victim is unconscious or is having

convulsions.c. the pesticide involved is corrosive.d. all of the above.e. b and c only.

17. List the first aid measures you should performwhen someone has inhaled a pesticide.

18. To reduce the risk of human pesticide poison-ing, the applicator should choose pesticideswhich have lower ______________________ andreduce _______________.

19. A T-shirt, shorts and baseball hat provide ade-quate protection for someone applying pesti-cides. True or False?

20. Gloves and boots worn when handling mostpesticides should be made of:a. canvasb. leatherc. lined rubberd. unlined rubbere. none of the above

21. How frequently should protective clothing belaundered?

22. Pesticide-contaminated clothing should bewashed separately from the family laundry inhot water with laundry detergent. True orFalse?

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CHAPTER 6

PESTICIDE HANDLING, STORAGEAND DISPOSAL

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ List some safety guidelines for opening pes-

ticide containers and handling pesticides.■ Describe the components of a proper pesti-

cide storage area.

■ Describe the cleaning and disposal proce-dures for empty pesticide containers.

■ List safety precautions for transporting pesti-cides in a vehicle.

■ List what you should do in the event of apesticide fire.

Danger of exposure always exists wheneveryou are handling pesticides. The greatest risk tothe applicator is in handling and applying toxicmaterials and in using concentrated pesticides.Therefore, the applicator must use safety mea-sures and also be familiar with what action totake in the event of a spill, leak or fire. Study thesafety precautions described in this chapter anduse them whenever you are handling, applying,transporting or storing pesticides. You will findthat most precautions are common sense.

HANDLE PESTICIDES SAFELY Opening pesticide containers, connecting appli-

cation equipment or transferring pesticides toanother container for application all entail thepossibility of exposure. Here are some generalsafety guidelines for these procedures.

■ Review the label before opening the con-tainer so that you are familiar with currentdirections.

■ Always wear adequate protective clothingand equipment. Put them on before handlingor opening a pesticide container. Rememberto wear a respirator or appropriate form ofeye protection if any chance of pesticideinhalation or eye exposure exists. Never eat,drink or smoke while handling pesticides.

■ Carefully choose the pesticide handling area.It should be away from other people andpets. Pesticides should not be used in areaswhere a spill or overflow could get into awater supply. Be sure there is adequate ven-tilation and light. Have a supply of cleanwater and soap available. Hydrated lime andbleach can be used to neutralize and cleansurfaces where spills occur. Clay, cat boxfiller, activated charcoal or similar material isalso helpful to soak up spills or leaks. If pos-sible, do not work alone.

■ Do not tear paper containers to open them—use a sharp knife or scissors.

■ When pouring from a container, keep thecontainer at or below eye level and avoidsplashing or spilling on your face or protec-tive clothing.

■ Never use your mouth to siphon a pesticidefrom a container.

■ If an accident occurs, attend to it immedi-ately. Remove any contaminated clothingand wash yourself thoroughly with soap andwater. Take care of any spills on the floor orthe ground.

■ Measure accurately, follow label instructionsand use only the amount necessary. Newermeasuring devices such as “tip and pours”

74

are a great help in handling small amountsof concentrated pesticide. Keep all measur-ing devices (spoons, cups, scales) in the pes-ticide storage area, and label them to avoidtheir being used for other purposes. Rinsemeasuring cups and put the rinse water intothe system being treated.

■ Triple-rinse pesticide containers (if applica-ble) as soon as they are emptied—residuescan dry and become difficult to remove later.Pour the rinsewater into the applicationequipment being used to avoid disposalproblems and product waste. Replace con-tainer caps and close bags. Return them tothe pesticide storage area.

■ Equipment should be operational and cali-brated before filling and using.

■ When adding water to a spray mixture,make sure the water hose remains above thelevel of the mixture, never contacting it. Thisprevents contamination of the hose andavoids the possibility of back-siphoning thepesticide into the water source.

■ Never leave equipment unattended while itis being filled.

■ Chemical residues can cause incompatibilityproblems—always clean application equip-ment after use.

Keep in mind that water characteristics influ-ence the effectiveness of some pesticides. Alkalinewater, for example, leads to chemical breakdownof many pesticides, including organo1phosphatesand carbamates. The recommended water pH formixing most pesticides is between 5.0 and 7.0.Buffers and acidifying agents can be used toadjust the pH of the water.

STORE PESTICIDES SAFELY Proper pesticide storage helps prolong chemical

shelf life while protecting the health of people,animals and the environment. A number of con-ditions are essential for safe pesticide storage.Consult the pesticide product label for specificstorage information. Other storage guidelines arepresented in the following sections.

Storage Area Keep all pesticides out of the reach of children,

pets and careless adults. Store pesticides in alocked, secure place, such as a separate buildingor storage room. Around the home, the same ruleapplies—lock them up. A storage area should belocated where water damage is unlikely to occur.Soil and land surface characteristics should beconsidered when constructing a storage facility toprevent contamination of surface or groundwaterby drainage, runoff or leaching. In certain situa-tions, dikes may be warranted. For pesticide stor-age outdoors, erect a fence to preventunauthorized entry and reduce the chance oftheft and vandalism. In addition:

■ Post highly visible warning signs on walls,doors and windows to indicate to anyoneattempting to enter the facility that pesti-cides are stored there. Also post “NoSmoking” signs.

■ Keep storage areas locked.

■ Store pesticides away from food, feed,potable water supplies, veterinary supplies,seeds and protective equipment. This pre-vents contamination from fumes, dusts orspills, and reduces the likelihood of acciden-tal human or animal exposure.

■ Ventilate the storage area and keep it rela-tively free from temperature extremes. Veryhigh or low temperatures can cause pesticidedeterioration. Exhaust fans directed to theoutside reduce the temperature and dust or

If squeeze bottles are used for application equipment, besure to label the bottle, stating its contents and its use.Triple-rinse the bottle when the application is complete.

75

fume concentrations. Fireproof constructionwith a sealed cement floor is the best.

■ Keep pesticides cool, dry and out of directsunlight.

■ Keep plenty of soap and water available in orclose to the storage area. A fire extinguisherapproved for chemical fires, first aid equip-ment and emergency telephone numbersshould all be readily available.

■ Store volatile pesticides separately to avoidpossible cross-contamination of otherproducts.

Pesticide Containers Store pesticides in their original containers only.

Do not use soft drink bottles, fruit jars or othertypes of non-pesticide containers. Serious poison-ings could result because small children as well asmost adults associate the shape of a containerwith its contents.

Never store pesticides in food or beverage containers.They may be swallowed accidentally.

If other containers are used as applicationdevices, such as squeeze bottles or empty, cleandetergent bottles, measure only the amountneeded for that application, and clearly label thecontainer with the product being used. Havecomplete label information readily available.When the application is complete, triple-rinse thecontainer that was used for the application. Thesecontainers should be labeled, “For Pesticide UseOnly.” One container, one usage. Remember, mixonly the amount you will use for the applicationbeing performed.

Keep the original label attached to the container.To keep a label legible, protect it with transparenttape or lacquer. Remember, the label is the mostimportant safety factor in the use of pesticides—donot let it become damaged or destroyed.

Containers should be used for only one purpose andlabeled to identify their contents.

Never lend a pesticide in an unmarked or unla-beled container. Those who use the pesticideshould not rely on verbal directions. Close con-tainers securely when not in use. Dry formula-tions tend to cake when wet or subjected to highhumidity. Opened bags of dry formulations canbe placed into sealable plastic bags or other suit-able containers. This reduces moisture absorptionby the material and prevents spills should a tearor break occur.

If wall units are used to hold and meter bulkproduct, they must be labeled to identify whatthey contain. Complete label information must bereadily accessible. If these wall units hold morethan one product in separate compartments, thereshould be a separate discharge line for each prod-uct. Using one line for all products results incross-contamination because there is no methodfor flushing the line between product selectionand use.

Store liquid formulations and small containersof dry formulations on metal shelving. Metalshelving does not absorb spilled pesticides and iseasier to clean than other surfaces.

Store pesticides in the original containers,under cool conditions, on lower shelves. Toomuch heat can cause the container to break orexplode. Containers should not extend beyondthe edge of the shelf where they could be bumpedor knocked off.

Check containers regularly for leaks or breaks.If a leak or break occurs, place the containerinside another container, or transfer the contentsto an empty container that originally held thesame material and has the same label attached.

Shelf Life of Pesticides Keep an inventory of all pesticides in storage

and mark each container with the purchase date.

FORPESTICIDE

USEONLY!

FORPESTICIDE

USEONLY!

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If a product has an effective shelf life recorded onthe label, you will know how long the productshould remain usable. If doubts or questionsabout the shelf life of a pesticide, call the dealeror manufacturer. Pesticide deterioration may beapparent during mixing as excessive clumping,poor suspension, layering or abnormal coloration.Sometimes, however, pesticide deterioration fromage or poor storage conditions is apparent onlyafter application—poor pest control can occur.

To minimize storage problems, buy only asmuch as you anticipate needing for the season.Keep records of previous usage to make goodestimates of future needs.

Reporting Requirements Title III of the federal Superfund Amendments

and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) is alsocalled the Emergency Planning and CommunityRight-to-Know Act. This Act requires, amongother things, the reporting of inventories of cer-tain pesticides if the amount stored is greater thana “threshold planning quantity” (see Chapter 1,Pesticide Laws and Regulations.) It is good policyto inform your local fire department if you storechemicals. Chemical fires usually cannot be extin-guished by ordinary means, and the smoke fromthe fire can be extremely hazardous to firefight-ers. The fire department must be properly pre-pared in the event of a chemical fire. For moreinformation on these requirements, see MichiganState University Extension bulletin E-2173 or con-tact the MDNR Title III office at (517) 373-8481.

DISPOSE OF PESTICIDES SAFELYThe pesticide user is responsible for proper dis-

posal of pesticide wastes, such as unused chemi-cals and empty pesticide containers. In recentyears, concern has been growing that improperdisposal of pesticide wastes can create serioushazards for both humans and the environment.Empty pesticide containers are a hazard to curi-ous children and animals. Improperly disposed ofpesticides and rinse water can result in ground-water contamination and plant damage.

It makes good business sense to deal with pesti-cide wastes properly and safely. Plan carefullyand observe the following guidelines:

■ Avoid disposal problems associated withexcess pesticide by mixing only the amountneeded for one application or one series ofapplications needed to manage a given pestproblem.

■ Always read the label for disposal instructions.

■ Clothing and protective equipment to be dis-carded, and contaminated soil or other mate-rials used to clean up spills, should beconsidered pesticide waste and handled assuch.

■ Federal and state laws regulate the disposal ofcontainers and other pesticide wastes. Anyonerequiring assistance with pesticide disposalshould contact the Michigan Department ofNatural Resources (MDNR) Waste Manage-ment Division at (517) 373-2730.

Cleaning and Disposing of Containers Triple-rinsing or high-pressure rinsing (power-

rinsing) allows glass, metal, plastic and evensome heavy paper containers to be considerednonhazardous waste. It also saves money becauseeach rinse captures pesticide residues from thesides and bottom of the container that can beincluded in the application and not wasted.

Properly rinse pesticide containers at the timethey are emptied—residues can dry and becomedifficult to remove later.

To triple-rinse, wear protective clothing andfollow these steps:

1. Allow the concentrate to drain from theempty pesticide container for 30 seconds.

2. Fill approximately 10 percent of the containervolume with water, replace the lid and rotate thecontainer so all the interior surfaces are rinsed.

3. Put the rinsewater into the spray equipmentand use it as part of the application, allowing thecontainer to drain for at least 30 seconds.

4. Repeat the procedure two more times.

Power-rinsing is an effective way to make apesticide container nonhazardous. Power-rinsingrequires the use of a special nozzle that directshigh-pressure water into the container. Checkwith your local chemical dealer for availability.Studies have indicated that power-rinsing may beup to 300 percent more effective than triple rins-ing and can take less time.

To power-rinse, wear protective clothing, espe-cially gloves and goggles or face shield, and fol-low these steps:

1. Allow the concentrate to drain from theempty pesticide container for 30 seconds.

2. Push the pointed pressure-rinse nozzlethrough the bottom of the pesticide containerwhile holding it over the spray tank or water sys-tem being treated.

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3. Power-rinse the container for 30 seconds,allowing the rinsewater to drain into the spraytank or water system being treated.

4. Triple-rinse the container cap with a slowerflow of water, capturing the rinsewater in thespray tank or water treatment system.

Triple- or power-rinsed containers that will beheld for disposal at a later time should be markedto indicate triple- or power-rinsing has been doneand the date. Pesticide containers that will not berecycled through a recycling facility or the dealershould be rendered unusable by breaking, punc-turing or crushing. Never reuse pesticide contain-ers. Keep all containers in the locked storage areauntil disposal, away from all possible contactwith children and animals.

Disposal of triple-rinsed or power-rinsed con-tainers in a sanitary landfill is permissible, but itis a good policy to check with your local solidwaste authority before discarding pesticide con-tainers there.

Whenever feasible, recycle triple- or power-rinsed containers. For information on recyclingfacilities, contact the MDNR Waste ManagementDivision at (517) 373-2730 or the MDA at (517)373-1087.

Commercial applicators should be aware of thecurrent hazardous waste guidelines establishedunder the federal Resource Conservation andRecovery Act (RCRA) as well as state hazardouswaste statutes (Act 64) before disposing of pesti-cide wastes. Pesticide wastes classified as haz-ardous require special disposal andrecordkeeping practices. The MDNR Waste Man-agement Division, (517) 373-2730, can providemore information on the RCRA and your specificdisposal responsibilities under the law.

Follow disposal instructions on the label; seekassistance with disposal problems!

TRANSPORT PESTICIDES SAFELY Once a pesticide is in your possession, you are

responsible for its safe transport. Accidents canoccur even when transporting materials a short dis-tance. Do all you can to prevent a transport prob-lem, but be prepared if an emergency should arise.

Transport VehicleThe safest way to carry pesticides is in the back

of a truck. Flatbed trucks should have side andtail racks. Never carry pesticides in the passengercompartment of a vehicle: hazardous fumes maybe released and spills may cause injury and be

impossible to remove from seats. If pesticides aretransported in a station wagon, windows shouldbe open and no one should be permitted to ridenear the pesticides. Never carry pesticides in thesame compartment with fertilizers, seed, food orfeed—the risk of contamination is too highshould a spill occur.

Pesticide ContainersInspect containers before loading to be sure all

caps and plugs are tightly closed and legible labelsare attached. Be sure the outside surfaces of thecontainers are not contaminated with pesticide.Secure containers to safeguard against spills orleaks that may result if the containers roll or slide.

Protect pesticides from temperature extremesduring transport. In hot weather, for instance, thetemperature inside the trunk of a car is alwaysconsiderably higher than the temperature outside.

Never leave your vehicle unattended when trans-porting pesticides in an unlocked trunk compart-ment or open-bed truck. You are legally responsibleif curious children or careless adults are acciden-tally poisoned by pesticides left unattended andexposed in your vehicle. Whenever possible, trans-port pesticides in a locked compartment.

Never eat, drink or smoke when handling pesti-cides, even if containers are intact and tightlysealed. Wash your hands thoroughly when youfinish.

PESTICIDE FIRE SAFETY Pesticide products vary significantly in their

flammability and storage hazard. Those requiringextra precautions bear the label statement, “Donot use or store near heat or open flame.”

To reduce fire hazards:

■ Locate storage areas as far as possible fromwhere people and animals live.

■ Keep storage area locked at all times.

■ Store combustible materials away fromsteam lines and other heating systems.

■ Do not store glass containers in sunlightwhere they can concentrate heat rays andpossibly explode or ignite.

■ Keep a fire extinguisher approved for chemi-cal fires in all storage areas.

■ Notify the servicing fire company of the location and contents of the storage area. Itmay save firefighters lives and the lives ofothers if a fire occurs.

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In the Event of a Pesticide Fire:■ Clear all persons from the area to a safe dis-

tance upwind from the smoke and fumes.■ Call the fire department and inform the fire-

fighters of the nature of the pesticidesinvolved. Material Safety Data Sheets(MSDS), which provide technical and emer-gency information are available from chemi-cal dealers.

■ Firefighting personnel must bring and wearthe proper protective clothing and equip-ment (especially respirators). Assume all

protective gear worn at the fire scene is cont-aminated and hazardous until it is washed.

■ Be aware of the potential for explosion ofoverheated pesticide containers. Nearby con-tainers should be moved or kept cool.

■ The principal objective is to contain the fireand prevent contamination of surroundingareas. Use only as much water as isabsolutely necessary. Avoid using heavyhose streams and build necessary dikes toprevent flow of contaminated runoff intolakes, ponds, streams, wells or sewers.

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Write the answers to the following questions,and then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. A safe way to open a bag containing pesticidesis to tear it open. True or False?

2. The recommended water pH for mixing mostpesticides is between ___________________and_____________________.

3. List some of the desirable characteristics of apesticide storage area.

4. Pesticides should be stored in:a. any convenient container.b. their original containers.c. containers too heavy for children to handle.d. any container as long as it is tagged with the

name of the contents.e. none of the above.

5. Pesticides should be stored on metal shelvingbecause metal will not absorb spilled pesticidesand is easier to clean than other surfaces. Trueor False?

6. Why should you keep an inventory of pesti-cides and mark purchase dates on the con-tainer?

7. List some of the clues that show a pesticide hasdeteriorated.

8. What is the best way to get rid of a registeredpesticide?

9. How do you triple-rinse a container?

10. Whom do you contact for assistance with dis-posal problems?

11. If a poisoning incident occurs from a pesticideyou are transporting, you will not be liable.True or False?

Chapter 6 – Review Questions

80

12. What is the safest way to transport pesticides?

13. You are legally responsible if a curious child oradult is accidentally poisoned from pesticidesleft unattended. True or False?

14. What types of pesticides are most likely to beflammable and have the following statementon their label: “Do not use or store near heat oropen flame?”

15. List three precautions you could take to prevent fire hazards.

16. What should you do first in the event of a pesticide fire?

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CHAPTER 7

THE PESTICIDE LABEL

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Distinguish among the terms “common

name,” “chemical name” and “brand name”and know which to use to most accuratelyidentify a pesticide product.

■ Explain the meaning of “restricted use” clas-sification and explain where to look for theclassification on pesticide labeling.

■ Interpret the signal words (and symbols) onpesticide labeling.

■ Know the types of precautionary statementson pesticide labeling.

■ Explain the pesticide user’s responsibility tofollow use directions.

■ Know what Material Safety Data Sheets areand where to obtain them.

One of the more important tools for safe andeffective use of pesticides is the product label.Pesticide manufacturers are required by law toput certain information on the label. Not follow-ing that information can result in a pesticide acci-dent and legal action against the violator. Labelsare legal documents that provide directions onhow to transport, mix, apply, store, and disposeof a pesticide product or its container. This chap-ter will teach you how to read and apply theinformation on pesticide labels.

PARTS OF THE LABELSome labels are very easy to understand; others

are complicated. It is the user’s responsibility toread and understand the label before buying,using, storing or disposing of a pesticide. To helpyou better understand labels, each of the labelcomponents will be discussed in this section. Thenumbers preceding the descriptions correspondto the numbered parts of the sample label of NOPEST at the end of this chapter.

1. Trade, Brand or Product NamesEvery manufacturer has trade names for its

products. Most companies register each tradename as a trademark and will not allow anyother company to use that name without permis-sion. Different trade names are used by different

manufacturers, even though the products containthe same active ingredient. The brand or tradename is on the front panel of the label and is theone used in advertisements and by companysalespersons.

The brand name often indicates the type of for-mulation and the percent active ingredient. Forexample, Sevin 50 WP is a brand name of an agri-cultural product; Sevin is the registered tradename and the formulation is a wettable powdercontaining 50 percent active ingredient. Thisproduct is formulated for agricultural purposesand is not registered for use on animals.

2. Ingredient StatementEvery pesticide label must list every active

ingredient and the percentage of it in the con-tainer. Inert ingredients are not usually named,but the label must show what percentage of thetotal contents they make up. The ingredient state-ment must list the official chemical and commonnames of the active ingredients. Let’s discuss an example:

Sevin 50 WPActive ingredient:carbaryl (1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate)....50%inert ingredients .................................................50%

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The chemical name is the complex name thatidentifies the chemical components and structureof the pesticide. This name must be listed in theingredient statement on the label. For example,the chemical name of Sevin is 1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate.

Because chemical names are usually complex,many chemicals are given a shorter commonname. Only those common names officiallyaccepted by the EPA may be used in the ingredi-ent statement on the pesticide label. The officialcommon name is usually followed by the chemi-cal name in the list of active ingredients. Thecommon name for Sevin is carbaryl. By purchas-ing pesticides according to the common or chemi-cal names, you will be certain of getting the rightactive ingredient, no matter what the brand nameor formulation.

Recognize that even though you have foundthe correct active ingredient, the product must belabeled for use on animals or it cannot be safelyused on animals for pest control. A single activeingredient may be formulated several ways.Only those formulations specifically designatedfor use on animals can be safely and legally usedon animals.

When treating for pests, use only products labeled foruse on animals!

3. Use Classification StatementsEvery pesticide product is classified by the EPA

as either restricted use or unclassified/generaluse. Every pesticide product classified asrestricted use must carry this statement in a

prominent place at the top of the front panel ofthe pesticide label:

RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDEFor retail sale to and use only by certifiedapplicators or persons under their directsupervision and only for those uses coveredby the certified applicator’s certification.

4. Type of PesticideThe type of pesticide is usually listed on the front

panel of the pesticide label. This short statementindicates, in general terms, what the product willcontrol. Examples:

■ Insecticide for control of certain insects.■ Herbicide for control of woody brush and

weeds.■ Fungicide for control of plant and animal

pathogens.

5. Net ContentsThe front panel of the pesticide label shows

how much product is in the container. This isexpressed as pounds or ounces for dry formula-tions or as gallons, quarts, or pint for liquids. Liq-uid formulations may also list the pounds ofactive ingredient per gallon of product.

6. Name and Address of ManufacturerThe law requires that the manufacturer or for-

mulator of a product put the name and address ofthe company on the label. This tells you whomade or sold the product.

7. Registration NumbersAn EPA registration number (e.g., EPA Reg. No.

9999-000-00000) must appear on all pesticidelabels. This indicates that the pesticide product hasbeen registered and its label approved by the EPA.In cases of special local needs, pesticide productsmay be approved for use in a specific state. Theseregistrations are designated, for example, as EPASLN No. MI-860009. In this case, SLN indicates“Special Local Need” and MI means that the prod-uct is registered for use in Michigan.

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HIGHMay Cause Death!

See a physicianimmediately.

TOXICITY

INDICATIONON

LABEL

DANGERPOISON

WARNING CAUTION

MODERATEPossible Serious Illness!

See a physician ifsymptoms persist.

LOW or SLIGHTMay Cause Illness!See a physician ifsymptoms persist.

The words DANGER and POISON, WARNING or CAUTION indicate the toxicity level.

10. Precautionary StatementsAll pesticide labels contain additional state-

ments to help applicators decide what precau-tions they should take to protect themselves, theiremployees and other persons (or animals) thatcould be exposed. Sometimes these statementsare listed under the heading, “Hazards toHumans and Domestic Animals.” They may becontained of several sections:

Routes of entry statements – The statementswhich immediately follow the signal word, eitheron the front or side panels of the pesticide label,indicate which route or routes of entry—mouth,skin, lungs—are particularly hazardous and needprotection. Many pesticide products are haz-ardous by more than one route, so study thesestatements carefully. A DANGER signal wordfollowed by “May be fatal if swallowed orinhaled” gives you a far different warning thanDANGER followed by “Corrosive—Causes eyedamage and severe skin burns.”

Specific action statements – These statements usu-ally follow immediately after the route of entrystatements. The specific action statements helpprevent pesticide poisoning by recommendingnecessary precautions and protective clothingand equipment. These statements are directlyrelated to the toxicity of the pesticide product(signal word) and the routes of entry.

Protective clothing and equipment statements – Pes-ticide labels vary in the type of protective cloth-ing and equipment statements they contain.Many labels carry no statement at all. The bestway to determine the correct type of protectiveclothing and equipment is to consider the signalword, the route of entry statements, and the spe-cific action statements on the label.

8. Establishment NumbersAn EPA establishment number (for example, EPA

Est: No. 9999-TX-1) must also appear on the pesti-cide label. It identifies the facility that produced theproduct in case a problem arises or the product isfound to have been adulterated in any way.

9. Signal Words and SymbolsEvery pesticide label must include a signal

word. This important designation gives the useran indication of the relative toxicity of the prod-uct to humans and animals. Toxicity is one factoryou should consider when choosing a pesticide.The signal word must appear in large letters onthe front panel of the pesticide label along withthe statement, “Keep Out of Reach of Children.”The following signal words may be found on pes-ticide labels.

■ DANGER-POISON, SKULL AND CROSSBONES – Thesewords and symbol must appear (in red let-ters) on all products that are highly toxic byany route of entry into the body. “Peligro,”the Spanish word for “danger,” must alsoappear on the label.

■ DANGER – Products with this signal word cancause severe eye damage or skin irritation.

■ WARNING – This word signals that the productis moderately toxic orally, dermally, orthrough inhalation, or causes moderate eye orskin irritation. “Aviso,” the Spanish word for“warning,” must also appear on the label.

■ CAUTION – This word signals that the product isslightly toxic orally, dermally or through inhala-tion, or causes slight eye or skin irritation.

Chapter 5, Pesticides and Human Health, fur-ther describes signal words.

84

11. Statement of Practical TreatmentThis section lists first aid treatments recom-

mended in case of poisoning. All DANGER labels and some WARNING and

CAUTION labels contain a note to physiciansdescribing the appropriate medical procedure forpoisoning emergencies and may identify an anti-dote. The label should always be available foremergencies. In the event of a pesticide poison-ing, take the label to the hospital with you.

12. Environmental HazardsPesticides can be harmful to the environment.

Some products are classified restricted usebecause of environmental hazards alone. Watchfor special warning statements on the label onhazards to the environment.

Special toxicity statements – If a particular pesti-cide is especially hazardous to wildlife, it will bestated on the label. For example: “This product ishighly toxic to bees,” or “This product is toxic tofish.”

These statements alert pesticide users to thespecial hazards posed by use of the product. Theyshould help applicators choose the safest productfor a particular job and remind them to take extraprecautions.

General environmental statements – Some of thesestatements appear on virtually every pesticidelabel. They are reminders to follow certain com-mon sense actions to avoid contaminating theenvironment. The absence of any or all of thesestatements does not indicate that you do not needto take adequate precautions. Sometimes thesestatements follow a “specific toxicity statement”and provide practical steps to avoid harm towildlife. An example of a general environmentalstatement: “Do not apply when runoff is likely tooccur.”

13. Physical or Chemical HazardsThis section of the label describes any special

fire, explosion or chemical hazards the productmay pose. For example: “Flammable—Do notuse, pour, spill or store near heat or open flame.Do not cut or weld container.”

Hazard statements (hazards to humans anddomestic animals, environmental hazards, andphysical or chemical hazards) are not located inthe same place on all pesticide labels. Some labelsgroup them under the headings listed above.Other labels may list them on the front panelbeneath the signal word. Still other labels list thehazards in paragraph form somewhere else on

the label under headings such as “Note” or“Important.” Before use, examine the label forthese statements so you can handle the productknowledgeably and safely.

14. Restricted Entry Interval StatementSome pesticide labels contain a restricted entry

interval precaution. This statement tells howmuch time must pass before people can reenter atreated area without appropriate protective cloth-ing and equipment. If no restricted entry state-ment appears on the label or none has been set byyour state, then all unprotected workers mustwait at least until sprays have dried or dusts havesettled before reentering without protective equip-ment. That is the minimum legal restricted entryinterval. For the sample product label we haveincluded in this chapter, the treated animal shouldnot be handled by anyone until the applicationhas dried, or the person should be wearing all theappropriate personal protective equipment.

Read the label!

15. Directions for UseThese instructions are the best way to find out

how to apply the product. The use instructionswill tell you:

■ The host the product is intended to protect.

■ The proper equipment to be used and mixing instructions.

■ How much to use (rate) and how often toapply.

■ Compatibility with other often used products.

■ Where and when to apply the material.

Failure to follow the instructions on a pesticidelabel can result in a serious pesticide accident andconstitutes a legal violation subject to civil orcriminal prosecution. Remember, the label is alegal document. The user is liable for personalinjury, crop damage or pollution that occursthrough misuse of a pesticide.

Directions for storage and disposal will also beprovided.

85

16. RegulationsBy law, the pesticide label must contain infor-

mation on how the applicator must comply withthe following regulations if the pesticide fallsunder the stipulation of the particular regulation:

SARA Title III LawEndangered Species Act

Worker Protection Standards

For specific information on each of these regula-tions, see Chapter 1, Pesticide Laws and Regulations.It is advisable to obtain original copies of these docu-ments to understand their contents thoroughly.

ADDITIONAL PESTICIDE INFORMATION –MSDS

In addition to pesticide labels, informationabout a particular pesticide is printed on a Mater-ial Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). These formsinclude information about the pesticide such asmedical conditions that it may aggravate,whether it is carcinogenic and what are its pri-mary routes of entry. The MSDS is available fromchemical dealers and dated to help you determineif the information is current.

RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDEFor retail sale to and use only by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervisionand only for those uses covered by the certified applicator’s certification.

Chemco NO PEST InsecticideSPONGE-ON DIP FOR DOGS

ACTIVE INGREDIENT:N-(Mercaptomethyl) phthalimide S-(O. O-Dimethyl phosphoro-dithioate)......................................................11.60%

INERT INGREDIENTS: ................................................ 88.40%Total 100%

*Contains aromatic petroleum solvent

4 FL.OZ.(118 ml)

EPA Reg. No. 9999-000-00000 EPA Est. 9999-TX-1

PRECAUTIONARY STATEMENTS

HAZARD TO HUMANS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS-WARN-ING: Do not get in eyes, on skin or clothing. Harmful if swal-lowed, inhaled or absorbed through skin. Use only in wellventilated areas. Applicators must wear long-sleeved shirt,long pants, elbow-length waterproof gloves, waterproof apronand unlined, waterproof boots. Wash all contaminated clothingwith soap and hot water before reuse. Wash thoroughly beforeeating, drinking or using tobacco. Do not use on animalssimultaneously or within a few days before or after treatmentwith or exposure to cholinesterase-inhibiting drugs, pesticidesor chemicals. Do not use this pesticide on sick, old or debili-tated pets. Improper dilution of this product could cause seri-ous injury to dogs.

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDSThis pesticide is toxic to birds and extremely toxic to fish. Donot apply directly to water. Do not contaminate water bycleaning of equipment or disposal of waste. This product ishighly toxic to bees.

STATEMENT OF PRACTICAL TREATMENT: If in eyes, rinseimmediately with plenty of water, contact a physician immedi-ately if irritation persists. If on skin, wash promptly with soapand water. Remove contaminated clothing. If swallowed, calla physician or poison control center immediately. Do notinduce vomiting. If inhaled, remove victim to fresh air. Applyartificial respiration if necessary.

NOTE TO PHYSICIAN/VETERINARIAN: NO PEST is anorganophosphorus insecticide and cholinesterase inhibitor.Atropine is antidotal. 2-PAM is also antidotal and may beadministered with atropine. Usual symptoms of organophos-phorus in man include headache, blurred vision, weakness,nausea, discomfort in chest, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diar-rhea, salivation, sweating and pinpoint pupils. Usual symptomsin animals include salivation, labored breathing, ataxia andpinpoint pupils.

PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL HAZARDS: Do not use or storenear heat or open flame. Protect from temperatures below 20degrees F.

DIRECTIONS FOR USE – It is a violation of federal law to usethis product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. Fleas,Ticks and Sarcoptic Mange: Mix 1 oz. (2 tsp.) NO PEST with1 gal. water. Dip dog until skin is wet, allow to shake dry. Donot rinse. Reapply as necessary but not more often than every7 days. Do not treat dogs under 8 weeks of age.Storage & Disposal: Store in original container, away fromchildren. Do not contaminate water, food or feed by storage ordisposal. Do not reuse container. Rinse thoroughly before dis-carding in trash.

KEEP OUT OF REACH OF CHILDRENWARNING

READ ALL DIRECTIONS AND PRECAUTIONS BEFORE USINGSee back panel for Note to Physician/Veterinarian

9

3

6

7 8

1

10

11

4

12

5

2

13

15

Sold by Chemco Corporation-East Lansing, MI 48823For information, call 1-800-999-0000

86

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. Labels are legal documents. True or False?

2. Regardless of the signal words they bear, allpesticide labels must carry the words, “KeepOut of Reach of Children.” True or False?

3. The skull and crossbones symbol must appearon every pesticide label. True or False?

4. Which signal word(s) on a pesticide label wouldindicate that the product is highly toxic tohumans? a. “WARNING” b. “CAUTION” c. “Keep Out of Reach of Children” d. “DANGER-POISON”

5. Labels should be removed from pesticide con-tainers and kept in a notebook so they remainclean and legible. True or False?

6. A certain active ingredient has only one techni-cal chemical name and one accepted commonchemical name, but it may be in products withseveral different trade/brand names. True orFalse?

7. What are Material Data Safety Sheets and wherecan you obtain them?

To answer questions 8 through 13, refer to the“NO PEST” sample label found on the previouspage.

8. Should a face shield or goggles be worn whenhandling “NO PEST?” Yes or No?

9. If a person accidentally swallows severalmouthfuls of “NO PEST” concentrate, shouldhe/she be immediately administered Syrup ofIpecac to induce vomiting? Yes or No?

10. Regardless of the container material (glass,metal or plastic), all empty “NO PEST” con-tainers should be: a. burned.b. punctured.c. reused.d. triple- or power-rinsed.e. saved.

11. Containers of “NO PEST” can be kept in thekitchen as long as the storage area is locked.True or False?

12. Could use of this product present a hazard toany wildlife or other nontarget animals? Yes orNo? List three groups of animals of particularconcern:

1.

2.

3.

13. After treating a dog with “NO PEST,” it shouldremain on the animal for 5 minutes and thenbe thoroughly rinsed off. True or False?

Chapter 7 – Review Questions

CHAPTER 8

FLEAS

87

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Identify a flea and describe its appearance.■ Explain the life cycle of fleas.■ Know which stages of the flea live on the

animal and which do not.■ Describe the reasons that fleas are pests to

animals.■ Understand how flea bite dermatitis devel-

ops and affects the animal.■ Develop an integrated flea management

program.

■ Understand and follow all precautions forhuman and animal safety when selectingand using flea control products.

■ Explain the importance of treating the ani-mal as well as the animal’s environmentwhen controlling flea populations.

■ List the components of an effective flea lar-vae control program.

■ Explain the importance of regular sanitationin controlling fleas.

FLEA LIFE CYCLEFleas are insects of the order Siphonaptera

(meaning siphon-like mouth and no wings). Theyare very small (2 to 4 mm in length), brown andflattened from side to side. Flea eggs are glossywhite and oval. Immature fleas (larvae) are hairyand maggot-like in appearance. There are threeinstars or developmental stages of flea larvae,beginning with the larva that hatches from theegg. The second instar molts, or sheds the skin,and emerges out of the first instar. The thirdinstar flea larva does the same, emerging from thesecond instar skin. With each molt, the flea larvagrows larger. The third instar flea larva spins asilken cocoon and covers the cocoon with mater-ial from its environment. It molts inside of thecocoon to become a pupa. After a period of devel-opment the adult flea emerges from the pupa.The entire life cycle of a flea, from egg to adult,may take as few as 12 days or may last as long as140 days, depending on temperature. Also, fleasmay “rest” in the pre-emerged adult stage, insidethe cocoon, if no hosts are available for the adultsto jump onto.

Though there are over 2,000 species of fleas, thelife cycle is similar in almost all of them. Adult

fleas obtain a blood meal from their animal hosts.They do not utilize any other kind of food. Thus,adult fleas are ectoparasites. In contrast, flea lar-vae live in the environment near the host animalbut do not live on the animal. So, flea larvae arenot ectoparasites.

EGGSPUPA

LARVAE

ADULT

Figure 8.1 Flea Life Cycle

2-3 weeks underoptimal conditions

Commonly 1-2 weeksCommonly 2-12 days

88

The fleas of primary importance to domesticanimals, whether companion or food animals, arethe dog flea, cat flea and sticktight flea. Table 8.1lists the scientific and common names of somefleas and shows which animals commonly serveas their hosts. Dog and cat fleas are intermediatehosts for dog tapeworms.

DOG AND CAT FLEAS: LIFE HISTORYIn many parts of the United States, the dog flea

has been replaced by the cat flea as the most com-monly found flea on both dogs and cats. Thesefleas are so similar in appearance and biologythat we can treat them as basically the same.However, the scientific names are different. Thedog flea is called Ctenocephalides canis, and the catflea is called Ctenocephalides felis (“dog flea” and“cat flea” will do).

Table 8.1 Common Fleas AffectingDomesticated Animals in the U.S.

Host Flea Common Animal species Name

Dog Ctenocephalides canis Dog fleaCat Ctenocephalides felis Cat flea

The cat flea is an extremely important pest ofthese animals. In instances of heavy infestationwhen many fleas are present on an individualanimal, the blood loss can be great and lead topoor animal health. Young animals may becomeanemic (weakened by blood loss) from heavy,regular feeding by fleas. Kittens and puppies candie from heavy infestations of fleas. Flea bitescause animals to itch. The animals scratch, addingto the irritation of their skin.

Additionally, many dogs and cats develop fleabite dermatitis, an allergic condition that can bebrought on by a single flea bite in an allergic orsensitized animal. In extreme conditions, animalsdevelop “hot spots” (or “acute moist dermatitis”)where they continually scratch at highly inflamedsites on the skin, creating conditions for bacterialinfection. A hot spot is painful to the animal andmay exude pus.

Dog and cat fleas have very similar life cycles.(Figure 8.1.) The adult fleas spend virtually all oftheir lives on the host. They mate on the host andboth male and female fleas feed on blood by bit-ing their host. The fleas feed daily and the femalefleas lay eggs that drop from the host animal intothe environment. A female lays a few eggs each

day and several hundred over the course of herlife. Flea eggs accumulate in areas where the hostspends most of its time. In addition, the fleasdefecate small pellets of digested blood into thehost hair. These feces also drop off into the envi-ronment. A flea comb will often gather these fecesand flea eggs at the base of the tines. This providea good sign of flea infestation on dogs or cats.

Flea larvae occur indoors and outdoors, wher-ever the eggs have fallen off of the host. Inhouses, flea larvae live in carpeting, furniture,animal bedding and other protected areas withhigh humidity. Flea larvae can also live outdoorsin areas where animals spend time (such as underporches, in dog houses, etc.). Because flea larvaedepend on the fecal pellets of dried blood pro-duced by the adult fleas for food, larvae cannotsurvive in places that do not get a steady supplyof adult flea feces. Therefore, flea larvae do notlive in lawns or other outdoor areas unless the petfrequents those areas enough to provide food forthe larvae.

Adult fleas inside the cocoon, called pre-emerged fleas, can stay in that condition forweeks to months if no host is available for them.However, when disturbed by the presence of ahost (such as passing vibrations, carbon dioxidefrom exhaled breath or other factors), the pre-emerged fleas activate, leave the cocoon andjump onto the host. This is why it is possible toreturn to a house or apartment that has beenempty for months and find it full of fleas.

FLEA MANAGEMENTManagement of fleas on dogs and cats requires

an integrated approach. Both the host animal andthe environment must be treated at the same timeto be effective. Control of fleas on the animal gen-erally requires the use of insecticides. Althoughflea combs can remove some fleas, combing is abetter method for detecting fleas than for remov-ing them from the pet.

Insecticides. A range of insecticides in theorganophosphate, carbamate, pyrethrin andpyrethroid categories are available for flea controlon the animal. Greyhounds and cats are more sen-sitive to insecticide products than most dogs. Readall insecticide labels, follow all precautions anddose directions. Consult a veterinarian if you havequestions. The pyrethrins and pyrethroids havethe lowest mammalian toxicity. These insecticidescome in formulations such as shampoo, dust andpowder, mousse, aerosol and non-aerosol mist orspray, dip, spot-on, roll-on and collar. Organophos-

Host Flea Common Animal species Name

89

phate drugs are also available, by prescriptionsfrom veterinarians, for oral use. Some on-animalformulations contain insect growth regulators thatkill flea eggs on the animal.

Treating the animal. When treating an animal, theapplicator must take precautions to protect him- orherself from contact with the insecticide. All per-sonal protective equipment listed on the label mustbe worn. As a minimum, chemical-resistant gloves,apron and goggles should be worn while mixinginsecticides and during application to preventinsecticide contact with the skin. The working areashould be appropriate for containment of the pesti-cide and should be resistant to caustic materials. Astainless steel preparation table and stainless steelor ceramic tub have these qualities.

Mixing insecticides before shampooing an animalrequires protective equipment and a good working surface.

Protective equipment (gloves, apron, goggles) should beworn during insecticide applications onto animals.

If expression of anal glands is required, this procedureshould be done before the application of the insecticideoccurs. This will minimize the contact of interior mucosalmembranes with the insecticide.

If an animal is to be treated for other conditionsbesides fleas, such as expression of anal glands,then these procedures should be done before theinsecticide application to minimize insecticidecontact with interior mucosal membranes.

The insecticides used for flea control varywidely in toxicity and efficacy. Considerations forselecting a formulation include the size andweight of the animal, as well as the species. Forexample, cats groom themselves more than dogsand are more likely to ingest an insecticide andbecome poisoned by licking the residue fromtheir fur. Cats are more sensitive to organophos-phate insecticides than are dogs. Read and followall label directions. Kittens and puppies, becauseof their smaller size, require a lower dose than doadult animals. Young animals may also requiretreatment with insecticides of lower toxicity thanadult animals. Pregnant or nursing animals may

90

be sensitive to certain insecticides. Veterinariansshould have accurate information on insecticidesand their use for flea control on animals. Theinsecticide label contains accurate information onhow a particular formulation of an insecticideshould and should not be used. READ THELABEL BEFORE OPENING THE CONTAINER!

Greyhounds are a very chemical-sensitivespecies. Do not attach flea collars or flea-killingmedallions on these dogs. Do not use chlorpyri-fos, DDVP, methoxychlor or malathion on grey-hounds.

Treating the animal’s environment. The otherimportant part of an integrated flea managementprogram is to control larval fleas in the environ-ment or larval habitat away from the animal. Thiscan be achieved mechanically or physically andwith insecticides.

Mechanical or physical control of flea larvaerequires removal and laundering of animal bed-ding and thorough cleaning of areas frequentedby the animal. Using a vacuum with a beater barand immediately disposing of the waste bageffectively eliminates up to half of the larvae andeggs in carpet. Do not put insecticides in the vac-uum cleaner bag. This is an illegal use of theproducts and can harm you, your family and petsby creating dusts or fumes that could be inhaled.After vacuuming, dispose of the vacuum bag toavoid a hatch of fleas eggs inside it.

Launder animal bedding and thoroughly clean areas theanimal frequents. Dispose of the vacuum waste bag afterevery cleaning.

Carpet shampooing rids the carpet of bloodfeces, an important food for the larvae, and mayalso remove eggs and larvae. In outdoor areas,cleaning up the places where animals like to restreduces eggs and larvae and removes blood pel-lets. In yards and kennels, flea larvae will befound in cracks at wall-floor junctions and infloor crevices. These areas must be thoroughlycleaned and then maintained to prevent anotherinfestation.

Chemical control of flea larvae can be achievedwith insecticides. Organophosphate, carbamate,pyrethrin, pyrethroid and growth regulator (hor-mone mimic) insecticides and certain minerals areavailable for flea control in the environment.These insecticides are formulated as coarsesprays, foggers and dusts or are microencapsu-lated. All but the growth regulators kill flea lar-vae on contact. Insect growth regulators preventflea larvae from developing to the adult stage.Growth regulators may also inhibit egg hatching.A good flea larval control program will incorpo-rate sanitation, contact insecticides and growthregulators for good results.

Flea management requires patience, time andcareful planning. Vacuuming and cleaning areasfrequented by dogs and cats should be a regular,routine part of house cleanliness and pet care.The same applies to kennels. If an infestationoccurs, insecticide applications on the animals orin the environment may have to be repeatedaccording to the intervals listed on the label,depending on the efficacy of the treatments. Theneed for retreatment and time intervals betweeninsecticide treatments will vary with the kind ofinsecticide and the formulation.

Successful flea control will not happen if onlyone approach, such as dipping the dog, is used.The animal and the environment in which it livesmust be treated simultaneously, and that treat-ment must be combined with regular sanitationefforts. Read all product labels carefully. Do notoverexpose your pet by combining too manytreatments at one time, such as a collar, a sham-poo and a dust. Pesticides have a cumulativeeffect. Be aware of each product’s toxicity and donot endanger yourself or the animal by usingexcessive amounts of any one product or by com-bining products.

When using insecticides for flea control, remem-ber that the applicator and the animal owner canbe exposed to the insecticides at several times inthe management process. The label may call forthe use of gloves and other protective equipment

91

An application of ophthalmic ointment to the eyes of theanimal prior to insecticide treatment helps prevent eyeirritation.

during application and suggest the pet not be han-dled with unprotected hands until the treatmentdries. Also, certain parts of the pet’s body (such asthe eyes) may be sensitive to the insecticides andmust be shielded during application.

The applicator should follow label directionsand application guidelines carefully to minimizeexposure during and after application. Whenusing flea “bombs” (aerosol cans with a self-releasing mechanism), follow all the precautionsand remove the pets from the area being treated.Using excessive rates is illegal and can result infires and even explosions.

92

Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. Kittens and puppies can die from heavy infesta-tions of fleas. True or False?

2. What is “flea bite dermatitis”?

3. How does a flea infestation lead to the develop-ment of “hot spots” (or “acute moist dermati-tis”) on animals?

4. Dogs are the only hosts for dog fleas and catsare the only hosts for cat fleas. True or False?

5. How many eggs might a female flea lay in aday? How many eggs would she lay in her life?

6. Flea eggs can accumulate on the host as well asin areas where the host animal spends most ofits time. True or False?

7. Flea larvae feed on:a. fur.b. animal dander.c. lawn grasses.d. adult flea fecal pellets of blood.e. all of the above.

8. What are two important parts to an integratedflea management program?

9. Cats are more sensitive to organophosphatesthan dogs. True or False?

10. Why should you never put insecticides intovacuum bags?

11. How do insect growth regulators control fleas?

12. Releasing excessive rates of flea “bombs” canresult in ________________________________ .

Chapter 8 – Review Questions

CHAPTER 9

MITES AND TICKS

93

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Describe how mites and ticks differ from

insects.■ Understand the ways that mites can nega-

tively affect animal health.■ Explain what mange is and how it occurs.■ Explain the generalized life cycle of mites.

■ List several mites that affect animals.■ Describe integrated programs for controlling

mites and ticks.■ Understand the basic life cycles of ticks.■ Describe the appearance of a tick.■ List some of the important tick pests of

animals.

MITESThere are more than 200 families of mites and

many thousands of species. Most mites are free-living and feed on plant juices or prey upon otherarthropods. Some mites have evolved to becomeimportant ectoparasitic pests of animals. Somespecies of mites have even become endoparasites,by invading the ears, bronchi and lungs, nose andother tissues of animals. More than 50 species ofmites live on or in the bodies of domestic animals.

In general, mites can affect the health of animalsin four ways by:

■ Damaging tissues and causing dermatitis.

■ Causing blood or body fluid loss.

■ Causing allergic reactions.

■ Creating conditions for secondary bacterialinfection.

The generalized veterinary term for an infesta-tion of mites in an animal is acariasis (pronouncedack-uh-RYE-uh-sis). Mange or scabies is one of themost common problems that mites cause in ani-mals. Mange is a deterioration of the skin’s condi-tion, leading to hair or feather loss, skindiscoloration and, in severe cases, lethargy andweakness. The USDA defines scabies and mangeas “any skin condition of man or animals associ-ated with a mite; scabies is a particularly serious,debilitating, reportable mange condition.”

Mites are tiny arthropods, usually less than 1mm in size, and can be difficult to see and iden-tify without the aid of a strong microscope or atleast a hand lens. Figure 9.1 shows a schematicview of the general anatomy of a mite. Note thatthe feeding apparatus of a mite is called thehypostome. It contains the chelicerae and the

Figure 9.1 General anatomy of a mite.Source: Centers for Disease Control.

coxa

femur

tibia

tarsus

claw

sternal plate

analplate

hypostome

94

paired palpi (singular, palpus). The legs are seg-mented, and each joins the body at the coxa. Thebody of a mite consists of various hard plates ofcuticle connected together by softer cuticle.

Mites breathe directly through their cuticle, inthe smaller species, or through pores in the cuti-cle (called stigmata), which are connected tointernal air tubes. Mites may or may not havesimple eyes. Although the figure does not showit, mites are often rather hairy looking because ofthe presence of spines. Mites can vary greatlyfrom this generalized body design, as figures anddescriptions given below will demonstrate.

Life CycleThe generalized life cycle of mites can be

described as follows. Mites mate and the femaleslay eggs. The eggs hatch and six-legged larvaeemerge. These larvae feed and molt to the eight-legged nymph stage. Later, after feeding, thenymphs molt and become adult male or femalemites. This entire life cycle can take as little aseight days to as long as four weeks, depending onthe species of mite, and the temperature andhumidity.

Table 9.1 Common ectoparasitic mite pests affecting animal health in the U.S.

Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

Cat Follicle mite Demodex cati hair follicle live in hair follicles, demodetic mange

Notoedric Notroedres catis skin mites dig tunnels, notoedric scabies,,scabies mite live in skin mange

Ear mite Otodectes cynotis skin surface live inear canal, ear mite infestationin ear canal feed on skin debris

Cat Fur mite Cheyletiella blakei skin punctures skin scaly dermatitisand sucks lymph

Dog Follicle mite Demodex canis hair follicles live in hair follicles demoectic mangeand feed on sebum

Sarcoptic Sarcoptes scabei skin mites dig tunnels, scabies, mangemange mite var. canis live in skin

Ear mite Otodectes cynotis skin surface live in ear canals, ear mite infestationin ear canal feed on skin debris

Dog fur mite Cheyletiella skin punctures skin and scaly dermatitusparasitivorax sucks lymph

Rabbit Noteodric Notoedres cati skin mites dig tunnels, notoedric scabies,scabies mite live in skin mange

Ear mite Psoroptes ear canal live in skin or psoroptic ear mangecuniculi under scabs

Rabbit fur Cheyletiella skin punctures skin and scaly dermatitismite yasguri sucks lymph

Caged Chicken mite Dermanyssus roosts feeds on blood dermattitus,Birds gallinae (free-living) through skin blood loss

Northern Ornithonyssus skin, feeds on blood dermatitus,fowl mite sylviarum feathers through skin blood loss

Scaly-leg Knemidokoptes skin burrow beneath scaly leg lesionsmite mutans epidermal scales

Depluming Knemidokoptes base of burrow beneath skin irritation,mite laevis var. feathers epidermal scales feather loss

Host Common Scientific Tissue Mite Pathological Animal Name Name Affected Activity Condition

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MITE PESTS OF ANIMALSTable 9.1 lists the common mite pests of domes-

tic animals. In general, the important mites thatcan be controlled with insecticides (or more prop-erly, miticides) include the following groups:

■ Burrowing mange mites (including the sar-coptic mange mites, notoedric mange mitesand knemidocoptic mange mites).

■ Non-burrowing mange mites (the psoroptidmange mites).

■ Ear mites (psoroptid ear mites and otodecticear mites).

■ Demodectic or hair follicle mites. ■ Fur mites (cat, dog and rabbit fur mites).These mites cause adverse skin conditions on

their host animals.

Burrowing Mange MitesSarcoptic mange mites cause sarcoptic mange.

Sarcoptic mange mites belong to one species, Sar-coptes scabei, with host-adapted varieties that donot cross-infest other animals. This means theyusually infest only one kind of animal host. Thereare at least seven varieties infesting dogs, horses,sheep, goats, swine and foxes. Cats, rabbits andfowl are not affected by sarcoptic mange mites.

The life cycle of sarcoptic mange mites is similaron different host animals. The mated female miteburrows into the skin and forms a tunnel over aninch deep where she feeds on lymph fluid (a clearbody fluid). She lays 40 to 50 eggs in the burrowand then dies. Tiny, six-legged larvae hatch fromthe eggs, leave the female’s burrow and wander onthe animal’s body. The larvae form new pocket-burrows in the skin, where they feed and molt totwo succeeding nymphal stages. The nymphs mayalso move about and make new tunnels. Nymphs

Figure 9.2 Sarcoptic mange mite life cycle: Adult (A) layseggs (B), which develop into immature nymph stages (C).

molt and become adult males or females, whichmate. Figure 9.2 shows a sarcoptic mange mite lifecycle. If the mites fall or drop off the host animal,they are susceptible to dehydration (loss of water)and usually die within a few days.

Sarcoptic mange mites, because of their burrow-ing behavior and feeding, cause intense itchingand dermatitis. Affected animals may scratch soheavily that liquid exudes from the affected skin,causing skin crusts and skin cracking and thick-ening. Secondary infection is common inscratched areas.

Though all parts of an animal’s body may beaffected, usually the less hairy areas becomeinfested. In dogs, sarcoptic mange occurs on theface but can spread to other parts of the body. Sar-coptic mange is transmissible to other dogs. If onedog is infested, all dogs that it has come in contactwith should be treated for mite control. The animalshould be dipped with an approved product. Inthe case of a puppy or stressed animal, a lime-sul-fur prep should be used. Repeat the treatments for4 to 6 weeks according to the intervals listed in thelabel directions. Treatment may require assistancefrom a veterinarian. Clip the infested dog’s hair ifit is a long-haired type. Dispose of all bedding andthoroughly vacuum. Dispose of the vacuum bagwhen finished cleaning.

Figure 9.3 Sarcoptic mange mite general features.

Detecting and identifying sarcoptic mange mitescan be difficult because the mites live in the skinburrows. Deep skin scrapings that cause blood toooze from the scraping are required to scoop mitesout of the burrows. The scrapings are then exam-ined with a microscope. These mites are too smallto be seen with the naked eye. Figure 9.3 shows asarcoptic mange mite to illustrate general features.Precise detection and identification of these mitesusually must be done in consultation with a

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veterinary dermatologist, parasitologist or ento-mologist. Veterinary manuals contain informationon identification and detection.

Notoedric mange mites are similar to the sarcopticmange mites in biology, pathology, detection andidentification, except that they are smaller. Theyoccur in cats and rabbits and occasionally indogs. One major species of notoedric mange miteparasitizes these animals, Notoedres cati. Thesemites cause feline scabies and head mange ofcats. The mites burrow into the skin and exhibit alife cycle very similar to that of the sarcopticmites. These mites primarily infest skin on theback of the neck, ears, face and paws, but maycover the whole body, especially in young ani-mals. Detection and identification are done thesame way with notoedric mites as with the sar-coptic mange mites.

Treatment for notoedric mange mites willrequire shampooing the animal with an insectici-dal product for approximately four weeks atintervals described on the label. These mites diewithin a few days if they leave the host. Thismange condition can be found in a few areas inthe United States but overall it is a relatively raredisease.

The third group of burrowing mange mitesaffects domesticated fowl, including chickens,turkeys, pheasants, and caged pet birds. Thisgroup includes the scaly leg and depluming mites.

The scaly-leg mite, Knemidokoptes mutans, formsburrows under the epidermal scales on the toes,feet and legs of birds. The mites’ burrowing andfeeding activity causes inflammation, disfiguringof the skin with crusts, scale and scab formationand swollen legs and feet. The skin hardens andexudes fluid. Sometimes these mites also infest thecomb and neck. Heavily infested birds may diebecause of hypersensitive allergic reactions. A verysimilar species, called Knemidokoptes pilae, causesscaly leg in parakeets. Another very similarspecies, Knemidokoptes jamaicensis, infests canaries.

With all of these mites, life cycles and detectionmethods are similar to those of the other burrow-ing mange mites.

Non-burrowing Mange MitesThe non-burrowing mange mites do not form

burrows in the skin. However, they do infest ani-mal skin and cause mange. There are two impor-tant species of non-burrowing mange mites, butthey are not typically pests of companion animalsand so will not be discussed here and we willmove on to other types of mite pests.

Ear MitesEar mites are closely related to the non-burrow-

ing mange mites, but they live on the skin of earcanals instead of on the outer skin. Two species ofear mites are important. Otodectes cynotis causesear mange and lives in the ears of carnivoresincluding dogs, cats and ferrets. Psoroptes cuniculilives primarily in the ear canals of rabbits but alsoin horses, cattle, sheep and goats. It also causesear mange.

The swarming, reproduction and feeding activ-ity of these mites causes inflammation andintense itching in the ears of affected animals.Crusts form on the skin. An infested animal willoften shake its head, carry the head to the side,scratch the ears and turn in circles as a sign of dis-equilibrium or dizziness. The ears may exudepus. Sometimes, in cases with extreme infestationand secondary infection, the eardrum will rup-ture, allowing the middle and inner ear tobecome infected with bacteria.

Detection and identification of ear mites isaccomplished by ear scrapings or sampling withan oil-soaked cotton swab and microscopic exami-nation. Infested animals with sensitive ear canalsmay not tolerate the use of an otoscope (ear exam-ination instrument) and may need to berestrained. Obtain veterinary assistance. Withother animals, examination of the ear with an oto-scope will reveal mites crawling about in the earcanal. In this case, no ear swabbings are necessary.

Hair Follicle MitesFollicle mites are tiny, elongate mites that live in

the hair follicles or sebaceous (oil) glands associ-ated with hair follicles in mammals. The speciesof major importance to domesticated animalsbelong in the genus Demodex (See Table 9.1).

Follicle mites are common parasites of cats, dogs,horses and other large animals. In healthy animals,follicle mites do not cause any skin deterioration ormange. Animals with severe demodectic mangegenerally have immune systems that do not func-tion properly. In weak or diseased animals, twoskin conditions can develop. In the scaly skin con-dition, skin thickens and wrinkles and hair fallsout. The skin turns color changing from its normalcolor to red or bruised-looking. In the pustularskin condition, pimples or pustules filled with pusdevelop. The pustules can develop into severeabscesses or nodules filled with fluid and pus. Thisskin condition usually develops after the scalycondition and reflects the development of sec-ondary bacterial infections in the follicles. In bothconditions, itching occurs. These skin conditionsare collectively called demodectic mange.

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Heavily infested dogs exhibit demodectic mangeon several parts of the body, but particularly on theface and paws. Transmission of a mite populationfrom bitch to nursing offspring by direct contactmay occur during the first 2-3 days of life. Demod-ectic mange in dogs is also called red mange. Sec-ondary bacterial infection, especially byStaphylococcus, as part of the overall mange condi-tion can lead to death in dogs. Social stress maycontribute to the onset of mange conditions.

Certain breeds of dog are more susceptible togeneralized demodicosis (demodectic mange)condition. Breeds with predispositions includeOld English sheepdog, collie, afghan, Germanshepard, akita, Staffordshire and pit bull terrier,Boston terrier, dachshund, chihuahua, boxer, pug,Chinese Shar-pei, beagle and pointers. All dogswith generalized demodicosis should be neuteredafter being successfully treated. This will reducethe continuation of hereditary predisposition.

In other animals, follicle mite infestation is usu-ally asymptomatic (showing no symptoms). Catsand horses can exhibit mild demodectic mange.Feline demodicosis is rare, usually localized and aself-limiting condition. Burmese and Siamesebreeds may be more susceptible to generalized(covering much of the body) feline demodicosis.Hamsters and laboratory rodents may alsodevelop mange caused by hair follicle mites.Treatment is often difficult and should be accom-plished with assistance from a veterinarian. Car-baryl shampoos and lime sulfur preps usedaccording to label directions may be used to con-trol mange mite problems.

Detection and identification of follicle mites canbe done by trained persons by scraping skindeeply (as with burrowing mange mites), or byexpressing pustules or abscesses and preparingslides for microscopic examination. There are noother mites that have the elongated appearance offollicle mites, shown below (Figure 9.4).

Figure 9.4 Hair follicle mite.

Other Mites: Fur Mites, Chicken and FowlMites, Chiggers, Oribatids and HouseDust Mites

Several other kinds of mites bite or infestdomesticated animals. Larvae of chigger mitesnormally parasitize wild rodents. Two species

affect small animals. The North American chiggeris bright orange-red in both the larval and adultstage. Chiggers may cause itchy lesions on ani-mals that crust over. They may be found on legs,feet and ears. The larvae attach to the skin andsuck tissue fluids. Larval chiggers seek hosts byclinging to vegetation near ground level andwaiting for an animal to pass by. Chiggers typi-cally occur in low-lying, humid environmentssuch as stream sides and marsh or lake edges.

Diagnosis of chiggers on animals includes theobservance of bright orange mites, crusty lesions,skin scrapings, and environmental history ofbeing in woods and fields. Treatment includesdips and shampoos with an insecticidal productaccording to label directions. Keep animal out ofcontaminated areas to prevent reinfestation.

Three closely related mites called fur mites (allin the genus Cheyletiella) infest the skin of rabbits,dogs and cats. Younger animals, primarily kittensand puppies, are affected. These Cheyletiella mitescause itching, dermatitis (walking dandruff),weeping skin, mange and severe scaling, primar-ily along the dorsal midline, but may becomegeneralized (covering much of the body) (seeTable 9.1).

The mites suck lymph (body fluid). They spendtheir entire life cycle on the host but, unlike theburrowing and non-burrowing mange mites, theydo not burrow into the skin or cause scab forma-tion. Detection and identification can be accom-plished by microscopic examination of skinscrapings and consultation with identificationguides or qualified personnel. This mite is rela-tively easy to kill. Use lime-sulfur preps accord-ing to label directions, once weekly for 3 to 4weeks. Dispose of bedding and thoroughly vac-uum. It is usually a self-limiting problem inaffected humans.

Dermanyssus gallinae, the chicken roost mite (orjust chicken mite), infests domesticated fowl aswell as wild birds such as pigeons and housesparrows. During the daytime, these mites hide incracks and crevices in the birds’ roosts and inpoultry houses. At night, the mites leave theirrefuge, infest the birds and feed on their blood.

Sometimes chicken mites leave the nests ofpigeons or sparrows and invade houses, bitingpeople. This occurs especially when the adultbirds leave their nests after the young havefledged (acquired feathers necessary for flight).This is not uncommon when the birds roost inthe eaves of houses. Identification should beattempted with help from an entomologist orparasitologist.

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Endoparasitic MitesSome mites occur in the internal organs and tis-

sues of animals, particularly the respiratory pas-sages. These mites are appropriately classified asendoparasites. For example, Pneumonyssoides can-inum infests the sinuses and nasal passages ofdogs. They should not be dealt with strictly asarthropod pests suitable for control with miti-cides by a certified applicator, but rather shouldbe referred to veterinarians for any necessarytreatment.

Mites in the family Oribatidae (commonlycalled oribatid mites) are generally free-livingand occur in soil. Though these mites are not typ-ically ectoparasitic on domestic animals, some ofthem are important as intermediate hosts for cer-tain tapeworms (genus Moniezia) that infect cattle,sheep and goats. The mites ingest tapeworm eggsfound in animal feces. Inside the mite, immaturestages of the tapeworm (called cysticercoids)develop. Cattle may later ingest the mites as theygraze in pasture and become infected with thetapeworms.

The final group of mites of veterinary impor-tance are the house dust mites. These mites arenot ectoparasites of companion animals (dogs orcats). The mites live indoors, in bedding and fur-niture and anywhere dust accumulates. They feedon dandruff and other organic materials in thedust. The cuticle, excrement and molted exoskele-tons of the mites can cause allergies in companionanimals and humans. Allergies to house dustmites are common and can be a significant der-matological problem for dogs. Use of miticidesfor control of these mites is not recommended.Instead, environmental sanitation for control isthe best approach.

Veterinarians perform skin scraping and earswabbing for mite detection where mange, furor ear mites are suspected

Mites causing mange or infesting the fur or earsmay initially be suspected if an animal’s behavioror appearance changes from normal to abnormal.Gross changes in coat or skin condition or exces-sive licking and scratching can be signs that miteshave infested the animal at unhealthy levels.

Detection (or diagnosis) of mite infestations ofanimal skin and ears can be accomplished byexamining the entire body surface using a handlens. However, mange, ear and fur mites may bemore readily and definitively detected by the skinscraping technique. Skin scrapings must be per-formed by a veterinarian.

As discussed in several sections above, skinscraping may be shallow (i.e., not draw blood) ordeep (i.e., slightly draw blood) and will reveal

non-burrowing, burrowing and hair follicle mites,depending on the depth of the scrape. Veterinari-ans trained in skin examination and diagnosis ofdermatological and ear problems in animalsshould be consulted for assistance with thesedetection methods. These experts can help todetermine if the perceived problem is caused bymite infestation or something else.

CONTROL OF MITES ON ANIMALS OR INANIMAL ENVIRONMENTS

It should be obvious from the informationabove that there are many kinds of mites thataffect the health of many kinds of domestic ani-mals. Thus, the measures to control mite prob-lems will vary with the species of mite and thehost animal involved.

The first step in management of mite ectopara-sites is to provide for good health, because ithelps maintain the animal’s resistance to miteinfestations. Housing, nutrition and sanitary con-ditions should be at optimal levels. Animals heldunder crowded conditions, on poor diets and inunclean housing will be more likely to contract orharbor infestations of mites. Animals in poorhealth for other reasons are more susceptible tomite infestations and may be reservoirs of mites,causing infestations of healthy animals. Newlyacquired animals should be examined for pestsand, if necessary, treated to prevent contamina-tion of animals already present.

Control of mites on animals or in the environ-ment usually requires use of approved pesticidesor drugs. The choice of which pesticide to use, orwhich drug, will vary with the mite and the ani-mal infested. Pesticides that are used to controlmites or ticks are called acaricides. It should benoted that not all insecticides approved for lice(more than one louse) control are approved oreffective for mange mite control.

Companion animals and small animals. Companionanimals (i.e., dogs and cats) and other small ani-mals such as pet rabbits can become infested withmange mites or follicle mites. Dogs can beaffected by the scabies mite, Sarcoptes scabei var.canis, while cats and rabbits are affected by theburrowing mange mite, Notoedres cati, and the furmite, Cheyletiella. The best treatment for mangemites in these animals is dipping in an approvedacaricide. Dusts may be used for light or localizedmange mite infestations. These treatments willalso effectively kill fur mites.

Follicle mites are present in many dogs andusually cause limited problems. However, some

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dogs develop severe infestations of follicle mitesthat require treatment. The infestations can belocalized (in one area of the skin) or generalized(covering much of the body). Treatment consistsof cleaning the affected areas with disinfectantscrubs and then applying approved acaricidesunder the direction of a veterinarian.

Ear mites in small animals. Ear mites in cats andother small animals (e.g., dogs and rabbits) can bedetected by the methods described above. Afterdetection, ears should be thoroughly cleaned toremove any waxy buildup. Then, applications ofapproved drugs or acaricides are given under thedirection of a veterinarian.

TICKSThere are more than 800 species of ticks belong-

ing to two families: the soft ticks (family Argasi-dae, 160 species) and the hard ticks (familyIxodidae, 650 species). Ticks are close relatives ofthe mites; many scientists feel that ticks evolvedfrom mites into parasitic associations with ani-mals during the time of the large reptiles (about200 million years ago).

Ticks are obligatory blood feeders on vertebratehosts. This means that they depend entirely onblood for food and survival. They parasitize rep-tiles, birds and mammals. No ticks feed on plantjuices or prey on other arthropods.

Ticks are of major worldwide veterinary impor-tance for the following reasons:

■ They cause blood loss.■ Their feeding causes inflammation and irri-

tation of the skin.■ They may stimulate hypersensitive allergic

reactions.■ They may cause a toxic reaction in the host,

complicated by paralysis (called “tick paral-ysis”).

■ They transmit microorganisms that causedisease.

Arthropods that transmit pathogenic microor-ganisms are called “vectors” of the diseases thatthe pathogens cause. For example, Ixodes scapu-laris, commonly called the black-legged, is a vec-tor of Lyme disease.

Hard TicksTicks are small arthropods, but all life stages

can be seen with the naked eye. Figure 9.5 showsan example of a hard tick. The feeding apparatusof a tick, like that of a mite, is called the hypos-tome. The hypostome allows the tick to suck

blood. The legs are segmented. The rest of thebody of the tick is the abdomen. On the back ofthe abdomen of hard ticks is the scutum or shield.The scutum is often colored and has holes andlines in it (called “ornamentation”). The ornamen-tation of the scutum is important in identifyinghard ticks. Some hard tick species have ridges orfestoons. In female hard ticks, the scutum doesnot cover the body completely. In male hard ticks,the scutum covers the body. Ticks do not haveantennae.

Figure 9.5 The American dog tick, an example of a hard tick

Soft TicksSoft ticks look very different from hard ticks.

The hypostome of soft ticks does not project for-ward— it is tucked underneath the abdomen andis not visible from above. Soft ticks do not have ascutum, nor do they have elaborate colorationpatterns. Instead, the body is covered with bumpsand folds.

Tick Development and FeedingBiological development of ticks starts with the

egg stage and is followed by three more stages:six-legged larva, eight-legged nymph and eight-legged adult. Hard ticks have only one nymphalinstar (that is, one molt to the nymph stage, fol-lowed by a molt to the adult stage). Soft ticks mayhave up to seven nymphal molts, depending onthe species of tick and the kind of life cycleinvolved.

Each stage of a tick must feed on blood. Blood isthe sole nutrient source for ticks and allows themto develop and molt to the next stage. For adultfemale ticks, blood provides the nutrients todevelop eggs.

Blood feeding by ticks is a complex behaviorand a physiological interaction with the hostbeing fed upon. Ticks usually locate hosts

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through “questing.” During questing behavior, atick climbs to a perch (such as a blade of grass orend of a branch) and extends its legs. When ananimal passes by the perch and brushes against it,the tick grabs onto the animal’s fur. The tick thencrawls about the body of the animal until it findsa suitable place to attach its mouthparts. The tickinserts its hypostome into the skin and secretes acement from the salivary glands to hold thehypostome in place. The tick then starts to takeblood. For hard ticks blood feeding lasts severaldays to weeks of attachment. Most species of softticks blood-feed for only minutes to hours at atime. Many soft ticks do not quest as describedabove, but rather walk to a host to feed.

Tick Life CyclesTicks have complex life cycles involving several

blood meals with the same or different animalhosts and may include long periods of time whenthey are not on a host but living in the environ-ment. Indeed, one of the characteristic features ofticks is that even though they are highly depen-dent on blood for food, they may survive awayfrom a blood host for long periods. Some speciesof ticks can live for years away from a host.

Soft ticks are usually associated with nests,dens, burrows or roosts of their animal hosts. Softticks usually mate when they are not on a host.Hard ticks are generally not associated so closelywith their hosts but instead are free-ranging andcome into contact with animal hosts only forblood feeding. Hard ticks usually mate when theyare on a host, oftentimes while the female isblood feeding. Because soft ticks take small bloodmeals for a short feeding period, the female laysonly a few hundred eggs during her lifetime,with eggs laid at intervals. Hard ticks take largeblood meals and lay 6,000 or more eggs at onetime.

Ticks have four generalized life cycles. Theselife cycles are related to the number of individualanimal hosts a tick will visit and feed on duringits life from egg to adult. The life cycles are calledone-host life cycle, two-host life cycle, three-host life cycle and multihost life cycle. Ticks areoften referred to by the kind of life cycle theyhave for example, the American dog tick is athree-host tick.

The three-host life cycle has been adopted byabout 625 species of the hard tick family. There-fore, this is the most common tick life cycle. Thelarvae find a host and feed for days. They dropoff the host after feeding and wait days to weeksfor the blood meal to digest. They then molt tothe nymph stage. The nymph finds a new host (of

the same or a different species of animal that thelarva was feeding upon), blood-feeds, drops offand digests the blood. It then molts to the adultstage. These ticks quest for a new, third host.They feed and mate on this third host. Thefemales drop off after feeding, digest the bloodand lay eggs. Males stay on the host, often do notfeed and die after mating.

In the three-host life cycle, the larvae andnymphs typically feed on smaller animals (forexample, birds or rodents) than do the adult ticks(for example, deer or cattle). Three-host tickcycles may take years to complete, depending onthe environmental and climatic conditions in thearea.

The two-host life cycle occurs in 12 of the hardtick species. This life cycle is very similar to thethree-host life cycle. Two-host ticks generally donot occur in North America, though in other partsof the world they are extremely important pestsof animals.

The one-host tick life cycle occurs in about 12species of the hard tick family. Larvae, nymphsand adults all feed upon the same animal hostwithout dropping off of it to molt. One-host ticksare important pests of domesticated animals inNorth America and elsewhere.

The multihost life cycle is characteristic ofnearly all of the species of soft ticks. Multihost lifecycles take place in areas where host animalsdwell, such as dens, burrows, nests and othershelters. In this life cycle, many nymphal moltsoccur and these nymphs are called intermediatestages. Larvae find a host in the shelter and feed.They detach from the host, stay in the shelter,digest the blood and molt to the first-stagenymph. The nymphs repeat the feeding and otheractivities of the larvae. Individual nymphs feedand molt several times before molting to the adultstage. Adults quest for and feed on a host in thesame shelter as the nymphs and larvae. The adultticks feed and may feed many times. The femaleticks lay small batches of eggs after each bloodfeeding.

DETECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TICKS

Ticks can be detected on animals by directexamination without use of a hand lens or micro-scope. Engorged ticks (those filled with blood) areparticularly easy to see because they are large andobvious, looking somewhat like a castor bean inshape and color. To find ticks on an animal, ruffleor comb fur or feathers to expose the skin and

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examine skin directly. Ticks may have preferredattachment sites that protect them to a certaindegree from being dislodged by animal groom-ing. Areas around the head, in the ears, on theshoulders and other parts of the body can harborattached ticks. Unattached ticks can be recoveredfrom host fur by combing and examining thecomb.

Tick identification can be accomplished with theuse of references and biological identificationkeys. Identification is important because certaintick species transmit agents that cause serious dis-eases; other ticks do not. Thus, correct tick identi-fication can help animal health care professionalsmake decisions about the need for diagnostictests for tick-borne diseases.

A pictorial key to the genera of adult ticks inthe United States is given at the end of this chap-ter. Identification of ticks to particular speciesoften requires consultation with experts, who canbe contacted through local county Extensionoffices or health departments. Immature ticks, lar-vae and nymphs, are difficult to identify evenwith the aid of a microscope. An expert should beconsulted to determine if a particular arthropodis an immature tick and, if so, what species.

IMPORTANT TICKS AFFECTING ANIMAL HEALTH

Many species of ticks affect animal health. Ticksmay be encountered on companion animals, otheranimals in agricultural settings and even animalsin pet shops or zoos. Additionally, ticks are

Table 9.2 Common ticks affecting animal health in the northcentral region of the United States

Tick TickAnimals Common Scientific Geographical DiseaseParasitized Name Name Distribution Associations

Dogs, cats, American Dermacentor Eastern U.S., Rocky Mountaincattle, horses dog tick variabilis California Spotted Fever

Wide range of Lone star Amblyomma Southern states Rocky Mountainbirds, mammals tick americanum east of Texas Spotted Fever

Rodents, dogs, cattle, Black-legged Ixodes Upper midwest, Lyme diseasehorses, deer, cats tick scapularis eastern coast states

Dogs, mainly Brown dog Rhipicephalus Worldwide, indoorstick sanguineus

important ectoparasites of wild animals and mayseriously affect the vigor of individuals and thefitness of whole populations.

Table 9.2 lists several important tick speciesfound in the United States, their distribution andcommon names, which domesticated animals theticks commonly parasitize and the diseases theyare associated with as vectors. Of these, theimportant ticks of the north central part of theUnited States are discussed in detail below.

The American dog tick, Dermacentor variabilis(Fig. 9.5), is widespread in the eastern UnitedStates. The American dog tick is brown withwhite ornamentation on the scutum (shield on theabdomen) in the adult stage. It parasitizes wildwoodland rodents in the larval and nymphalstages. As an adult it will commonly occur ondogs and wild canines, raccoons, opossums, cat-tle, horses and humans.

The American dog tick is a three-host tick. It isan important vector of the rickettsial microorgan-ism that causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever.This disease is also known as American tick-borne typhus. Dogs and humans can contractRocky Mountain spotted fever, a serious andpotentially fatal disease characterized by unusualspotted rashes and high fever. The American dogtick can also transmit the rickettsial microorgan-ism that causes canine ehrlichiosis. This is a dis-ease of dogs once thought confined to Asia butnow documented in areas of the United States.

The lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (Fig-ure 9.6), is a common and problematic tick of thesouth central and southeastern United States, butthese ticks appear every year in north central

Tick TickAnimals Common Scientific Geographical DiseaseParasitized Name Name Distribution Associations

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states (probably brought up by northwardlymigrating birds). The tick gets its name from thebright, lone star-like spot on the scutum of thefemale. The male and immature ticks lack thisspot. Lone star ticks are vectors of Rocky Moun-tain spotted fever rickettsiae. The lone star tick isa three-host tick. It parasitizes a wide range ofbirds (particularly the larvae and nymphs) andmammals, including dogs, cattle, horses, sheepand humans.

Figure 9.6 The lone star tick is a common and problem-atic tick of the south central and southeastern UnitedStates. These ticks appear every year in north centralstates (probably brought up by northwardly migratingbirds).

The black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis (Figure9.7), is a three-host tick with a prolonged two-year life cycle. In the larval and nymphal stages,it quests for woodland rodents such as mice andchipmunks, but it will also parasitize ground-for-aging birds. Adult ticks are found on larger sizedwild mammals but will also parasitize humans,dogs, cats, horses and cattle.

Figure 9.7 Black-legged tick.

Ixodes scapularis is the vector in the easternUnited States of Borrelia burgdorferi, the bacteriumthat causes Lyme disease. Lyme disease is achronic, debilitating disease that may initiallymanifests itself as a rash in humans and may laterlead to chronic arthritis and possibly heart andnervous system problems. Dogs, horses and

possibly cattle show some symptoms of Lymedisease, indicating that they indeed can becomeinfected following a tick bite.

The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus(Figure 9.8), is a three-host tick that generallyoccurs in indoor, doghouse, or kennel situations.The brown dog tick does not occur outside.Though it mainly is an ectoparasite of dogs, italso will parasitize wild animals, zoo animalsand, rarely, humans. In northern temperate cli-mates, this tick is exclusively an indoor tick. Insome parts of the world, brown dog ticks are vec-tors of some pathogens of dogs, including RockyMountain spotted fever. These ticks also are vec-tors of the causative agent of canine babesiosis (ormalignant jaundice), a malaria-like infection.

MANAGEMENT OF TICKS ON ANIMALS Management of ticks affecting companion ani-

mals varies with the species of tick and the kindof animal that needs protection. When only a sin-gle tick, or a few ticks are on an animal, simplyremove them using tweezers or fingers. If you useyour fingers, be sure to wear protective gloves ora use barrier such as a tissue. Be sure not tosqueeze the tick—you could cause any diseaseorganism in the tick to go into the animal. Graspthe tick as close to the skin as possible and pullfirmly away until it detaches. Ticks should not beremoved by burning or using materials such askerosene or diesel fuel. Heavily infested animalsshould be dipped, dusted or shampooed with anacaricide and then combed thoroughly to removethe ticks. Be careful with cats—they are very sen-sitive to pesticide toxicity.

Tick attachment to dogs and cats can sometimesbe prevented with the use of acaricide- or insecti-cide-impregnated collars. These collars may notbe entirely effective, especially when the animals

Figure 9.8 Brown dog tick.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What two features generally distinguish mitesand ticks from insects?

2. What four ways do mites affect the health ofanimals?

3. What is one of the most common problems thatmites cause in animals? Please describe it.

are large and have a heavy coat. Some animalsreact negatively to these collars. Observe theirbehavior closely and remove the collar if theybecome lethargic or nauseous, or if they actabnormal or sick in any way.

The brown dog tick can be an important indooror kennel pest of dogs. For this tick, treatment ofthe indoor environment should be coupled with

on-animal tick control. Brown dog ticks live awayfrom the animal in cracks and other hidingplaces. Approved acaricides should be directedinto these areas with dusters or sprayers. Foggersand aerosols can also be used to deliver acaricidesto indoor environments. They must also bedirected into the tick’s hiding places.

Chapter 9 – Review Questions

4. Describe the generalized life cycle of mites.

5. How long does the entire life cycle of a mitetake?

6. Why do sarcoptic mange mites cause intenseitching and dermatitis on the animals theyinfest?

7. Animals affected with sarcoptic mange mayscratch so heavily that liquid exudes from theaffected skin, causing skin crusts and skincracking and thickening. True or False?

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8. Secondary infection is common in scratchedareas. True or False?

9. Notoedric mange mites are similar to the sar-coptic mange mites in biology, pathology, detec-tion and identification, except that they aresmaller. What host animals do they infest?

10. How can you detect and identify non-burrow-ing mange mites?

11. Follicle mites are common parasites of cats,dogs, horses and other large animals. True orFalse?

12. In healthy animals, follicle mites normally donot cause any skin deterioration or mangeconditions. True or False?

13. In weak or diseased animals, follicle mites cancause two skin conditions to develop. Pleasedescribe them.

14. What are the skin conditions caused by folliclemites called?

15. Both endo- and ectoparasitic types of mitesoccur. True or False?

16. Allergies to house dust mites are not commonand are not a significant dermatological prob-lem for dogs. True or False?

17. Describe why ticks are of major worldwideveterinary importance.

18. Each developmental stage of a tick must feedon blood because blood is the sole nutrientsource for ticks and allows them to developand molt to the next stage. True or False?

19. Ticks can be detected on animals by directexamination without use of a hand lens ormicroscope. True or False?

20. If an animal has ticks, what are the controloptions?

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CHAPTER 10

CHEWING AND SUCKING LICE

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Tell what sucking and chewing lice feed on.■ Describe the general appearance of lice.

■ Explain the general life cycle of lice.■ Understand how to control lice and prevent

the spread of lice.

Lice (singular: louse) are insects belonging toeither the sucking louse order (Anoplura) or thechewing or biting louse order (Mallophaga). Alllice are obligatory ectoparasites of birds andmammals. There are about 460 species of suckinglice and 3,000 species of chewing lice. Sucking licefeed solely on blood and have mouthpartsdesigned for sucking. Their mouthparts penetratethe skin and actually fit into a blood vessel, fromwhich the blood meal is drawn. Sucking liceoccur only on mammals.

Biting lice have mouthparts designed for chew-ing, not sucking, and they feed on feathers, hairand skin scales. They live on mammals and birds.An infestation of lice is called pediculosis.

Lice are highly host-specific—that is, a particu-lar species of louse is generally associated withonly one kind of animal host. Often, a species oflouse will even be restricted to one part of thebody of one kind of animal host. Lice do not sur-vive long if they are removed from their host, sothey live on the host all the time. They are trans-ferred from host to host by direct contact.

Infestations of lice are associated with over-crowding and poor sanitation in the animal’senvironment. Infestations are seen mostly in thewinter. Long winter hair coats are desirablehomes for lice. Populations are limited by sum-mer heat.

Lice are wingless insects that are flattened fromtop to bottom. They are usually tiny to minute insize (from 1 to 5 mm in length), though they canbe seen with the naked eye. Figure 10.1 shows atypical chewing louse and a typical sucking louse.

The head of a sucking louse is much narrowerthan that of a chewing louse. As a general rule,the head of a sucking louse is narrower than thethorax (middle body part), whereas the head of achewing louse is wider than the thorax. The legsoften have claws to grasp hairs or feathers.

Figure 10.1 Typical chewing louse (A) and a typical sucking louse (B).

A B

LICE LIFE CYCLE The eggs of lice are called nits and are cemented

to hairs or feathers on an animal host. The eggshatch and larval lice, called nymphs, emerge.Nymphs blood-feed. Nymphs continue to feedand molt three times before maturing into adultmale or female lice. The adult lice mate and the

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females lay eggs onto host hairs or feathers. Theentire life cycle takes up to 30 days or more,depending on temperature. All life stages of liceoccur on the host.

EFFECTS OF LICE ON ANIMAL HEALTHA single animal may be infested with thousands

of lice. Their feeding activity results in hair orfeather loss, blood loss, skin irritation and sec-ondary infection. Lousy animals may be weakand susceptible to other infestations or diseases.Infested animals will scratch frequently, worsen-ing the condition. However, grooming by the hostanimal may remove lice and help lessen theeffects of lice activity. Also, an animal’s immunesystem may affect lice and reduce their numbers.Some animals may be infested with lice and showno ill effects. For example, one study showed that50 percent of the individuals in a herd of beef cat-tle were infested with lice but only 2 percent wereseverely infested and showed pathological signs.

Lice of Companion Animals and HorsesDogs and cats may occasionally be infested

with chewing lice. The dog biting louse (Figure10.2) is uncommon but may harm dogs, particu-larly puppies, when present in large numbers.The cat biting louse occasionally occurs on cats.

LICE MANAGEMENTPrevention involves isolation or culling of

chronic lice carriers so that lice will not be trans-ferred to non-infested animals. Animals shouldbe checked and treated for lice before beingadded to a kennel, cage or exercise area withother animals. Remove thick mats of hair beforetreating, and treat all contact animals.

Lice control on animals involves use of insecti-cides. Many young animals acquire lice frominfested mothers during the suckling stage. Someinsecticides cannot be used on young animals, oron pregnant or lactating mothers. Therefore, theleast risky lice management strategy is to controlthe lice on both adults prior to mating. If themother does not have lice, the offspring will notcontract an infestation from contact with theirmother. Read all label directions and precautionsbefore applying products to animals.

Check treated animals for lice at two-weekintervals after application and retreat if lice arefound. Retreatment is often necessary becausemany insecticides do not kill the eggs or nits. Licemay hatch from eggs that survive an insecticidetreatment and reinfest the animal. The louse lifecycle must be completely broken on each animal.

Apply insecticides as coarse sprays, pour-ons,dips, shampoos or dusts of registered insecticides.All accompanying animals, litter mates or those inthe same cage, kennel, exercise area or homeshould also be treated. The animal’s living quar-ters and bedding must be treated and disinfected.

Figure 10.2 Dog biting louse.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. What do sucking lice eat? How do they obtainit?

2. Lice can survive for extended periods of timebetween hosts. True or False?

3. Describe the physical difference between suck-ing and chewing lice.

Chapter 10 – Review Questions

4. List two ways lice infestations can be influencedor reduced on animals.

5. Why is it important to control lice on both adultanimals prior to mating?

6. To prevent reinfestations from surviving eggs,the __________________ of the lice must becompletely broken on each host animal.

CHAPTER 11

FLIES

108

LEARNING OBJECTIVESAfter you complete your study of this chapter,

you should be able to:■ Understand the general life cycle of flies.■ List the three groups of biting and nuisance

flies.■ Explain how various flies are pests of ani-

mals.■ Describe the three components of a biting-fly

management program.

■ Explain why house fly populations canquickly build to enormous levels.

■ Understand the need for an integrated man-agement program for filth flies and animalwaste management.

■ Describe the options available for managingflies on and around animals.

Flies are insects with only one pair of wings.They belong to the insect order Diptera (meaning“two wings”). Though most kinds of flies areharmless to animals, several families of flies aremajor pests of animals and often require manage-ment. Some flies are vectors of disease agents ofanimals.

The fly pests of animals fall into three groups:

■ Blood-feeding flies not associated with manureor animal waste.

■ Filth flies associated with animal waste ormanure.

■ Parasitic bot flies. Bot flies are not consideredas common pests of small animals so we willnot discuss them in this manual.

All flies have a true metamorphosis life cycle (theimmature stages or larvae appear worm-like andmay sometimes be true maggots). Some filth flies,especially the stable fly, are also blood feeders.

BITING FLIESBlood-feeding flies: Mosquitoes, black flies,

biting midges, deer flies and horse flies areblood-feeding flies. Only the female flies takeblood. They use it for egg yolk developmentinside the abdomen. The females have piercingmouthparts that are either blade-like and cut the skin or needle-like and pierce the skin. The mouthparts taken together are called the

proboscis. Male flies in these groups feed on nec-tar or other sugar sources. Table 11.1 lists thegroups of blood-feeding flies. Various blood-feed-ing flies are shown in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1 Blood-feeding flies: a. Mosquito b. Black flyc. Biting midge d. Deer fly e. Horse fly.

a.b.

c.

d. e.

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Table 11.1 Blood-feeding flies affectingdomesticated animals in the United States.

Common Name Scientific Family

Mosquito CulicidaeBlack fly SimuliidaeBiting midge CeratopogonidaeDeer fly TabanidaeHorse fly Tabanidae

nematode. Infected dogs have adult worms intheir hearts. The adult worms shed tiny, imma-ture worms called microfilariae into the blood-stream. When mosquitoes bite an infected dog,the microfilariae enter the body of the mosquitowith the blood. Days to weeks later, when themosquito locates another dog, it transmits theworms during blood feeding. A single infecteddog in an area can be an infective source for unin-fected dogs for miles around. Thus, it is impor-tant to protect dogs from heartworm throughpreventive drugs and to keep them safe frommosquito bites. If left untreated, heartworms indogs are deadly.

Black flies may be severe seasonal parasites oflarge animals in Michigan. The larvae occur inslow- or fast-moving streams and rivers, wherethey cling to rocks and filter out food particlesfrom the passing water. The larvae pupate on therocks, then the adult black flies emerge, swim tothe water surface and fly away. Female black fliesswarm around and onto the bodies of animals.The bites are very irritating, and large numbers ofbites can cause severe reactions such as toxemiaor anaphylactic shock (allergic reaction). In someinstances, high numbers of black flies causedblood loss so extreme that cattle died of anemia.Black flies can transmit a malaria-like disease towaterfowl.

Biting midges—also called “punkies,” “no-see-ums” or “sand flies”—are tiny biting flies withspeckled wings. The larvae occur in still or mov-ing water, where they live in the mud, sand ordebris at the bottom. Though these flies are verysmall, their bite is very irritating. Bites may swelland form bloody, weeping lesions similar to blackfly bites.

Deer flies and horse flies are large-bodied fliesand strong fliers. They live as long as 6 weeks.The larvae are found in a variety of aquatic andsemi-aquatic conditions and in moist soil, wherethey live in the mud and sediments and prey onworms and insects. Most horse and deer flieshave only one generation per year. The adultsemerge in early to midsummer. Adult femalesobtain a blood meal and later lay eggs on vegeta-tion above still water or moist soil. After hatch-ing, larvae drop into the water, develop and crawlto drier areas to become pupae. This insect over-winters as a mature larva.

Deer and horse fly bites are painful and injuri-ous. The flies bite by a scissors-like action of theirbladed mouthparts that causes a pool of blood toform, which they then suck up. The flies bite dur-ing daytime hours. Animals can injure them-selves by attempting to drive off or escape from

Mosquitos’ developmental cycle includes anaquatic larval stage. Mosquito eggs are laid singlyor in clusters on or near water. Larvae hatch fromthe eggs and develop in the water. The larvaefeed on a variety of microorganisms and organicmatter in the water and develop through four lar-val stages or instars to the pupal stage. Adultmosquitoes emerge from the pupae and fly away. Female mosquitoes seek out animal hosts, usingcues such as carbon dioxide and moisture inexhaled breath to find them. Most mosquitoesseek hosts in the evening or at night, thoughsome will bite in the daytime. Once they havefound an animal host, mosquitoes will forageover its body until they find a bare patch of skin.Then the mosquito probes the skin with its nee-dle-like mouthparts, finds a blood vessel andsucks blood. Usually only a few minutes arerequired for blood feeding. Some large animalsmay experience hundreds to thousands of mos-quito bites per night if left unprotected. Afterblood feeding, the engorged female mosquitoleaves the animal and rests in the environmentwhile the eggs develop. She then lays eggs andseeks a host for blood again. A single mosquitomay bite several times in its lifetime.

Mosquito

Many mosquitoes will bite domestic animals,causing injury by blood loss and creating woundswhere bacteria may invade and cause infection.Some animals may develop allergies to mosquitobites. In addition, mosquitoes transmit diseaseagents to animals. Dog heartworm is caused by a

Common Name Scientific Family

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Table 11.2 Filth flies affecting domesticatedanimals in the United States.Common Name Scientific Name

House fly Musca domesticaStable fly Stomoxys calcitransFace fly Musca autumnalis

these flies. Deer and horse flies are important vec-tors of the virus that causes equine infectiousanemia or swamp fever of horses.

MANAGEMENT OF BLOOD-FEEDING FLIESManagement of biting flies to prevent bites is an

important part of animal health care, for bothcompanion animals and livestock. There are threecomponents to biting fly management. First ismodification of the habitat and environment. Formosquitoes, this means eliminating local sourcesof standing water around the animals. Most mos-quitoes come from true wetlands, however, sodraining larval breeding sites is usually not possi-ble nor desirable and must be done with theapproval and collaboration of natural resourcesauthorities. Control of larval mosquitoes withinsecticides is feasible but this is a specialized dis-cipline requiring training and expertise. The bestapproach to mosquito control is a regional (e.g.,township or county) system utilizing multiplestrategies for control of larval and adult mosqui-toes. Extension bulletin E-2180, “Mosquito PestManagement,” is a training manual for mosquitocontrol and pesticide applicators’ certification.

Little can be done about the immature stages ofblack flies, biting midges, deer and horse flies.Black fly larvae can be controlled in streams withinsecticidal bacteria, but this strategy requirespermits and consultation with experts.

The second component to biting fly manage-ment is to separate the animals from the fliesthrough physical means. Animals can be keptindoors when the flies are biting.

The third component to biting fly management isthe use of repellents on the bodies of animals andinsecticides applied to the animals directly or intheir immediate environment. For mosquito con-trol, residual premise sprays of insecticides areeffective applied to areas where mosquitoes rest,including barns or animal dwellings, sheds andvegetation. Ultra-low volume application of insec-ticides is an effective way to control mosquitoesand other small biting flies both inside and outsidepremises. Thermal fogs can also be used insideand outside dwellings for mosquito control.

In general, insecticide use for control of bitingmidges, black flies, deer and horse flies is limitedto topical applications on animals directly. Blackflies often attack the ears of animals, so applica-tions of mineral oil or mild insecticides to theears can provide relief to an animal. Follow alllabel directions.

NUISANCE FLIESFilth flies associated with animal waste. Filth flies

often constitute a problem for animal facilities.Filth flies affect animals by their annoying orblood-feeding activity. Some filth flies are vectorsof disease agents to animals and humans.

Additionally, the close proximity between ani-mal care facilities and human settlements has cre-ated situations where filth flies become a source ofannoyance and concern for neighbors. On theother hand, maggots of filth flies play an impor-tant ecological role—they degrade manure to sim-pler constituents and reduce the volume of wastematerial. As pests and disease vectors, filth fliesoften must be managed. Table 11.2 lists the filthflies and Figure 11.2 shows certain adult filth flies.

Figure 11.2 Adult filth flies: a. House fly b. Stable fly.

a.

b.

Common Name Scientific Name

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Fly bite dermatitis (Fly bite ears) is caused bythe rasping teeth and mouthparts of stable flies.Stable flies inflict a very painful bite, irritating tothe host. These flies lay their eggs in moistmanure or compost. The adult flies prefer stronglight and are more abundant in summer andautumn. These flies affect the faces and ears ofdogs. Lesions are seen on tips of ears or at thefolded edge of flop-eared breeds. The lesions mayhave dark crusts and be oozing blood and serum.

Animals should be protected from stable flyattacks with the use of repellents such as spraysor pastes. Keep the animal indoors or in a shelterwhen fly populations are high. Proper handlingand disposal of manure and compost are essentialand may require insecticide treatments.

Filth flies, like other true flies of the insect orderDiptera, have four life stages: egg, larva (or mag-got), pupa and adult. Perhaps the most importantfilth fly with widespread distribution in Michiganis the house fly. Larvae of this fly develop in awide range of materials, including fresh manure,animal waste mixtures of manure and straw, hayor feed and garbage. The adult flies aregray/black with yellowish sides and are 6 to 7millimeters long. They have sponging mouth-parts and lap up materials from animal wastesand liquefying organic matter. Under typicalsummer conditions, house flies can achieve 10 to12 generations per year (with 8 to 22 daysrequired for a full development cycle from egg toadult), so these flies increase in number as thesummer progresses. The adult flies commonlymigrate 1 to 3 miles, and movement up to 13miles within 24 hours has been documented.House flies can serve as intermediate hosts for aroundworm parasite of horses.

House fly populations can build to enormousnumbers in animal containment settings. Theyhave several generations per year. The annoyancefactor for companion animals is difficult to assess,but the buzzing sound of the flies and their aggre-gation at sores and mucous membranes to feedmay cause undesirable behavioral changes. Annoy-ance of humans by house flies is well known.

MANAGEMENT OF FILTH FLIESManagement of filth flies must be integrated

with animal waste management practices. Theoverall aim is to remove manure. If it cannot beremoved, manure must be dried out so maggotscannot develop. Good kennel sanitation, such asregular removal of manure from confinement set-tings, is critical in a successful pest managementprogram.

Basic Daily Kennel Maintenance Program

1. Observe each animal for signs of distressor illness.

2. Remove any animal exhibiting distress orillness to an isolation area. Report condi-tion to manager and obtain assistancefrom veterinarian.

3. Complete feces chart.4. Remove bedding material, examine feces

and urine for any abnormalities, and placein plastic trash bag. Replace beddingmaterials. If trays are used, sanitize andreplace.

5. Check food container to determine con-sumption rate and possible contamina-tion. Record on health record any eatingabnormalities.

6. Remove food containers, sanitize and refillas appropriate.

7. Check water containers to determinewater supply and cleanliness. Note onhealth records if it appears that water isnot being consumed.

8. Remove open water containers, wash, dis-infect, rinse and refill. Examine sipper-type water bottles to determine if cleaningand/or refilling is required.

9. Clean each cage, wash thoroughly withcleaning solution of warm water anddetergent, and make sure all fecal materialis removed. Then wipe down withhypochlorite (bleach) and water solution.Mix solution: 1 part hypochlorite to 28parts water. Recommend using 32-ouncebottle with one-ounce markings on side.CAUTION: Do NOT mix ammonia andhypochlorite. This mixture creates intenseheat and toxic fumes that are dangerousto humans and animals.

10. Wash kennel floor, walls and windows.11. Soak kennel grids and doors in sink if

needed.12. Towel dry kennels.13. Replace bedding materials, food and

water supply.14. Check collars or other identification

devices for each animal before replacing incage.

15. WEEKLY: Inspect and wipe clean ventila-tion intake and exhaust vents in kennelarea. Test kennel doors for security andcheck all cage surfaces for smoothnessand overall condition.

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Insecticides can be used effectively for adult flycontrol as space sprays, residual sprays or directapplication to animals as dusts, gels or wipes.

Space or area sprays applied as mist, fog orultra-low volume applications, typically controlflies only at the time of application and within alimited area. A mist blower, fogger, ultra-low vol-ume sprayer or hydraulic sprayer type equip-ment is required. Area sprays are usually mixedwith water to dilute them from high concentra-tions (25-50 percent) to low concentrations (0.15-1.0 percent) before application. The insecticidelabel gives instructions on proper dilutions.

Residual sprays for filth flies are typically emulsi-fiable concentrates or wettable powders (bothmixed with water, as indicated on the label,before use). They are applied as a wet spray tosurfaces or vegetation where flies rest. In contrastwith area sprays, which offer no residual activity,this approach offers some residual activity.

Larvicides have had limited success in killingmaggots in manure or animal waste, so this con-trol measure is not generally recommended. Incases where the use of larvicides is the onlyoption, then application of labeled rates as acoarse spray is appropriate.

Insecticide-laden baits can be used for house flymanagement. Baits can be purchased ready to useor prepared as bait stations with residual insecti-cides mixed with sugar and put in burlap orpaper bags. Baits are useful in indoor settings.When baits are used, they should be placedwhere animals or children cannot come into con-tact with them. Besides baits, certain traps can beused for fly control. Jars baited with fish heads orother smelly materials typically attract greenblow flies and do not control house flies or stable

flies. Sticky traps made of stiff paper or a fiber-glass panel coated with either insecticide or asticky glue will attract some flies and offer local-ized control.

Certain insecticides can be directly appliedonto animals according to label directions to pro-tect them from flies. The insecticide applicationsare dips, wet sprays or dusts applied directlyonto the animal. In each case, the specific applica-tion depends on the target insect pest and thespecies and condition of the animal. Many restric-tions apply to insecticide applications on younganimals and lactating mothers. Read and followall label precautions and directions carefully.

If an animal is infested with fly maggots orwounds and areas of moist dermatitis, consult aveterinarian for treatment. Maggots may be asso-ciated with fecal deposits that accumulate aroundthe animal’s anal area.

Indoor areas that animals frequent or wherethey are stalled must be kept clean of accumulat-ing waste. House fly and stable fly developmentrequires wet or moist conditions, so control ofstanding water and good drainage are veryimportant. Maintain a clutter-free environment inand around kennels, exercise areas, groomingareas and the entire facility. This will enhancesafety and make cleaning easier.

Certain biological control agents, such as preda-tors, parasites and pathogens of the immaturestages of filth flies can be integrated with othercontrol methods. These agents work best inwarmer southern states or indoors where theycan overwinter. In northern states, these agentsare mainly experimental. Obviously, any use ofbiological control agents such as parasites of thefly pupae will be useful when combined withother physical, cultural and insecticidal methods.

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Write the answers to the following questionsand then check your answers with those in theback of this manual.

1. How many pairs of wings do flies have?

2. What are the three groups of fly pests of ani-mals?

3. What do the immature stages or larvae of flieslook like?

4. Name three of the blood-feeding flies.

1.

2.

3.

5. Which of the blood-feeding flies has a develop-mental cycle involving water or aquatic habi-tats?

Chapter 11 – Review Questions

6. Dog heartworm is caused by a nematode and istransmitted between dogs by mosquitoes. Trueor False?

7. What are the three components to biting flymanagement?

8. What important ecological role do filth flies fulfill?

9. Some filth flies are vectors of disease agents toanimals and humans. True or False?

10. What is the difference between a space or areaspray and a residual spray?

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APPENDIX A

CAGED ANIMALS

The following information will not be part of the State ofMichigan pesticide applicator certification examination.

The Michigan Department of Agriculture Ani-mal Industry Division is responsible for licens-ing and regulating animal shelters, dog pounds,pet shops, riding stables and research facilities.The humane treatment of animals is one of thedivision’s priorities. The MDA Animal IndustryDivision inspects animal facilities to assure theyare clean and not overcrowded and that whole-some food is provided to the animals. If problemsare found, inspectors work with company person-nel to bring the conditions up to high standardsfor the welfare of the animals. Provided below aresome guidelines for establishing these standardsfor caged animals. Persons in this industryshould obtain a copy of the Animal Welfare Actof 1976 and learn the standards for the care ofanimals outlined in it. For more information con-tact the MDA Animal Industry Division at (517)373-8782.

Information on ferrets is not included because itis illegal to have ferrets as pets in Michigan,according to Act 277 of 1927, Ferrets andFitchews.

With permission, the information in this appen-dix has been adapted from the Pet Industry JointAdvisory Council (PIJAC) training materials.

Receiving AnimalsIf you work in a pet store-type business, the fol-

lowing guidelines provide an overview of theminimum standards that you should adhere toand be familiar with when acquiring and caringfor small animals.

The method of animal shipping and receivingvaries with species and means of transportation.Those sent by commercial airlines usually arrivein wood or cardboard containers that provide

temporary housing. The animals should beremoved from shipping containers immediatelyafter arrival at your establishment and providedfresh water.

Visual inspection of the container should verifythat the number of animals agrees with the num-ber stated on the bill of lading. If an animal is dis-covered to be dead on arrival or the count doesnot agree with the number stated on the bill oflading, note this information on the bill of ladingbefore signing for the shipment. The carrier andyour supplier should be notified of the incidentand copies of the necessary airline report formsshould be filed.

Handling AnimalsPersons who handle animals should be trained

on correct handling and restraining techniques toavoid injury to the handler and the animal. Ani-mals are often fearful when in unfamiliar sur-roundings and should be handled with extremecaution. Correct use of holds may benefit both theanimal and the handler. Inspecting an animal maybe accomplished effectively with two persons, oneacting as handler and the other as examiner.

Not all animals will require firm restraining.The amount of restraint needed will depend onthe environment and the animal’s behavior. Ani-mal behavior will vary greatly, and handlers mustlearn to “read” the animals’ body language.Speak to the animal initially in a soothing voice toprevent startling it. Obtain animal handling train-ing to protect yourself and the animal. The fol-lowing information may be used as generalguidelines for picking-up and holding some smallanimals commonly found in pet stores. Alwaysseek assistance if you are uncertain about a par-ticular animal, how it may react and how itshould be handled.

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The hamster has very loose skin in the neckarea. When picking up a hamster, use the methodshown in the following illustration. A good dealof fur and skin should be grasped to prevent thehamster from wiggling loose or turning aroundand biting.

You can also use a receptacle to scoop up ahamster. This facilitates the transfer from the cagewithout the possibility of being bitten.

The one-hand method of grasping a hamster, asshown in the illustration below, should be usedonly with very tame hamsters. This type of gripprevents the hamster from falling.

How to Handle a GerbilTo grasp a gerbil, the over-the-back grip is

recommended.

How to Pick Up a HamsterThe hamster should be fully awake before you

attempt to pick it up. Grasp the hamster withboth hands, as shown in the illustration, to lift itout of the cage. To prevent the hamster fromescaping, a small animal box or new containershould be close by to facilitate the transfer.

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To pick up a gerbil, grip the base of the tail.NEVER attempt to pick up a gerbil by the end ofthe tail because the tuft and tail skin may pull off.

How to Hold a Guinea PigThe chest area must be supported to prevent

injury. The rump is supported to prevent backinjury and to restrain the guinea pig from kicking.

How to Pick Up a RatPick up the rat by grasping it over the back and

rib cage. Using this method you can place the petin a small container to examine it. (Note: rats willstruggle if turned belly up.)

If the rat is in a wire mesh bottom cage, grasp asabove and by the base of the tail, to aid in freeingthe claws from their grip on the mesh.

How to Pick Up a MouseGrasp loose skin along back to restrain a mouse.

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Small Animal HousingThe environment that animals are maintained

in significantly affects their well-being. Theirhousing should be adequate in size, clean andfree from sharp edges. The following suggestionswill help ensure animal comfort:

1. Use only cages fabricated of smooth, corro-sion-resistant material impervious to moistureand easily sanitized. Select glass aquariumswith tight fitting screen lids easy to maintain.

2. Metal cages should be constructed of galva-nized metal, stainless steel, aluminum or simi-lar metal alloys.

3. Metal cages may have bottoms of expandedmetal or a galvanized wire mesh. Wire meshfloors should be smooth and free of sharp pro-trusions, and the grid should be small enoughto prevent feet from falling through openings.

4. Small animals should be separated accordingto sex when possible to aid employees in mak-ing sales presentations.

5. Fresh water should be available at all times.

6. Cage lids, food and water containers, andcages should be cleaned and sanitized periodi-cally, as needed.

7. Bedding material should be absorbent and of atype that can be eaten by the animals. It shouldnot contain fine particles that might beinhaled.

8. Soiled bedding should be removed from thecages. Loose hair should also be removed toreduce likelihood of clogging vents.

9. Keep cages dry to avoid fly breeding, espe-cially in corners, with resultant growth ofmaggots.

10. Where possible, use an ultraviolet lightequipped with a Woods filter to detect evi-dence of ringworm. This is a common problemin guinea pigs.

ColonizingWhen selecting housing and placing animals in

cages, consider the following behaviors and pre-cautions:

Hamsters – Do not overcrowd or mix strangersin with an established colony. Try not to mix sexesbecause of the potential for fighting or breeding.Keep cool to prevent wet tail.

Gerbils – Do not overcrowd or mix strangers inwith an established colony. Strange adult maleswill fight.

Mice, like gerbils, can be picked up at the baseof the tail. NEVER pick up the animal at the tip ofthe tail because the skin may slough off.

How to Pick Up a RabbitIt is important that rabbits be picked up prop-

erly. NEVER pick up the animal by the ears—itcan harm the rabbit and cause it to be frightenedwhenever it is approached. Place one handbeneath the rabbit’s hind legs and the otheraround its chest. Make sure that the rabbit doesn’tkick out of your grasp.

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Guinea pigs – Do not overcrowd. Long-hairedguinea pigs should be housed separately fromshort hairs because the short-haired ones will eatthe long hair.

Rats – Do not overcrowd.Rabbits – Do not overcrowd or overheat.Mice – Do not overcrowd.

Special Housing ConsiderationsHamsters – Special housing requirements for

hamsters include a temperature of approximately68 degrees F and low (50 percent) humidity. Highheat and/or humidity can contribute to a seriouscondition called wet tail. Twelve hamsters in a 10gallon tank can raise the ambient temperature 6to 8 degrees. Therefore, room temperature shouldideally be kept at 62 degrees F. Because this isimpractical (and hazardous to most other ani-mals), it is recommended that hamsters be placedin wire cages rather than tanks. This allows goodair circulation.

Hamsters should not be housed in fish or groom-ing rooms because of the high humidity. If a tankmust be used, observe the following guidelines:

1. Don’t overcrowd—12 animals per 10-gallontank is maximum.

2. Use a screen cover and locate the tank in awell ventilated area.

3. Clean tank (or cage) regularly to preventurine buildup. Add ground corncob to woodshavings (1:3 ratio) for super absorption ofurine and humidity.

Gerbils may be housed in an aquarium or tankequipped with screen covers, sipper-type waterbottles and ground corncob bedding. Aquariumsize should be determined by the number of ani-mals in inventory. Corncob bedding is impor-tant—its granular shape simulates the naturalsand substrate. When animals burrow, the bed-ding removes excess hormone buildup fromaround the muzzle area, thus preventing the hairloss syndrome common in gerbils.

Rats, mice and guinea pigs. An aquarium withscreen cover, sipper-type water bottles, and cedaror pine shavings constitutes an adequate housingunit. Aquarium size should be determined by thenumber of animals in inventory.

Rabbits may be housed on a wire grid in a pen-type structure. A medium mesh base is recom-mended for rabbits because of their high urineoutput. Consider a combination floor for animalcomfort.

General Small Animal Maintenance ProgramDAILY:

1. Visually inspect animals for signs of dis-tress or illness. Report illness to managerand/or consult a veterinarian.

2. Medicate as approved by cooperating vet-erinarian.

3. Determine whether odor problem exists.Correct immediately, if necessary.

4. Separate sick or injured animals.5. Remove open water containers, wash, dis-

infect, rinse and refill. Examine sipper-typewater bottles and clean, if needed.

6. Remove food containers, wash, disinfect,rinse, dry and refill.

7. Wipe clean aquarium glass inside and out.8. Wipe off and check screen covers for

secure fit.9. Remove fecal material and other debris.10. Vacuum or mop floor.

3 to 5-day Intervals:1. Change bedding.2. Clean each cage, wash thoroughly with

cleaning solution of warm water anddetergent. Make sure all fecal material isremoved. Wipe down with hypochlorite(bleach) and water solution. Mix solution:1 part hypochlorite to 28 parts water. Rec-ommend using 32-ounce bottle with 1-ounce markings on side. CAUTION : Do not mix ammonia andhypochlorite. Mixing ammonia disinfec-tants with any hypochlorite solutioncauses intense heat and highly toxic fumesdangerous to humans and animals.

3. Wash, disinfect and rinse all sipper-typewater bottles or drinking devices.

4. Replace all cracked aquariums, damagedcages, and/or damaged screen covers.

5. Check drug, food, cleaning supplies inven-tory. Prepare list of needed supplies formanager.

Potential Caged Animal Disorders The environmental conditions of an animal

greatly influence its health and well-being. Goodsanitation, a fresh water supply and adequatespace will help ensure animal comfort. From timeto time, problems may arise. Observe animalsdaily and note any abnormal conditions or behav-iors. Consult with a veterinarian when you dis-cover animal health problems.

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APPENDIX B

BIRDSThe following information will not be part of the State

of Michigan pesticide applicator certification examina-tion. This information is provided for persons whocare for and work with birds.

The Michigan Department of Agriculture Ani-mal Industry Division is responsible for licens-ing and regulating pet shops, animal shelters, dogpounds, riding stables and research facilities. Thehumane treatment of animals is one of the divi-sion’s priorities. The MDA Animal Industry Divi-sion inspects animal and bird facilities to assurethey are clean and not overcrowded, and thatproper, wholesome food is provided to the ani-mals and birds. If problems are found, inspectorswork with company personnel to bring the condi-tions up to high standards for the welfare of theanimals. Provided below are some guidelines forestablishing these standards for caged animals.Persons in this industry should obtain a copy ofthe Animal Welfare Act of 1976 and learn thestandards for the care of animals outlined in it.For more information, contact the MDA AnimalIndustry Division at (517) 373-8782.

With permission, the information in this appen-dix has been adapted from the Pet Industry JointAdvisory Council (PIJAC) training materials.

Receiving BirdsBirds should be purchased only from reputable

breeders or brokers or from USDA-approvedquarantine stations. Any individual offering birdsat a bargain price may be attempting to sell stolenor smuggled birds. Such birds may be incubatinga fatal disease that could destroy your aviary andyour reputation. Periodically review publishedprice lists and advertisements in avicultural mag-azines to get an idea of current prices.

Check both Federal and state laws to deter-mine which species of birds are prohibited andwhich require permits to be brought into thestate to sell or possess. Check each bird againstthe original order to ascertain that the correctspecies and number are received.

The Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council(PIJAC) strongly endorses the use of an avian vet-

erinary specialist to examine and supervise themedication and treatment of birds.

Even though federal regulations do notrequire that bird shipments be picked up withinfour hours after arrival, PIJAC urges that thefour hour rule be followed for birds. Uponreceipt, check the birds against the information onthe shipping documents.

Before receiving new birds, check to be surethat all necessary supplies are available and thereceiving cages have been cleaned and sanitizedand are ready with food and water.

Check with your suppliers to determine thebirds’ diet. Be prepared to continue feeding thebirds’ previous diet to avoid sudden dietarychanges which may result in unnecessary stress.Gradually change the birds’ food to the diet pre-ferred in your facility. Do not give grit—stressedbirds may overeat.

Birds should be unpacked quickly and then leftalone with adequate light to allow them to findfood and become acquainted with their new envi-ronment. If the birds arrive at night, dimmedlights should be left on.

Bird Examination All birds should receive a cursory examination

as they are removed from the crate and placed inthe cage. The following preliminary examinationshould take only minutes and will not add signif-icant stress to the shipping procedure. Obtainassistance from an experienced professional orveterinarian.

Newly arrived birds will usually look healthy.They will assume a flight or fight posture exceptwhen they are so debilitated they would be unableto fly. When placed in the new cage, they shouldremain alert and tightly feathered until the transferis completed and the receiver has left the area.

Observe birds daily. The first observance shouldbe from a distance of greater than 10 feet to pre-vent the birds from feeling intimidated andassuming the flight or fight position. Observeeach bird and take notes on all birds that act list-

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less or appear to have fluffed feathers. As youenter the area where the birds are housed, thebirds should become alert and watch you. Birdsexhibiting abnormal behavior should be iso-lated and individually examined with the assis-tance of a veterinarian. Examine the birds’:

■ Weight.■ Eyes.■ Nose.■ Feathers.■ Beak and mouth.■ Feet, legs and wings.

NOTE: Failure to eat is common following ship-ment, but any bird that does not eat after 24 hoursis in danger of starvation and may require force-feeding. Check with the supplier for suggestionson diet or management.

Housing1. Caging should be constructed of materials that

are impervious to moisture, easy to disinfectand strong enough to withstand chewing ofoccupants. The paint on cages from foreigncountries should be checked as a potentialsource of lead.

2. Birds—except for long-tailed species—use hor-izontal cage space more efficiently than verti-cal space. Horizontal cages have more floorspace, reduce fecal contamination of food andwater supplies, as well as soiling of otherbirds, and provide better space for exercise.

3. Height provides security for birds. Housingbirds at or above eye level reduces stress andlimits access to the birds by curious children ormammals that may escape or be allowed toroam in the shop.

4. Cages must be strong enough to prevent birdsfrom pulling them apart.

5. Cages for long-tailed birds should have ade-quate room for the bird to fully open thewings without touching the sides and top.Natural wood perches from non-toxic treesprovide the best foot exercise as well as chew-ing material for psittacines (parrots). Finchesand canaries should have two perches avail-able to encourage them to fly between them.

6. Parrots and other large bird species shouldhave sufficient cage space or sufficient T-standperch space.

7. Perches in the isolation area should be of animpervious material such as PVC to allow foreasy disinfection (wood surfaces are tooporous).

8. Perches in the sales area may be wooden dow-els of adequate size to afford the bird a secure,comfortable grip. Natural limbs, however, pro-vide better foot exercise and chewing opportu-nities and are aesthetically pleasing. Branchesare replaced easily and should be pesticidefree and from non-toxic trees such as northernhardwoods, citrus, eucalyptus or Australianpine. Sandpaper perches should not be used.

9. A single well placed perch may be adequatefor agile climbers. Passerine birds should beprovided two perches to fly or hop between.In cages with more than one bird, all perchesshould be at the same height to avoid fightingover the highest perch. Perch space should beadequate so that all birds can sit comfortablyon the perches simultaneously.

10. Discard wooden perches used by a sick bird.

11. If a perch is detrimental to the health of a par-ticular species, perches should be omitted.

12. Feed cups and water containers should belocated for easy accessibility by the bird.

13. Food and water containers should be hooded,if necessary, or placed away from perches toprevent fecal contamination.

14. Grit is not necessary for psittacine birds,though a few pieces provided once or twiceyearly are not harmful.

15. During the molting of feathers, additional fat,protein and vitamins are recommended andthe bird may require more time to sleep.

16. A healthy bird can tolerate temperatures thatare normally comfortable to humans. Suddentemperature changes may be a potential threatto sick birds.

17. Cages or aviaries should be cleaned daily.

18. Daily paper change and weekly cage washingare recommended.

19. Many birds benefit from the availability of ahiding place such as a box or paper bag.

20. Toys are useful as mental diversions and tendto encourage exercise and beak wear. Chew-able items are preferred and safety must beconsidered in toy selection. A few toys, whichmay be provided alternately, are preferable tomany toys filling a cage.

21. A healthy, tamed, trained bird is easier to sellthan a bird that is not socially adapted tohuman contact. Make sure to take time eachday to play with and talk to the birds in yourstore. Birds must socialize before being han-dled. Birds that respond to customers will helpsell themselves.

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Minimum Perch Length Guidelines

COCKATIELS5 inches of perch

per bird.FINCHES

3 inches of perchper bird.

CONURES6 inches of perch

per bird.

MACAWS & COCATOOS10 inches of perch per bird.

PARROTS9 inches of perch

per bird.

PARAKEETS4 inches of perch

per bird.

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Feeding and NutritionProviding the most accurate, up-to-date infor-

mation on bird care is a vital function of the petshop. The sale of high quality nutritional itemsand bird care products, along with suitable hous-ing for the bird, make it a better companion pet.

Over-the-counter remedies should be availablefor those customers who will not seek veterinarycare. Shop personnel, however, should avoidplaying veterinarian. The following recommenda-tions should provide a basis for bird care in theshop as well as recommendations to customers.

Proper nutrition and a varied diet should bestressed. Many good commercial pelleted orextruded diets are on the market. These productsmay be fed exclusively but should be mixed withseeds and other foodstuffs.

Mixes should contain a variety of seeds andmust be clean, fresh and free of insects. Feedshould be stored in closed bins.

The diet should be supplemented with freshfruits, vegetables (dark green and meaty yellowvegetables), beans and whole grain products.Consult a veterinarian for proper types and pro-portions of foods that should be fed to seed-eat-ing or soft-billed birds.

Illness IdentificationThe most important tool for early identification

and treatment of illness is observation. Part ofyour daily review of the bird department mustinclude time spent observing each bird. In addi-tion to recognizing disease symptoms earlyenough for effective treatment, you may preventthe spread of a disease among other birds. Birdscan regress rapidly when ill. Early diagnosis anda veterinarian’s assistance and treatment areessential in helping the bird recover.

The following list and chart will help you iden-tify illness and other disorders, treat the birds andprevent the spread of the problem. For additionalinformation you should refer to your bird supplier,publications on aviculture and your veterinarian.

Warning Signs of Bird Problems:1. Birds should appear calm and be sitting on

the perch or climbing around the cage. A birdthat is sitting on the floor is usually eitherfrightened or ill and should be examined. Thebird should be able to bear weight on bothfeet and both feet should grip the perch.

2. Nails are overgrown.3. Wings are not held in proper position and are

not symmetrical.

4. Feathers are puffed and dull or bird is notfully feathered and has bare spots.

5. Eyes are dull, not bright and clear. Any scabson the eyelids, cere or toes should be noted—they may indicate pox virus infection.

6. Eye or nasal discharge is visible.7. Beak is overgrown or asymmetrical.8. Respiration is labored or accompanied by tail

bobbing or open mouth breathing. Listen forwheezing, coughing or sneezing.

9. Fecal material has accumulated on the feath-ers or feet.

10. Bird is lethargic.11. Bird is off feed — look for scraps on cage

floor.12. Growths or enlargements are obvious.

Any suspicious bird condition should be exam-ined by your veterinarian and reported to thesupplier as soon as illness is suspected.

Bird Maintenance ProgramDAILY:SEED-EATING BIRDS

1. Observe each bird for signs of distress orillness. Note appetite, abnormal droppingsor other problems on health records.Report illness, abnormality or loss to man-ager or veterinarian.

2. Remove birds exhibiting distress or illnessto isolation area. Advise manager and con-sult veterinarian.

3. Remove and empty all water and seedcups.

4. Wash, disinfect, rinse, dry and refill seedcups with fresh seed. Replace in cage.

5. Wash, disinfect, rinse and refill water cupswith fresh water. Replace in cage.

6. Remove and change cage paper as needed.

7. Clean and reposition perches as needed.

8. Remove fecal matter, loose feathers andexcessive debris from cage.

9. Wipe off all cages with damp cloth toremove dust and fecal material. Cleanglass.

10. Clean window glass and door glass.

11. Remove all loose seed, feathers and debrisfrom bird area,including display shelves,cage stands and floor.

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Table 1. Some Bird Pests and Parasites.

Pest/Illness

Scaly face Scaly legMiteTassel foot

Feather mites(Red mites)

Lice

Roundworms(Ascarid)

Threadworms(Capillaria)

All birds— parakeets, canariesmost common

All birds

All birds

All birds

All birds; parakeetsand macaws mostlikely

White, scaly deposits on eye-lids, beak corners, legs, toesand vent

Restlessness, severe scratching, feather picking,skin irritation

Same as feather mites; feathers appear “moth eaten”

Poor feather condition,weight loss, loose droppings

Loss of appetite, weight loss,loose droppings, regurgita-tion, poor plumage

Skin scrapingexamined bymicroscope

Small, moving reddots on white clothhung over cage atnight (red mitesare nocturnal). Usemagnifying glass.Red mites live increvices in cageand feed on birdsat night.

Eggs or liceattached to feathers. Lice areelongated.

Stool sample—long, thin, whiteworms

Microscopic examof stool specimen

Veterinarian

Dismantle, cleanand spray cage.Use approvedinsecticide sprayon bird accordingto label direc-tions.

Apply approvedinsecticideaccording tolabel. Be sure toapply underwings.

Veterinarian

Veterinarian

SpeciesAffected Signs Diagnosis Treatment

SOFT-BILLED BIRDS — Same maintenance procedureas above, plus:

1. Wash, disinfect, rinse, dry and refill foodcup with fresh food. Replace cup in cage.

2. Check cages several times during day toremove fecal materials as needed.

3. Check food several times a day to preventcontamination or souring.

WEEKLY:1. Scrape all perches, wash and disinfect

cages and trays.2. Inspect and wipe clean ventilation system

in bird area.3. Redistribute bird inventory so there are no

empty cages.

4. Check drug, food and cleaning suppliesinventories. Prepare list of needed suppliesfor manager.

RECORDKEEPING: (Use a bird log sheet)A record of sale of each psittacine bird should

be maintained. Include:

PURCHASES –By species, the common and sci-entific name, the number, date of receipt, thename, address and telephone number of supplier.Verify name and address from identification docu-ment (driver’s license) if supplier does not nor-mally supply pet store.

SALES –By species, the common and scientificname, the number, date of sale, and name,address, and telephone number of customer.

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APPENDIX C

RESOURCES

To advance in your field and to stay up to date oninformation and practices, it is beneficial to becomeinvolved with professional organizations affiliatedwith the small animal industry. It is also valuable toacquire resources to use as references for your work.

The following list was created from suggestions bythe industry committee that provided guidance inthe development of this category 7G training manual.Reference to these resources, associations, productsor companies does not imply endorsement by MSUExtension or bias against those not mentioned.

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONSPet Industry Joint Advisory Council, 1710 Rhode

Island Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036. Tele-phone (202) 452-1525.

Michigan Professional Groomers Association. Tobecome involved with the association’s activitiesand training, contact a current member. Use the tele-phone directory to find current members by notingtheir affiliation in their advertisements. They will beable to provide you information about membership.

REFERENCE BOOKSThe Book of The Cat. Michael Wright and Sally

Walters. Summit Books. 1980. New York, N.Y. 10020.

Cat Owner’s Veterinary Handbook. Carlson andGriffin, Howell Publishers.

The Complete Dog Book. 18th Edition, AmericanKennel Club, Howell Publishers.

The Cornell Book of Cats. Cornell Feline HealthCenter, College of Veterinary Medicine, 618 VRT,Ithaca, NY 14853-6401.

Dog Owner’s Home Veterinary Handbook. DelbertG. Carlson, D.V.M., and James M. Giffin, M.D. 1989.New York, N.Y. 10169. Howell Book House.

Manual of Clinical Procedures In the Dog and Cat.Steven E. Crow, D.V.M. and Sally O. Walshaw, M.A.,V.M.D. 1987. J.B. Lippincott Company, PA.

Merck Veterinary Manual. 7th Edition, 1991.Merck.

Natural Health for Dogs and Cats. Richard H. Pit-cairn, D.V.M., Ph.D., and Susan Hubble Pitcairn.1982. Rodale Press. Emmaus, PA 18049.

The New Natural Cat: A Complete Guide forFinicky Owners. Anitra Frazier with Norma Eck-roate. 1990. New York, N.Y. 10014. Penguin booksUSA, Inc.

Pet Allergies: Remedies for an Epidemic. Alfred J.Plechner, D.V.M., and Martin Zucker, 1986. Ingle-wood, CA 90309. Very Healthy Enterprises.

Your Healthy Pet: A Practical Guide to Choosingand Raising Happier, Healthier Dogs and Cats. AmyMarder. 1994. Rodale Press. The columnist for Preven-tion shares her years of experience as a veterinarianby offering insights into cat and dog care, including:understanding symptoms of illness, feeding andweight maintenance, travelling with a pet, caring forteeth and proper vaccinations.

MAGAZINES, NEWSLETTERS, SUPPLIERSAdvocate, 9725 E. Hampden Ave., Denver, CO

80231. Offical magazine of the American HumaneSociety.

Borderline, 4575 Galley Rd., Suite 400-A, Col-orado Springs, CO 80915. Official magazine of theAmerican Boarding Kennels Association.

Cat Fancy, P.O. Box 6050, Mission Viejo, CA 92690.

Dog Fancy, P.O. Box 6050, Mission Viejo, CA92690. Twelve issues for $17.97.

Dog World, P.O. Box 6500, Chicago, IL 60680.Newsstand sales or subscriptions available.

DVM Newsmagazine, 120 W. 2nd, Duluth, MN55820. Veterinary magazine.

Groom & Board, 207 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL60604. Groomer and kennel operator magazine withannual buyer’s guide. Free to pet care professionals.

Groomer to Groomer, 341 N. 19th St., Camp Hill,PA 17011. Business-building newsletter with semi-nar information and letters from groomers nation-wide. Free to purchasers of Barkleigh products or$15/year.

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Groomer’s Voice, P.O. Box 101, Clark, PA 16113.Newsletter for members of National Dog GroomersAssociation of America. This group also sponsorscontinuing education training.

Off Lead, P.O. Box Drawer A, 13 Clinton St., ClarkMills, NY 13321. Dog obedience training magazine.

New England Serum Company, Groomer/KennelProducts Division, P.O. Box 128, Topsfield, MA01983. 1-800-637-3786.

Pet Age, 207 S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, IL 60604.Free to pet professionals.

Pet Business, 5400 N.W. 84th Ave., Miami, FL33166.

The Pet Dealer, 567 Morris Ave., Elizabeth, NJ07802. Contains groomer column and calender. Spe-cial subscription rate.

Pets-Supplies-Marketing, E. First St. Duluth, MN55802. Contains groomer calender and Shirlee Kal-stone’s grooming column plus buyer’s guide. Freeto pet professionals.

Pure Bred Dogs-AKC Gazette, 51 Madison Ave.,New York, NY 10010. $18/year.

Veterinary Forum, 1610-A Fredrica Rd., St.Simons Islands, GA 31522. $15/year.

PESTICIDE USE AND SAFETY INFORMATION

Pesticides: How They Work, Human PoisoningTreatments. MSU Extension bulletin E-0789.

Pesticide Emergency Information. May 1994,MSU Extension bulletin AM-37 or AM-37SP (Span-ish version).

10 Tips for Laundering Pesticide SoiledClothing. MSU Extension bulletin E-2149.

OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES:Michigan Department of AgriculturePesticide and Plant Pest Management DivisionP.O. Box 30017Lansing, MI 48909 East Lansing, MI 48823(517) 373-1087

Michigan Department of AgricultureAnimal Industry Division1615 South Harrison Road(517) 373-8782

Regional MDA Offices:REGION 1 Room 117

State Office BldgEscanaba, MI 49829(906) 786-5462 (616) 947-3171

REGION 2 Bldg. 42, Apt 132701 S. Elmwood AveTraverse City, MI 49684

REGION 3 State Office Bldg.350 Ottawa, N.W.Grand Rapids, MI 49503(616) 456-6988 (517) 771-1778

REGION 4 Saginaw State Office Bldg411-F East GeneseeSaginaw, MI 48607

REGION 5 4032 M-139, Bldg. 116St. Joseph, MI 49805-964(616) 428-2575 Lansing, MI 48933

REGION 6 611 W. OttawNorth Ottawa Bldg.(517) 373-1087

REGION 7 Lahser Center Bldg.26400 Lahser RoadSouthfield, MI 48034

Michigan State University Extension county- andcampus-based personnel. County office locationsand telephone numbers are listed in the white pagesof your telephone book.

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Answer Key to Pest Management for Small Animals Review Questions

Chapter 1 Pesticide Laws and Regulations

1. FIFRA

2. Certified pesticide applicators

3. False

4. True

5. d

6. a

7. Department of Transportation (DOT)

8. Michigan Department of Agriculture

9. b

10. True

11. False

12. Agreements between states to allow certified applicators in one state to use pesticides in another state.

13. b

14. True

15. c

16. Michigan Department of Natural Resources

17. True

18. True

19. Animal Welfare Act of 1976

Act 224 of 1969, Use of Dogs and Cats For Research

Act 287 of 1969, Pet Shops, Dog Pounds, and Animal Shelters

Chapter 2 – Pests and Integrated PestManagement (IPM)

1. Adult insects have three body regions: head, thorax and abdomen, and three pairs of legs.

2. b

3. c

4. An organism the pest is associated with.

5. True

6. Dermatitis is the direct damage and inflammatory reactions of animal skin caused by arthropod bites and body secretions.

7. The four groups of important animal insect pests are:-biting and non-biting flies.-invasive flies.-chewing and sucking lice.-fleas.

8. Integrated pest management—the use of all available strategies to manage pests so that an acceptable yield and quality can be achieved economically with the least disruption to the environment.

1. Detection, 2. Identification, 3. Economic or medical significance, 4. Control method selection, and 5. Evaluation.

9. Early detection of small pests:-allows the manager more control options.-reduces animal discomfort by preventing increased pest populations.

10. Identifying the pest allows the animal manager to gather information about that particular pest (life cycle, biology) so that the pest’s susceptible life stage can be targeted for control.

11. Economic injury levels are most important in agricultural settings (livestock, etc.).

12. The fifth step in IPM is evaluation of the pest control method used.

13. The applicator must consider dose-response relationships and pesticide choice.

14. IPM strategies include:

biological – use of predators and parasites.

cultural – keep pet well groomed and its environment clean, provide adequate diet and exercise.

mechanical- groom pets, vacuum area regularly,use lights to attract pests away from animals.

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product is labeled for use on small animals; determine if there are use restrictions for certain animals, such as young ones or cats; type and percentage of active ingredient; toxicity; formulation; equipment required to make the application; requirements for retreatment.

17. An incompatible mixture of pesticides is eitherineffective or unsafe for the applicator or the animal being treated.

18. Physical, chemical, host tolerance, timing and timing incompatibility. See these sections of the chapter for definitions.

19. On the pesticide label.

20. Nontarget organisms may be people, animals, insects or plants that are not intended to be treated or exposed to a pesticide application.

Chapter 4 – Pesticides and the Environment

1. Any of the following: adsorption, absorption, volatilization, runoff, leaching, microbial degradation, chemical degradation, photo-degradation.

2. False—vapor drift is not visible.

3. Run-off; leaching

4. aquifers.

5. The rate of breakdown will be slower because of less available light, heat and oxygen.

6. Point source contamination is from a discharge at a single location. Nonpoint sources include land runoff, precipitation, acidrain and percolation.

7. Prevention

8. See section titled “Keeping Pesticides Out of Groundwater” in the chapter.

9. c

10. Animals eat granules, baits or treated seed; they become exposed directly to a spray; they eat the treated crop or contaminated water; they feed on pesticide-contaminated prey.

Chapter 5 – Pesticides and Human Health1. Toxicity measures the capacity of a pesticide tocause injury. Hazard is the potential for injury.

physical – sticky flypaper, separate animals, clean up after infested animals.

pest-resistant breeds – use breeds of animalsthat are resistant to certain conditions and characteristics of that area.

sanitation – keep kennels, pet exercise areas, houses and bedding clean.

quarantines – isolate a new animal to confirm itis pest-free.

chemical- pesticides.

Chapter 3 – Pesticides

1. e

2. 1. Types of pests managed, 2. How pesticides work, 3. Pesticide chemistry, 4. Pesticide formulations.

3. insects

4. e

5. True

6. Tremors, vomiting, salivation, ataxia, loss of appetite, diarrhea, seizures, breathing difficulty, weakness, death.

7. Organophosphates and carbamates. A wide range of insects including fleas, ticks, mites and lice.

8. True

9. False

10. b

11. Contact pesticides kill pests when they come into contact with them; systemic pesticides areabsorbed by one part of the animal or plant and then are distributed internally to other parts of the plant or animal to kill the pest.

12. a

13. True

14. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates,carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids.

15. A premise spray will persist in an animal’s living area for a long period of time. A space or area spray does not have residual qualities and kills only the pests present at the time of application.

16. Identify the pest to be sure the product is effective in controlling it; determine if the

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2. True. Wear a hat or face shield.

3. False

4. Children

5. Inhaling pesticides during mixing, loading or application. Any activity where pesticides enter the mouth, such as siphoning a pesticide with your mouth, or eating or drinking while working with pesticides.

6. Chronic, acute

7. e

8. b

9. b

10. Pesticide label

11. Organophosphates, carbamates

12. Cholinesterase

13. People who work with organophosphates or carbamates for an extended time.

14. Pesticide label

15. Remove contaminated clothing; drench skin with water, wash with soap and rinse twice; dry and wrap person in a blanket; cover chemical burns with a loose, clean, soft cloth.

16. e

17. Get to fresh air; loosen tight clothing; give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation if needed; keep victim quiet; prevent chilling.

18. Toxicity, exposure

19. False

20. d

21. Wash clothing at the end of each day of use.

22. True

Chapter 6 – Pesticide Handling, Storage and Disposal

1. False

2. 5.0, 7.0

3. See the section titled “Storage Area.”

4. b

5. True

6. The date will help you determine if the pesticide is too old to be effective and allows you to use older products first.

7. During mixing, you may see excessive clumping, poor suspension, layering or abnormal coloration. The target pest may not be controlled.

8. Apply the pesticide in a recommended manner listed on the label.

9. See the section titled “Cleaning and Disposing of Containers.”

10. Michigan Department of Natural Resources Waste Management Division

11. False

12. Securely in the back of a truck.

13. True

14. Pesticides containing oils or petroleum solvents.

15. Any of the points listed under the section “Pesticide Fire Safety.”

16. Clear everyone from the area.

Chapter 7 – The Label

1. True

2. True

3. False

4. d

5. False

6. True

7. Health and safety information about a particular pesticide. They are available from chemical dealers.

8. Yes

9. No

10. d

11. False

12. Yes. Birds, fish and bees.

13. False

Chapter 8 – Fleas

1. True

2. An allergic condition that can be brought on by a single flea bite in an allergic or sensitized animal.

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3. “Hot spots” occur when the animal continually scratches at highly inflamed sites on the skin caused by flea bites, creating conditions for bacterial infection. A hot spot is painful to the animal and may exude pus.

4. False

5. A few eggs per day and several hundred over the course of her life.

6. True

7. d

8. Treating for fleas on the host animal and in thehost’s environment at the same time.

9. True

10. It is an illegal use of the products and can harm you, your family or your pets by creating dusts or fumes that could be inhaled.

11. They prevent flea larvae from developing to the adult stage.

12. fires or explosions.

Chapter 9 – Mites and Ticks

1. 1. four pairs of legs (insects have three pairs);

2. two major body units—the cephalothorax and the abdomen—while insects have three body units—head, thorax and abdomen.

2. 1. by damaging tissues and causing dermatitis; 2. by causing blood or body fluid loss; 3. by causing allergic reactions; or 4). by creating conditions for secondary bacterial infection.

3. Mange or scabies. Mange is a deterioration of the skin’s condition, leading to hair or feather loss, skin often disfiguring, and in severe cases, lethargy and weakness.

4. Mites mate and the females lay eggs. Eggs hatch and six-legged larvae emerge. Larve feed and molt to the eight-legged nymph. Later, after feeding, the nymphs molt and become adult male or female mites.

5. As little as eight days to as long as four weeks,depending on the species of mite and temperature and humidity.

6. Because of their burrowing behavior and feeding.

7. True

8. True

9. They occur in cats and rabbits but also occasionally in dogs.

10. Detection and identification of non-burrowingmange mites requires skin scrapings.

11. True

12. True

13. In the scaly skin condition, skin thickens and wrinkles and hair falls out. Skin turns color from normal to red or bruised-looking. In the pustular skin condition, pimples or pustules filled with pus develop. The pustules can develop into severe abscesses or nodules filledwith fluid and pus. This skin condition usuallydevelops after the scaly condition and reflects the development of secondary bacterial infections in the follicles. In both conditions, itching occurs.

14. These skin conditions are collectively called demodectic mange.

15. True

16. False

17. 1. they cause blood loss, 2. their feeding causes inflammation and irritation of the skin, 3. they may stimulate hypersensitive allergic reactions, 4. they may cause a toxic reaction in the host, complicated by paralysis (called “tick paralysis”), and 5. they transmit microorganisms that cause disease.

18. True

19. True

20. On animals, tick control can be achieved usingapproved acaricides by dipping, spraying the entire animal or applying whole animal dusts.

Chapter 10 – Chewing and Sucking Lice

1. Sucking lice feed on blood. Their mouthparts penetrate the skin of an animal and they draw the food from blood vessels.

2. False

3. The head of a sucking louse is narrower than the thorax.

The head of a chewing louse is wider than the thorax.

4. Grooming; animal’s immune system can help protect against lice.

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5. If parents, especially the mother, do not have lice, offspring will not risk infestation through exposure to them.

6. life cycle

Chapter 11 – Flies

1. One

2. Blood-feeding flies not associated with manure or animal waste.Filth flies associated with animal waste or manure.Parasitic bot flies.

3. Worm-like and may be true maggots.

4. Mosquitoes, black flies, biting midges, deer flies and horse flies are blood-feeding flies.

5. All of them

6. True

7. 1. Modification of the habitat and environment to reduce the sources of the flies.

2. Separate animals from the flies through physical means— i.e., keep animals indoors when flies are biting.

3. Use of repellents on the bodies of animals and insecticides applied to the animals directly or in their immediate environment where the flies occur.

8. They degrade manure to simpler components and reduce the volume of waste material.

9. True

10. Space or area sprays typically control flies at the time of application, whereas residual sprays offer longer control activity.

CHAPTER 1

GLOSSARY

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Acari – Scientific grouping of organisms withinthe class Arachnida, including mites and ticks.

Acariasis – Veterinary term for an infestation ofmites in or on an animal.

Acaricides – Pesticides that control mites or ticks.

Active immunity – Immunity (antibodies andimmune cells) developed by an animal inresponse to a disease challenge or a vaccine anti-gen, as opposed to passive immunity, which isimmunity conferred by the mother through inter-nal antibodies. Active immunity is long-lived.Passive immunity is short-lived.

Active ingredient (a.i.) – The chemical(s) in a for-mulated product that is (are) principally responsi-ble for the pesticidal effects and that is (are)shown as active ingredient(s) on pesticide labels.

Acute exposure – Exposure to a single dose ofpesticide.

Acute toxicity – The quality or potential of a sub-stance to cause injury or illness shortly after expo-sure to a relatively high dose.

Additive – A chemical added to a pesticide for-mulation to increase its effectiveness or safety;same as adjuvant.

Adsorption – The process by which a pesticidebonds with a surface; e.g., a soil colloidal surface.

Adulterated – (1) A pesticide whose strength orpurity falls below that specified on the label. (2) Afood, feed or product that contains illegal pesti-cide residues.

Agitation – The process of stirring or mixing in asprayer.

Agricultural animals – Those used for produc-tion of food and fiber; livestock.

Allergic effects statement – A statement on apesticide label that tells whether tests or otherdata indicate that a pesticide product has thepotential to cause allergic effects, such as skin irri-tation or asthma. Sometimes the labeling refers toallergic effects as “sensitization.”

Allergies – Hypersensitivity to substances thatare harmless to most other individuals.

Alopecia – Hair, feather or wool loss: may be dueto any of a variety of causes. Complete loss ofhair is usually a hormonal problem.

Amitraz – A formamidine chemical with insecti-cidal and acaricidal properties.

Anaphylactic shock – An often severe and some-times fatal systemic reaction in a susceptible ani-mal upon exposure to a specific antigen (such aswasp or fly venom) after previous sensitization;characterized especially by respiratory symp-toms, fainting, and itching.

Ancylostoma caninum – Canine hookworm.

Anemia – Reduction or loss of red blood corpuscles.

Anemic – Weakened; lack of vitality due to bloodloss or iron deficiency.

Antagonism – An interaction of two or morechemicals whose combined effect is less than theeffect predicted on the basis of the activity of eachchemical applied separately.

Antibiotics – Chemical substances that destroy orinhibit the growth of bacteria and some otherorganisms. A veterinarian may prescribe antibi-otics for a viral disease to prevent secondary bac-terial infections, but antibiotics do not affect theviruses themselves.

Antidote – A substance used as a medical treat-ment to counteract poisoning.

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Anti-siphoning device – An attachment to thefilling hose designed to prevent backward flowinto the water source.

Arachnids – Organisms from the class Arachnida,such as spiders, mites and ticks.

Ascarids – Any of the genus of parasitic round-worms.

Attractants – Substances that lure insects to trapsor to poison-bait stations; bait.

Bacteria – Extremely small, single-celled microor-ganisms that usually lack chlorophyll, reproduceby fission (splitting of the cell into two equalhalves) and may cause diseases.

Bioaccumulation – The buildup of pesticides orother chemicals in the bodies of animals (includ-ing humans), particularly in fat tissue.

Biological controls – Control by pathogens,predators and parasites, either naturally occur-ring or introduced.

Biotic – Relating to living organisms.

Biotype – A population within a species that hasdistinct genetic variation.

Bitch – Female canine.

Bordetella – Infectious bacterium that can causetracheobronchitis.

Botanicals – An insecticide/acaricide class thatincludes rotenone and pyrethrin, which arederived from plants; they may be synergized incertain formulations with PBO.

Broad-spectrum pesticide – A pesticide that iseffective against a wide range of species.

Bronchitis – Inflammation of the bronchial pas-sages (branches of the windpipe and passages inthe lungs).

Calibration – The process of equipment adjust-ment to obtain a desired application rate and dis-tribution.

Carbamates – An insecticide/acaricide class simi-lar to organophosphates in activity; includes car-baryl and methomyl.

Carcinogenic – Capable of causing cancer in ani-mals or humans.

Carrier – A gas, liquid or solid substance used todilute, propel or suspend a pesticide during itsapplication.

Chemical degradation – The breakdown of a pes-ticide by oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis or otherchemical means.

Chemical name – Name applied to a pesticideactive ingredient that describes its chemical struc-ture according to rules prescribed by the Ameri-can Chemical Society and published in theChemical Abstracts Indexes.

Cherry eye – Swollen gland of the third eyelid ofan animal that is visible as a large red mass on theinner corner of the eyelids.

Chigger – A six-legged mite larva that sucks theblood of vertebrates and causes intense irritation.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons – An insecticide/aca-ricide class that includes lindane, methoxychlorand naled.

Chorioptic mange – Veterinary term for infesta-tion of Chorioptes bovis, a species of non-burrow-ing mange mites.

Cholinesterase – An enzyme that helps to controlthe transmission of nerve impulses in animalsand humans.

Chronic exposure – Exposure to repeated dosesof a pesticide over a period of time.

Chronic toxicity – Quality or potential of a sub-stance to cause injury or illness after repeatedexposure over an extended period of time.

Closed mixing systems – Systems in which liquidpesticide concentrates are transferred from theiroriginal containers to mix or spray tanks througha closed series of hoses, pipes, etc. Such systemsare designed to prevent or minimize humanexposure to the concentrates.

Coccidia – Parasitic protozoan that infests thedigestive tract and can cause blood-tinged diar-rhea in young puppies.

Colostrum – Mammary secretion containing anti-bodies of the bitch. Puppies receive this fluidupon the first suckling and receive maternal anti-bodies and passive immunity to those diseases towhich the bitch has immunity.

Comatose – Inactive, as in a coma.

Common name – (1) When referring to a pesti-cide, an abbreviated name applied to a herbicideactive ingredient; usually agreed upon by theAmerican National Standards Institute and theInternational Organization for Standardization. (2)When referring to an organism, a name derivedfrom local common usage that is agreed upon bysome accepted authority but may not be unique.

Companion animals – Pets such as dogs and cats.

Compatibility – Mixable in the formulation or inthe spray tank for application in the same carrierwithout undesirable alterations in the characteris-tics or effects of the individual components.

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Concentration – The amount of active ingredientor herbicide equivalent in a quantity of diluentexpressed as percent, pounds per gallon (lb/gal),kilograms per liter (kg/l), etc.

Congenital – Condition existing at time of birth.

Cross-contamination – When one pesticide getsinto or mixes with another pesticide accidentally;usually occurs in a pesticide container or in apoorly cleaned sprayer.

Cultural control – Control by changing manage-ment practices to reduce pest numbers withoutusing pesticides; includes maintaining overallgood health of animals.

Degradation – The breakdown of a pesticide intoa simpler compound that is usually, but notalways, non-toxic; may be either chemical, physi-cal or biological or any combination of the three.

Dehydration – Caused by insufficient fluid intakeor abnormal loss of fluids.

Dew claws – Claws high on the inner side ofdogs’ legs that serve no useful function for mostbreeds. Consult veterinarian regarding removal.

Demodectic mange – A variety of skin conditionscaused by an infestation of follicle mites.

Dermatitis – The direct damage and inflamma-tory reaction of an animal’s skin to arthropodbites or body secretions.

Detection – The first step in an IPM program;requires thorough and regular monitoring of ani-mals for pest infestations or other signs andsymptoms that indicate a pest is present on theanimal or in the animal’s environment.

Diluent – Any gas, liquid or solid material usedto reduce the concentration of an active ingredi-ent in a pesticide formulation.

Dilute – To make less concentrated by addingwater, another liquid or a solid.

Directed application – Precise application to aspecific area.

Dirofilaria immitis – Canine heartworm.

Disinfection – Disinfection is the act of maintain-ing animals and birds in an environment that iscleaned and sanitized daily, including kennels,doors, grids, eating bowls, water bottles, walls,ceiling, floors, food utensils, isolation areas,puppy rooms, runs, exercise areas and examina-tion areas. Maintenance personnel should wearclean clothes daily and wash hands and arms afterhandling any animals with a disease problem.

Dispersible granule – A dry, granular formula-tion that will separate or disperse to form a sus-pension when added to water.

Distemper – Common worldwide disease of dogscaused by canine distemper virus.

Dock – Shorten tail by cutting.

Dog – Male canine.

Dose – (1) Amount, quantity or portion of a pesti-cide that is applied to a target. (2) A measure ofexposure used in animal testing to determineacute and chronic toxicities; usually expressed inmilligrams per kilogram of body weight.

Drift – (1) The movement of pesticides throughthe air to non-target areas, either as solid or liquidparticles or as vapors. (2) (Legal definition) Thedrifting or movement of pesticide by air currentsor diffusion onto property beyond the boundariesof the target area to be treated with pesticide,other than by pesticide overspray.

Dust – A dry pesticide formulation.

Ear mites – Parasite that inhabits the ear canaland feeds by piercing the skin. Mites are visible tothe naked eye. Ear mite infestation can be sus-pected if the ear passage contains a dark brownexudate with a characteristic odor.

Eastern equine encephalitis – Disease of horses,pheasants and humans caused by a virus trans-mitted by swamp mosquitoes among wild birds.

Ecto – Prefix meaning “outside of the body.”

Ectoparasite – Organism that lives on the outsideof the host body, more or less in permanent asso-ciation.

Ecology – The science that studies the interrela-tionships of living organisms and their environ-ment.

Economic damage – The amount of injury thatwill justify the cost of applied control measures.

Efficacy – Effectiveness of a vaccine, pesticide ormedication.

Emulsifier – A surface-active substance that pro-motes the suspension of one liquid in another;e.g., a chemical that allows a petroleum-basedpesticide to mix with water.

Emulsion – The suspension of one liquid asminute globules in another liquid; e.g., oil dis-persed in water.

Encapsulated formulation – A pesticide enclosedin capsules or beads of thin polyvinyl or othermaterial to control the rate of release of the chem-ical and thereby extend the period of activity.

Endangered species – A group of organisms onthe brink of extinction.

Endo – Prefix meaning “inside the body.”

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Endoparasite – Organism that invades internalbody parts of the host.

EPA – Environmental Protection Agency.

Eradication – The complete elimination of a pestfrom a site, an area or a geographic region.

Euthanize – Destroy in a humane manner.

Exotic – Native to other regions, countries or con-tinents.

Facultative myiasis – Infestation by flies that areattracted to and lay eggs in wounds or injuries onanimals.

FDA – Food and Drug Administration.

FIFRA – The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide andRodenticide Act — The federal law dealing withpesticide regulations and use.

Flowable (F or L) – A pesticide formulation inwhich the active ingredient is impregnated on adiluent such as clay that is then finely ground andsuspended in a small amount of liquid; the result-ing paste or cream-like formulation is added towater in the spray tank and forms a suspension.

Food chain – A group of plants, animals and/ormicroorganisms linked together as sources andconsumers of food.

Formulation – (1) A pesticidal preparation sup-plied by a manufacturer for practical use. (2) Theprocess, carried out by manufacturers, of prepar-ing pesticides for practical use.

Fowl pox – Viral disease of domestic fowl andwild birds.

Fungus – A largely undifferentiated, usuallymicroscopic organism lacking chlorophyll andconductive tissues and living either as a sapro-phyte or a parasite. The vegetative body of a fun-gus is normally composed of hyphae, andreproduction is by sexual and/or asexual spores.

GPA – Gallons per acre.

GPM – Gallons per minute.

Granule or granulation – A dry formulation ofpesticide and other components in discrete parti-cles, generally less than 10 cubic millimeters, anddesigned to be applied without a liquid carrier.

Growth regulator – A substance used for control-ling or modifying insect or plant growthprocesses.

Hazard – The risk of harmful effects. Hazarddepends on both the toxicity of the substance andthe exposure received in a given situation.

Health certificate – Document signed by a veteri-narian that states an animal is free of clinical evi-dence of disease. Considered in most states to bean official document.

Heartworm – Thread-like worms (Dirofilariaimmitis) that reside mostly in the right ventricleof the heart; transmitted by mosquitoes. Preven-tion possible.

Herbicide – A chemical used to control, suppressor kill plants or to severely interrupt their normalgrowth process.

Hereditary defect – Abnormal condition of thesire or dam, or of past generations of the sire ordam, that may be passed on to the current gener-ation of animals.

Hookworms – An endoparasite (Ancylostomacaninum) that attaches to the intestinal wall andingests blood. Infestation can lead to severe ane-mia and death.

Hormone mimics – A class of insecticides thatprevents development of immature insects to theadult stage. These chemicals simulate the activityof juvenile hormone, the hormone in insects thatmaintains immature characteristics. (See insectgrowth regulator.)

Host – Organism on which a pest is located.

Hypersensitivity – An extreme allergic reactionto insect bites, stings or secretions.

Hypostome – Feeding apparatus of a mite.

Immunized – Creation of antibody levels highenough to prevent a disease.

Incompatibility – When two or more pesticidescannot be effectively mixed without a loss inactivity, an increase in toxicity or hazard to theapplicator, or harm to the crop or the environ-ment.

Incubation – Period of time between exposure todisease and development of clinical evidence ofthe disease.

Inert ingredients – The materials in a pesticideformulation that have no pesticide activity.

Ingestion – Eating or swallowing.

Ingredient name – The active ingredients and theamount of each ingredient (as a percentage of thetotal product) in a pesticide listed by the officialchemical name and/or common name for eachactive ingredient.

Inhalation toxicity – A measure of the capacity ofa pesticide to cause injury when absorbedthrough the lungs.

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Inoculation – Injection of a vaccine or bacterium.

Inorganic pesticides – Pesticides of mineralorigin—they do not contain carbon.

Insecticide – A chemical used to control insects.

Insect growth regulators – A class of insecticidesthat prevent development of immature insects tothe adult stage.

Integrated pest management – An ecologicalapproach to pest management that consolidates allavailable necessary techniques into a unified pro-gram to manage pest populations so as to avoideconomic damage and minimize adverse effects tothe environment and nontarget organisms.

Intermediate host – A host that is usually usedby a parasite in the course of its life cycle and inwhich it may multiply.

Intranasal – Administration of antigen via nasalpassages.

Invertebrates – A class of animals that lack spinalcords.

Ivermectins – Group of insecticides labeled asdrugs, that often come into use for pest control onanimals.

Isolate – Set apart to prevent disease transmission.

Isolation area – An area or caging constructed toprevent spread of contagious conditions. The areaor cage should have a ventilation system that pre-vents commingling of air from the isolation areawith air in the healthy animal area.

Label – The information printed on or attached tothe pesticide container or wrapper.

Labeling – The pesticide label and all additionalproduct information provided by the manufac-turer such as brochures and flyers provided bythe dealer.

Larva – The immature stage of an insect.

Larvicide – A pesticide that controls immatureinsects.

LC50 – The concentration of a chemical in air(inhalation toxicity) or water (aquatic toxicity)that will kill 50 percent of the organisms in a spe-cific test situation.

LD50 – The dose (quantity) of a chemical calcu-lated to be lethal to 50 percent of the organisms ina specific test situation. It is expressed in weightof the chemical (mg) per unit of body weight (kg)of the test organism. The toxicant may be fed(oral LD50) or applied to the skin (dermal LD50).

Leaching – Downward movement of a pesticideor other soluble material through the soil as aresult of water movement.

Lesions – Damage to an organ or tissue.

Lethal – Causing or capable of causing death.

Lethargy – Lack of energy, drowsy, dull, sluggishor inactive.

Life cycle – The progression of stages in thedevelopment of an organism.

Lime sulfur – Inorganic chemical (calcium poly-sulfide) used for lice control.

Mange – Deterioration of the skin’s condition,leading to hair or feather loss, skin discoloration,often disfiguring and, in severe cases, lethargyand weakness. Associated with mite infestation.

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) – Thesedata sheets contain specific information on toxic-ity, first aid, personal protection equipment, stor-age and handling precautions, spill and leakcleanup and disposal practices, transportation,physical data and reactivity data. MSDS are avail-able from manufacturers.

Mechanical control – Pest control by physicallyaltering the environment; e.g., use of screens asbarriers to insects.

Metabolite – A compound derived from meta-bolic transformation of a chemical by plants orother organisms.

Microfilaria – Immature stages of canine heart-worm that circulate in the blood.

Microorganism – An organism that is so smallthat it cannot be seen without the aid of a micro-scope.

Mineral oil – Barrier against biting flies; also adiluent in some ear mite treatments that containcarbaryl.

Miticide – Pesticide that controls mites.

Mode of action – The way in which a pesticideexerts a toxic effect.

Monitoring – The process of information gather-ing and collection through observation of a site ortarget organism.

Mucopurulent – White or yellowish dischargecontaining mucus and pus, typically seen fromthe eyes or nose.

Natural enemies – The predators and parasitesthat attack a species.

Neoprene – A synthetic rubber.

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Nits – The eggs of lice.

Nontarget species – Species not intentionallyaffected by a pesticide.

Nymphs – Larvae that emerge from insect eggs ofmany insects and arthropods.

Obligatory myiasis – Infestation of bot flies inanimals occurring when the larval stages are liv-ing inside the skin or tissues of the animal.

Ocular – Pertaining to the eye.

Oncogenic – Capable of producing or inducingtumors in animals, either benign (non-cancerous)or malignant (cancerous).

Oral toxicity – A measure of the capacity of a pes-ticide to cause injury when taken by mouth.

Organic pesticides – Pesticides that contain car-bon. Most are synthetic; some are derived orextracted from plants.

Organophosphates – An insecticide/acaricideclass that includes chlorpyrifos, malathion,DDVP, ronnel, stiriphos and others. They rangefrom acutely mildly to toxic to animals.

Parainfluenza – Pneumonia-like infection causedby canine parainfluenza virus.

Parasite – Plant or animal that lives in or onanother organism.

Parts per million, weight (PPMW) – One part ofa substance in one million parts of another sub-stance, by weight.

Parasiticide – Substance that kills parasites.

Parvovirus – Virus that attacks growing tissues(especially the intestinal tract) in puppies that arenot immunized.

Passive immunity – Immunity not of the younganimal’s own making, for example from maternalantibodies that offer only temporary protection.

Patella – Kneecap.

Pelleted formulation – A dry formulation of pes-ticide and other components in discrete particles,usually larger than 10 cubic millimeters, anddesigned to be applied without a liquid carrier.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) – Clothingand devices worn to protect the human bodyfrom contact with pesticides or pesticide residues.

Pesticide interaction – The action or influence ofone pesticide upon another and the combinedeffect of the pesticide on the pest(s) or crop system.

Physical control – Control for animal pests thatmay include the use of sticky flypaper to reducenuisance flying insects in confined areas.

Pour-ons – High-concentrate, low-volume pesti-cide formulations applied directly to animalsfrom the containers they are purchased in.

Premise spray – An insecticide that will persiston the surfaces in an animal’s living area for aperiod of time.

Psoroptic mange – Veterinary term for infestationof Psoroptes ovis, species of non-burrowingmange mites.

pH – A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of asolution.

Photodecomposition – Degradation of a pesticideby light.

Phytotoxic – Injurious or lethal to plants.

PPB – Parts per billion. One ppb equals 1 poundin 500,000 tons.

PPM – Parts per million. One ppm equals 1pound in 500 tons.

PPT – Parts per trillion. One ppt equals 1 poundin 500,000,000 tons.

Precipitate – A solid substance that will no longerremain dissolved in water because of some physi-cal or chemical process.

Predator – An animal that attacks, kills and feedson other animals.

PSI – Pounds per square inch.

Psittacines – Birds related to parrots.

Pustules – Eruptions containing pus, such asboils or pimples.

Rabies – Virus that affects the central nervoussystem.

Rate – The amount of active ingredient appliedper unit area or other treatment unit.

RCRA – The Resource Conservation and RecoveryAct, the federal law regulating the transport, stor-age, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes.

Ready to use – Formulation requiring no mixingor combining with other ingredients or diluentsand applied directly from the manufacturer ’scontainer.

Registration – The regulatory process designatedby FIFRA and conducted by the EPA throughwhich a pesticide is legally approved for use.

Repellents – A class of insecticide/acaricide thathelps prevent animal pest establishment, thoughrepellents are not always insecticides—diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET), butoxypolyproplyleneglycol, and diproplyl isocinchomeronate arerepellents that have activity against certainarthropods.

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Residue – That quantity of a pesticide remainingin or on the soil, plant tissue, animal tissue, wholeorganisms and surfaces after an application.

Restricted use pesticide – A pesticide that maybe used only by a certified applicator. It is desig-nated as such by the Environmental ProtectionAgency because of its potential to cause unrea-sonable adverse effects on the environment,including injury to the applicator.

Resurgence – A dramatic increase in the popula-tion level of a target pest some time after a pesti-cide application because the pesticide destroyedits natural enemies. Pest numbers may soon sur-pass pretreatment levels.

Ringworm – Ring-shaped patch on skin causedby a fungus.

Roundworm – Internal parasitic worm (ascarid).

Runoff – Movement of water carrying with itother liquid compounds, soil with contaminantsbound to it or both.

Sarcoptic mange mite – Parasite that burrowsunder the skin, causing intense itching; can betransmitted to people.

Scabies – Any skin condition of man or animalassociated with a mite; a particularly serious,debilitating, mange condition.

Scientific name – The Latin name of the genusand species of an organism, designated by taxon-omists and universally accepted. Scientific namesare used to avoid the confusion that can resultfrom the use of common names, which may varyfrom one area to another.

Scouting – Checking a crop or animal on a regu-lar basis and in a prescribed manner to determinepest population levels and the extent of pest dam-age (monitoring).

Sebaceous glands – Oil glands.

Secondary infection – Infection that occurs fol-lowing the primary infection, as a result of low-ered immunity; e.g., infection following thescratching of flea bites.

Selectivity – The ability of a chemical to be moretoxic to some species than to others; may be afunction of dosage or mode of application.

Self-limiting – Refers to a disease or conditionthat will clear up by itself after a period of time.

Shampoo – Formulation of insecticide and otheringredients that is applied to an animal’s wet furand worked into a lather.

Signal words – The signal words DANGER,WARNING or CAUTION must appear, by law, in

large letters on the front panel of a pesticide label.They indicate how acutely toxic to humans theproduct is.

Site – The animal, crop or area infested by a pestand to which a pesticide is applied.

Space spray – Method of application of an insec-ticide that kills the insects that are in the area atthe time of application.

Spot-ons – High-concentrate, low volume pesti-cide formulation applied directly to the animalfrom the container the product is sold in.

Solubility – The ability of a solid to dissolve in aliquid.

Solution – A homogeneous mixture of one ormore substances (solutes) in another substance(solvent), which is usually a liquid. The solutesare completely dissolved and will not settle out orseparate under normal conditions.

Solvent – A liquid in which one or more sub-stances dissolve to form a true solution.

Species – The basic unit of taxonomic classifica-tion, designating a group of closely related indi-viduals that are capable of interbreeding.

Spot treatment – Application of pesticides to lim-ited area(s) of a whole unit; e.g., treatment ofspots or patches of cracks and crevices within alarger kennel or building area.

Spray drift – Movement of airborne spray fromthe intended area of application.

Staphylococcus – Type of bacterium frequentlyassociated with skin infectioStatement of practicaltreatment (first aid) – Instructions on how torespond to an emergency exposure involving apesticide product.

Subclinical – Not readily apparent disease.

Surfactant – A material that improves the emulsi-fying, dispersing, spreading, wetting or other sur-face-modifying properties of liquids.

Susceptibility – The sensitivity to or degree towhich a plant is injured by a pesticide treatment.(See tolerance.)

Suspension – A mixture containing finelydivided particles evenly dispersed in a solid, liq-uid or gas.

Symptom – (1) Any detectable change in anorganism resulting from the activities of apathogen or other pest. (2) An indication of pesti-cide poisoning.

Synergism – An interaction of two or more chem-icals whose combined effect is greater than the

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effect predicted on the basis of the activity of eachchemical applied separately.

Synergist – Something that enhances the effec-tiveness of the active ingredient(s) in a formulation.

Synthetic chemical – A manufactured chemical.

Synthetic pyrethroids – A class ofinsecticides/acaricides—including permethrin,resmethrin and allethrin—that shows properties oflow mammalian toxicity but good activity againstinsects, ticks and mites.

Systemic pesticide – A chemical that is absorbedand translocated (moved) within a plant or animal.

Tapeworm – Intestinal parasitic worm (Cestode).

Tank-mix combination – Mixing two or more pes-ticides in the spray tank at the time of application.

Target organism – The pest against which a par-ticular pesticide or other control method isdirected.

Taxonomy – The classification of living organismsinto groups on the basis of similarities and rela-tionships.

Terrestrial – Living or growing on land; notaquatic.

Tolerance – (1) Capacity to withstand pesticidetreatment without marked deviation from normalgrowth or function. (See susceptibility.) (2) Theconcentration of pesticide residue that will beallowed in or on agricultural products.

Topical – External, upon the skin.

Toxemia – An abnormal condition associatedwith the presence of toxic substances in the blood.

Toxicity – The quality or potential of a substanceto cause injury or illness.

Toxicology – The study of the principles or mech-anisms of toxicity.

Tracheobronchitis – Upper respiratory infection.Common name is “kennel cough.”

Trade name – A trademark applied to a productsuch as a pesticide formulation by its manufacturer.

Trichuris vulpis – Endoparasite (whipworm) thatattaches to the intestinal wall and ingests blood.

Ulceration – Open sore.

USDA – United States Department of Agriculture.

Vaccine – Antigens introduced into the body thatstimulates the formation of protective immunity.

Vapor drift – The movement of chemical vaporsfrom the area of application. Note: vapor injuryand injury from spray drift are often difficult todistinguish.

Venomous – Having a venom-producing glandand able to inflict a poisoned wound.

Vertebrate – An animal with a spinal column.

Viral – Involving or relating to viruses.

Virulent – Highly infectious; capable of causingdisease.

Watershed – The area of land draining into abody of water.

Weed – A plant growing where it is not desired;any plant that is objectionable or interferes withthe activities or welfare of humans.

Wettable powder (WP) – A fine textured, drypesticide formulation that can be suspended inwater.

Wetting agent – (1) A substance that serves toreduce interfacial tensions and causes spray solu-tions or suspensions to make better contact withtreated surfaces (see surfactant). (2) A substancein a wettable powder formulation that causes it towet readily when added to water.

Whipworm – Internal parasite (Trichuris vulpis)that infests lower intestinal tract .

Wipes – Pesticide formulation applied directly tothe animal; cloths or sponges saturated with theproduct.

Woods lamp – Ultraviolet light with an eye-pro-tecting filter; helpful in identifying some kinds ofringworm.

PESTICIDE EMERGENCY INFORMATIONFor any type of an emergency involving a pesticide, immediately contact the following

emergency information centers for assistance.

Current as of May 1994

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MSU is an Affirmative-Action Equal Opportunity Institution.Extension programs and materials are open to all withoutregard to race, color, national origin, sex, disability, age orreligion. ■ Issued in furtherance of Extension work in agri-culture and home economics, acts of May 8, and June30,1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agri-culture. Gail L. Imig, director, Michigan State UniversityExtension, East Lansing, MI 48824.

MICHIGAN STATEU N I V E R S I T Y

EXTENSION

Human Pesticide Poisoning

Michigan State University ExtensionExtension Bulletin AM –37(Revised May 1994 — Destroy previous editions)Revised byLarry G. OlsenPesticide Education Coordinator

Eastern Half of Michigan........................................

*(313) 745-5711Poison Control Center

Children’s Hospital of Michigan3901 Beaubien

Detroit, MI 48201

Western Half of Michigan........................................

Contact local hospitalemergency room.

Upper Peninsula of Michigan........................................

within Marquette city proper:

*(906) 225-3497Upper Peninsula only:

*1-800-562-9781U.P. Poison Control Center

Marquette General Hospital420 West Magnetic Street

Marquette, MI 48955

Special Pesticide Emergencies

(PLEASE POST IN AN APPROPRIATE PLACE)

* Telephone Number Operated 24 Hours

National Pesticide Telecommunications Network........................................................................Provides advice on recognizing and managing pesticide poi-soning, toxicology, general pesticide information and emer-gency response assistance, Funded by EPA, based at TexasTech University Health Services Center.Monday – Friday: 8:00 a.m. – 6:00 p.m. Central Time Zone

1-800-858-7378

Pesticide disposalinformation.........................................................

Michigan Department of Natural Resources.Waste Management Division.Monday– Friday: 8 a.m.–5 p.m.

(517) 373-2730

AnimalPoisoning................................Your veterinarian:

_____________________Phone No.

or

Animal Health DiagnosticLaboratory (Toxicology)Michigan State University:

(517) 355-0281

PesticideFire..............................Local fire department:

____________________Phone No.

and

Fire Marshal Division,Michigan State Police:M – F: 8 –12, 1– 5

(517) 322-5847

TrafficAccident...............................Local police department orsheriff’s department:

_____________________Phone No.

and

Operations Division, Michi-gan State Police:

*(517) 336-6605

EnvironmentalPollution...............................Pollution Emergency Alert-ing System (PEAS}, Michi-gan Department of NaturalResources:

_____________________Phone No.

and

For environmental emer-gencies:

*1-800-292-4706

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