Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /paid

Personality traits associated with problematic and non-problematic massivelymultiplayer online role playing game use

Emily Collins ⇑, Jonathan Freeman, Tomas Chamarro-PremuzicDepartment of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, United Kingdom

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 12 March 2011Received in revised form 9 September 2011Accepted 27 September 2011Available online 28 October 2011

Keywords:MMORPGsBig FiveEmotional intelligenceSelf regulationProblematic video game useImpulsivitySensation seekingMassively multiplayer online role playinggames

0191-8869/$ - see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd. Adoi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.09.015

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: DepartmentUniversity of London, Room 302/C, Whitehead BuildinSE14 6NW, United Kingdom. Tel.: +44 2079197374.

E-mail address: e.collins@gold.ac.uk (E. Collins).

a b s t r a c t

This research investigated the associations between personality traits and both normal and problematicmassively multiplayer online role playing game (MMORPGs) play, as measured by a self report scale. Atotal of 225 participants completed the online questionnaire, 66 of whom played MMORPGs. Correla-tional analyses indicated that low levels of functional impulsivity and agreeableness alongside high levelsof verbal aggression and video game dependency were associated with greater amount of time spentplaying MMORPGs. When comparing problematic and non-problematic MMORPG players directly, prob-lematic players were found to be lower in self regulation, dysfunctional impulsivity and agreeableness,suggesting that these traits may be important in the development and maintenance of problematicMMORPG use.

� 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Problematic video game play (PVGP) is becoming an increas-ingly concerning issue, with studies estimating around 9.4% of ga-mers to be affected (Lemmens, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2009).Although at one point this may have implicated only a small num-ber of people, recent figures suggesting that approximately 73% ofthe UK population play some form of video game (National GamersSuvery, 2009) highlight how pertinent and widespread this con-cern may be. Significant controversy surrounds the notion of PVGP,but whether conceptualised as an addiction, an impulse disorder orjust disordered behaviour, identifying its relationship with person-ality may be integral to fully understanding risk factors and causes.This is particularly important considering some of the negativeconsequences of PVGP that have been reported, for example thebreakdown of family relationships or losing jobs (Chappell,Eatough, Davies, & Griffiths, 2006). As with problematic internetuse, the prevalence of video game play amongst healthy popula-tions makes it difficult to detect (Young & Rodgers, 1998) and

ll rights reserved.

of Psychology, Goldsmiths,g, Lewisham Way, New Cross

knowing what personality traits or characteristics may differenti-ate problematic gamers from non-problematic players may assistin diagnosis. Research has also claimed that traits may predisposecertain people to developing such conditions (e.g. Chak & Leung,2004; Kim, Namkoong, Ku, & Kim, 2008) and although currentlyno causal evidence has been generated, knowing what psycholog-ical characteristics are associated with PVGP may inform later re-search that attempts to identify casual factors.

Many types of games have been implicated in PVGP but onethat has received the most attention is the genre of massively mul-tiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs). These have a num-ber of unique characteristics that contribute to the likelihood of thedevelopment of problematic gaming (Seay & Kraut, 2007). One ofthese characteristics is that game play occurs within a persistentvirtual world that continues to exist and develop irrespective ofindividual players’ presence in the game. This same world is ac-cessed by all players of the game, meaning that logging out doesnot pause or stop the action as even if one person’s character isnot involved, those who remain can continue to play. In conven-tional gaming, the world is individual to each player and is unaf-fected by others’ actions, with only those also playing from thesame console or computer able to interact. Moreover, these gamesusually hold completing levels or challenges at the centre of theirobjectives, working towards the ultimate goal of completing thegame which is achievable when all of these levels have been com-pleted. MMORPGs, however, operate on a very different system.

134 E. Collins et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138

While there are achievements and challenges for the players towork towards, these are forever adapting and have no set number.This means that MMORPGs can never be completed; their chal-lenges merely change. Many achievements within an MMORPGcan only be reached through cooperative play and as such successrelies on the help of other players (Kim et al., 2008), contrastingsharply with more competitive, restricted player formats. Playersare rewarded for good performance not through level completionsbut by character improvements, a feature referred to as verticalgame play (Chan & Vorderer, 2006). Even once the player hasreached the highest character level, they can continue to playand gain other rewards through their improved status, such asweaponry, property or in-game currency.

Because of these vital differences between conventional gameplay and MMORPGs, it is unclear how current understanding ofthe interaction between personality and offline game use can begeneralised. Therefore much more research is needed, especiallyin regards to compulsive use in order to inform diagnosis, under-standing of the possible causes of developing PVGP and to allowgeneration of appropriately tailored treatments.

1.2. Personality and video game addiction

Whilst a vast number of traits have attracted empirical interest,the research described here focuses on the Big Five (Costa & McCrae,1985), sensation seeking, impulsivity, self esteem, aggression, selfregulation, and trait emotional intelligence as those were deemedmost interesting in terms of previous findings and theoreticalcontributions.

In the Big Five literature, while studies looking at online gameplayers in general have indicated that players are more open, con-scientious and extraverted than non-players (Teng, 2008; Yee,2001), problematic online game use has been associated with high-er neuroticism and lower agreeableness, conscientiousness andextraversion (Huh & Bowman, 2008; Peters & Malesky, 2008),highlighting a potentially very real personality difference withingamers according to the level and nature of their game play.

Although sensation seeking is positively correlated with PVGP(Chiu, Lee, & Huang, 2004), including more specifically compulsiveonline game (Mehroof & Griffiths, 2009) and MMORPG play (Qiang,2008), the related construct of impulsivity (Barratt, 1972) has beenrelatively under-researched in this area. It has featured heavily intoinvestigations into addictive behaviours (e.g. Dawe, Matthew, &Loxton, 2004) and problematic internet users do indeed displayhigher levels of impulsivity than controls in behavioural tests ofthe trait (Cao, Su, Liu, & Gao, 2007) but this finding has not beenentirely consistent when employing self report measures(Armstrong, Phillips, & Saling, 2000).

Similarly, self esteem has often been linked to substance addic-tion and has demonstrated negative relationships with problem-atic internet use (Armstrong et al., 2000) but few studies haveinvestigated an active role in PVGP. This trait has been negativelycorrelated with the number of hours spent playing video games(Colwell & Payne, 2000; Fling et al., 1992; Funk & Buchman,1996) although Greenberg, Lewis, and Dodd (1999) failed to up-hold hypotheses relating to associations between low self esteemand compulsive internet or video game use. Methodological differ-ences as well as technological advancements and increases in theprevalence of PVGP since 1999 prevent generalisation of this find-ing and attempts to replicate these results are therefore needed.

A much more unified research base emerges when looking atother traits. Aggression for example has been highlighted as poten-tially influential by Oh (2003), suggesting that problematic inter-net use is characterised by aggression as well as impulsivity andirritability, and positive correlations between compulsive online

game play and trait aggression measures have been found by sev-eral studies (Kim et al., 2008; Mehroof & Griffiths, 2009).

Likewise, self regulation has emerged as a highly important fac-tor in the development and maintenance of problematic onlinegaming (Seay & Kraut, 2007) and has been held as central to the is-sue of problematic media use in general (LaRose, Lin, & Eastin,2003), possibly due to the logical link between the ability to man-age and control impulses and the avoidance of damaging behav-ioural patterns.

Although only supported by a limited number of studies, traitemotional intelligence (trait EI) may also be highly influential. De-fined as an individual’s self-perceived ability to identify, processand appropriately apply emotional stimuli (Petrides & Furnham,2000), it has been identified as an important predictor of a varietyof addictions, as well as compulsive internet and game use inadolescents, with problematic users scoring lower in EI measures(Parker, Taylor, Eastabrook, Schell, & Wood, 2008). However,despite links with measures of general health and other healthrelated behaviours (Greven, Chamorro-Premuzic, Arteche, &Furnham, 2008), very few studies have further investigated thisassociation.

1.3. Hypotheses for the current study

The present study aims to consolidate the current literaturebase and investigate the presence of the aforementioned traitsmore specifically in relation to problematic and non-problematicMMORPG use.

Based on the outlined literature and investigations into sub-stance based addictions behavioural dependencies, it is predictedthat those problematic MMORPG players will score significantlylower on measures of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,self esteem, emotional intelligence and self regulation and higheron neuroticism, aggression, sensation seeking and impulsivity thannon-problematic and non-gamers. Non-problematic MMORPGplayers, however, are predicted to score significantly higher onmeasures of openness, conscientiousness and extraversion thanproblematic or non-players. Further to this, it will be assessedwhether excessive gaming follows a similar pattern to the abovehypotheses concerning problematic MMORPG use, as well asinvestigating more general and non-genre specific video gameaddiction.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

A total of 225 participants were recruited (96 female) throughadvertising on social networking sites, a university website, localnewspapers, forums and posters situated around the universitybuilding. They were incentivised by entry into a prize draw for£100 or, in the case of first year undergraduate psychology stu-dents, course credit. Ages ranged from 13 to 60 (M = 26.55,SD = 9.48) and the majority reported to be white (86.2%). A totalof 33.8% were students.

Sixty-six participants reported to play MMORPGs, 15 of whomwere female. Out of the MMORPG players, the average amount oftime spent playing these games was 18.17 (SD = 18.74) hours perweek, ranging from 1 to 110 h.

2.2. Materials

2.2.1. PersonalityThe ‘Big Five’ personality traits were measured by the 50 item

International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) Big-Five Factor Markers

E. Collins et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138 135

questionnaire (Goldberg, 1992). Answers were given on a five pointscale ranging from ‘very inaccurate’ to 5 ‘very accurate’ with 24items being reverse scored. This questionnaire measured, neuroti-cism, conscientiousness, openness to new experiences and agree-ableness. Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the reliability ofthe scales, all of which demonstrated acceptable levels (a =between .78 and .89).

Sensation seeking was assessed by the Brief Sensation SeekingScale (BSSS; Hoyle, Stephenson, Palmgreen, Lorch, & Donohew,2002) which comprised of eight items and demonstrated accept-able reliability (a = .74). It contained four subscales although asCronbach’s alpha fell below the acceptable threshold of 0.7, onlythe total score was included in the analysis. Answers took the formof a five point numeric scale indicating levels of agreement fromstrongly disagree to strongly agree.

The short version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Question-naire (TEIQue-SF; Petrides & Furnham, 2006) was also includedwhich consists of 30 items (a = .90). Participants were requiredto answer on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from ‘‘strongly dis-agree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree’’.

Self regulation was measured by Kirk and Martin’s (1998)adapted English translation of Grossarth-Maticek and Eysenck’s(1990) self regulation scale which asked participants to answer14 statements on a three point scale of ‘disagree’ ‘not sure’ or‘agree’ (a = .73).

The Buss-Perry Aggression scale (Buss & Perry, 1992) was em-ployed to measure trait aggression through likert scale based an-swers ranging from ‘extremely uncharacteristic of me’ to‘extremely characteristic of me’ on 29 items (a = .90). These mea-sure four subscales, namely physical aggression (nine items;a = .86), verbal aggression (five items; a = .79), anger (seven items;a = .84) and hostility (eight items; a = .87).

Self esteem was evaluated by the Single Item Self Esteem Scale(SISE; Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001) which involved par-ticipants responding to the statement ‘‘I have a high self esteem’’on a five point scale from ‘‘strongly disagree’’ to ‘‘strongly agree’’.

Finally, trait impulsivity was gauged by the short version of theDickman Impulsivity Inventory (DII-S, Dickman, 1990) which con-sisted of 23 items requiring a true/false response (a = .81). A totalof 11 of these items assessed functional impulsivity (a = .811)and the remaining 12 measured dysfunctional impulsivity,(a = .84).

2.2.2. Game and media useGame use was evaluated by a questionnaire adapted from the

Goldsmiths Play Leisure and You (PLaY) measure of media expo-sure. This assessed the level and type of game play, comprisingof seven questions measuring the frequency and duration of playof different game genres, who else participates in this game play(both in person and over the internet), intentions for future gameplay and participants’ favourite games.

The Problem Video Game Playing Scale (PVP; Salguero & Morán,2002) was also included to measure level of PVGP (a = .75). ThePVP contained nine items that tapped into signs of problematicusage, to which participants were required to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’depending on whether they have experienced this.

2.3. Procedure

The aforementioned measures were completed in the form ofan online questionnaire, constructed using the EFS Survey software(http://www.unipark.de). All data sets that completed the mea-sures were included in the analysis and those not completing allmeasures (except the PVP which was only to be completed bythose who play video games) were excluded.

3. Results

Due to the vast majority of the variables lacking a normal distri-bution, non-parametric correlational analyses were conducted(n = 225), the findings of which are summarised in Table 1.

As the results concerning the PVP may be confounded by thefact that only gamers completed this measure, it was felt that sep-arate analyses including only MMORPG players were also neces-sary. Non-parametric correlational analyses on this subset(n = 66) demonstrated that the number of hours spent playingMMORPGs correlated negatively with the BSSS total score(r = �.249, p < 0.01) and positively with the PVP (r = .274,p < 0.05). The PVP score on the other hand correlated positivelywith verbal aggression (r = .268, p < 0.05) and negatively with dys-functional impulsivity (r = �.314, p < 0.05).

Moreover, as the PVP is intended to be used to identify PVGPsand not just show where they may lie on a continuum, it was feltthat comparing the addicted and non-addicted groups as identifiedby this measure would be necessary to gain a better understandingof the nature of this dysfunctional use. Lemmens et al. (2009) out-line the theory that for addiction (or in this case, problematic use)to be present, the individual must meet half or more of the diag-nostic criteria and therefore those scoring five or above out of apossible nine were classified as problematic MMORPG users(n = 21) and in accordance with this, those scoring four or belowas non-problematic MMORPG users (n = 44). The mean rankingsfor each of the personality traits are outlined in Fig. 1. The prob-lematic group were found to be significantly lower in self regula-tion (U = 280.5, p < 0.05), dysfunctional impulsivity (U = 268.5,p < 0.05) and agreeableness (U = 235.5, p < 0.05) than the non-problematic group. Both groups were then compared to non-players (n = 156), discovering that although no differencesemerged between the non-players and non-problematic groups,problematic players were found to score significantly higher inphysical aggression (U = 1057.5, p < 0.05) and verbal aggression(U = 1109.5, p < 0.05), and lower in impulsivity (U = 1011.0,p < 0.01), functional impulsivity (U = 1048, p < 0.05) and agreeable-ness (U = 821.5, p < 0.01) than non MMORPG players.

4. Discussion

These results indicate that although personality traits do differbetween problematic and non-problematic MMORPG players,these differences do not necessarily mirror those found whenfocusing on substance based addictions (e.g. Dawe et al., 2004).This therefore means that the findings do not entirely supportthe hypotheses but important implications remain.

The negative correlations evident between impulsivity and bothMMORPG use and the PVP score, for example, indicate that impul-sivity is not a necessary trait for PVGP to occur and that in fact,high impulsivity may in some way be detrimental to the develop-ment of problematic MMORPG play. Previous studies have not dis-tinguished between functional and dysfunctional impulsivity (e.g.Cao et al., 2007) and the discovery of patterns involving these sub-scales and not the full score indicate that this distinction may beimportant in understanding MMORPG play, both in terms of casualand compulsive use. Literature focusing on more general videogame use or alternative addictions have indicated that addictionshould coincide with high impulsivity, making the lower impulsiv-ity levels evident in problematic MMORPG players, as well as thenegative correlations with PVP scores and weekly MMORPG useespecially interesting. This also highlights the unique propertiesof MMORPGs and the inappropriateness of generalising findings,as this lower impulsivity may be due to the strategic nature ofMMORPGs in which being very impulsive may actually be

Tabl

e1

Corr

elat

ions

betw

een

mea

sure

s.

12

34

56

78

910

1112

1314

1516

1718

19

1M

MO

RPG

Use

.477

**

.110

.005

.124

.156

*.0

37.0

37.1

01-.

079

-.15

4*.0

05-.

105

.023

-.16

2*-.

097

.090

.109

.027

2PV

P�

.045

�.0

85.2

51**

.302

**

.155

*.1

55*

.293

**

.022

�.1

66*

�.0

56�

.151

*�

.041

�.2

24**

�.1

22�

.062

.125

�.0

183

TEIQ

ue

.536

**

�.1

10.0

20�

.604

**

�.6

04**

�.3

71**

.031

�.5

23**

.225

**

�.2

22**

.504

**

.359

**

.301

**

.716

**

.161

*.6

45**

4SR

�.0

15�

.076

�.3

90**

�.3

90**

�.2

77**

�.0

16�

.231

**

.260

**

�.0

05.1

41*

.170

*.4

10**

.482

**

.037

.333

**

5B

PAS

PA.4

05**

.294

**

.294

**

.772

**

.235

**

�.0

39�

.185

**

�.1

30.0

86�

.322

**

�.1

87**

�.1

53*

�.1

43*

�.0

776

BPA

SV

A.2

30**

.230

**

.610

**

.055

�.1

17�

.198

**

�.2

15**

.144

*�

.226

**

�.3

22**

�.0

83.1

30.1

227

BPA

SA

1.00

0**

.699

**

.064

.287

**

�.1

60*

.099

�.2

55**

�.2

81**

�.2

42**

�.6

35**

.003

�.4

80**

8B

PAS

H.6

99**

.064

.287

**

�.1

60*

.099

�.2

55**

�.2

81**

�.2

42**

�.6

35**

.003

�.4

80**

9B

PAS

Tota

l.1

58*

.116

�.2

50**

�.0

68�

.037

�.3

61**

�.3

03**

�.4

85**

�.0

67�

.276

**

10B

SSS

�.2

35**

�.1

73*

�.2

89**

.293

**

.031

�.1

65*

.047

�.0

64.0

7411

DII

SF

.075

.763

**

�.4

33**

�.0

35�

.078

�.4

35**

�.1

64*

�.4

07**

12D

IIS

DF

.666

**

�.0

81.2

06**

.461

**

.198

**

.195

**

.082

13D

IIS

Tota

l�

.364

**

.102

.255

**

��

.182

**

�.0

07�

.227

**

14IP

IPE

.329

**

.057

.249

**

.179

**

.417

**

15IP

IPA

.251

**

.126

.299

**

.128

16IP

IPC

.267

**

.081

.193

**

17IP

IPS

�.0

59.5

81**

18IP

IPO

.070

19SI

SE

MM

OR

PG=

Mas

sive

lyM

ult

ipla

yer

On

lin

eR

ole

Play

ing

Gam

e,m

easu

red

inh

ours

per

wee

k.PV

P=

Prob

lem

Vid

eoga

me

Play

ing

scal

e,B

SSS

=B

rief

Sen

sati

onSe

ekin

gSc

ale,

TEIQ

ue

=Tr

ait

Emot

ion

alIn

tell

igen

ceQ

ues

tion

nai

re,

SR=

Self

Reg

ula

tion

scal

e,B

PAS

=B

us-

Perr

yA

ggre

ssio

nSc

ale,

wit

hPA

refe

rrin

gto

Phys

ical

Agg

ress

ion

,VA

toV

erba

lAgg

ress

ion

,Ato

An

ger

and

Hto

Hos

tili

ty,D

IIS

=D

ickm

anIm

puls

ivit

yIn

ven

tory

wit

hF

refe

rrin

gto

fun

ctio

nal

and

DF

tody

sfu

nct

ion

al,I

PIP

=In

tern

atio

nal

Pers

onal

ity

Item

Pool

wit

hE

repr

esen

tin

gex

trav

resi

on,A

agre

eabl

enes

s;C

con

scie

nti

ousn

ess;

Sst

abil

ity

(th

ere

vers

eof

neu

roti

cism

)an

dO

,ope

nn

ess;

SISE

=Si

ngl

eIt

emSe

lfEs

teem

scal

e.*

p<

0.05

.**

p<

0.01

.

136 E. Collins et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138

disadvantageous, preventing impulsive people excelling at thegame and maybe limiting their enjoyment and chances of develop-ing dysfunctional behavioural patterns in relation to this activity.This has obvious implications for generalising gaming researchacross genres, as well as for the conceptualisation of the kinds ofpeople attracted to MMORPGs.

The findings of this study in terms of aggression indicate thatthis trait may not be such a vital component of problematicMMORPG use, as argued by researchers such as Oh (2003). Innon-genre specific PVGP it does indeed correlate in the form oftwo subscales and the overall score, but this is reduced to only ver-bal aggression when focusing only on MMORPG players, suggest-ing that it is less of a defining feature (possibly due to thereduced amount of violent content). As no significant differencein aggression was found between problematic and non-problem-atic MMORPG players, only between problematic and non-players,it cannot be satisfactorily concluded that it is a necessary prerequi-site for PVGP.

There are also implications for the role of agreeableness in prob-lematic MMORPG use, as this trait doesn’t appear as prominentlyin the literature as the other Big Five traits despite it demonstrat-ing itself to be very important in the present experiment, especiallyas a distinguishing characteristic between problematic and non-problematic players. Considering the associations between thistrait and social interest (Digman & Takemoto-Chock, 1981) as wellas likeability (Hogan, 1983), this may have connotations for thoseattempting to explain why compulsive MMORPG play develops.

Support is offered for previous discoveries that self regulation isan important factor in PVGP and more general theories of compul-sive behaviour which hold self regulation at the centre of possibleexplanations (Seay & Kraut, 2007). Although this didn’t feature inthe correlational analysis, it would appear that this is one impor-tant factor that may separate problematic from non-dependantplayers. This has implications for development of treatments forthose affected by problematic MMORPG use as focusing on increas-ing the ability to regulate behaviour may have the most profoundeffect.

In regards to the null findings concerning problematic playersnot showing lower levels of openness, conscientiousness, extraver-sion self esteem and emotional intelligence, this provides furtherevidence against the idea that problematic MMORPG use developsbecause of low levels of socially orientated personality traits. Sev-eral possibilities exist as to why these results were so incongruentwith the previous literature. Little consensus has been reached onwhat constitutes an appropriate sample for gaming research withsome studies focusing on adolescent, student or all-male popula-tions. Similarly, there are also discrepancies between the types ofgamers studied, be they gamers in general, online gamers or usersof a specific game, all of which may attract different types of peoplewith different motivations. While the comparatively more diversesample used in the present investigation could be argued to be anadvantage in that the findings are more widely generalisable, itdoes mean that any effects that are present only in certain subsec-tions would not have been identified following the present analy-ses, suggesting that some of the personality differences expectedmay not be general trends.

The fact that opposite or non-existent trends can emerge fromdiffering samples has important implications for how clear cutthe relationship between problematic MMORPG use and personal-ity is as well as how appropriate it is perceived to be to focus ononly one subgroup within an increasingly heterogeneous gamingpopulation. These findings also indicate that while well establishedassociations may exist between problematic online game play andtraits such as impulsivity, emotional intelligence and sensationseeking, these may not be necessary for this dysfunctional behav-iour to occur, as these were not found to be linked in this present

Fig. 1. Mean rankings of personality traits in non-MMORPG players, non-dependent players and dependent MMORPG players.

E. Collins et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138 137

study. This calls into question theories that hold these traits to becentral to compulsive media use or behavioural dependencies andhighlights the need for far more detailed investigation into the vitalcomponents and causal influences of compulsive MMORPG use.

4.1. Conclusion

Overall, the topic of problematic online game or morespecifically MMORPG play is a relatively new one, and as suchthe relevant research base is still in its infancy. For this reason, itis difficult to draw any concrete conclusions, especially when theresults run counter to predictions as in the case of the presentinvestigation. However, it would appear that problematicMMORPG players do not necessarily show evidence of personalitytraits associated with other compulsive media use or substancebased addictions, suggesting that either personality does not pre-dispose individuals to MMORPG dependence or that MMORPGdependence is a distinct and incomparable issue, making normal‘risk factor’ personality patterns not applicable. An important roleappears to be played by low levels of agreeableness and self regu-lation and these traits therefore may be central to determiningwhether playing MMORPGs goes from a past time to dysfunctionalbehaviour. Considering that the problematic group did not reportlow extraversion and self esteem or high neuroticism, further evi-dence is provided against the idea that problematic MMORPG usedevelops as a result of having a personality ill-equipped for socialinteraction. Although the lower levels of agreeableness in problem-

atic players indicates that sociability may be more of a concern forthis group, as this is the least understood of the Big Five (Jensen-Campbell & Graziano, 2001), it is difficult to establish what thismeans in terms of specific behavioural patterns.

Despite this ambiguity, this research forms a solid basis formore focused investigation into the nature and development ofproblematic MMORPG play, highlighting self regulation and agree-ableness as particular traits that may be of importance when dis-tinguishing problematic from non-problematic players. Moreover,it goes some way to suggest that generalising theories from sub-stance addictions or compulsive gambling may be inappropriatedue to the distinct properties of problematic MMORPG play andthat therefore it must be investigated in its own right if a fullunderstanding of treatment and prevention is going to be achieved.

References

Armstrong, L., Phillips, J. G., & Saling, L. L. (2000). Potential determinants of heavierinternet usage. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 53, 537–550.

Barratt, E. S. (1972). Anxiety and impulsiveness: Toward a neuropsychologicalmodel. In C. Spielberger (Ed.). Current Trends in Theory and Research (Vol. 1).New York: Academic Press.

Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. P. (1992). The aggression questionnaire. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 63, 452–459.

Cao, F., Su, L., Liu, T., & Gao, X. (2007). The relationship between impulsivity andInternet addiction in a sample of Chinese adolescents. European Psychiatry, 22,466–471.

Chak, K., & Leung, L. (2004). Shyness and locus of control as predictors of internetaddiction and internet use. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 559–570.

138 E. Collins et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 52 (2012) 133–138

Chan, E., & Vorderer, P. (2006). Massively multiplayer online games. In P. Vorderer &J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences.Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Chappell, D., Eatough, V., Davies, M. N. O., & Griffiths, M. (2006). EverQuest–It’s justa computer game right? An interpretative phenomenological analysis of onlinegaming addiction. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4,205–216.

Chiu, S. I., Lee, J. Z., & Huang, D. H. (2004). Video game addiction in children andteenagers in Taiwan. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7, 571–581.

Colwell, J., & Payne, J. (2000). Negative correlates of computer game play inadolescents. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 295–310.

Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1985). The NEO-PI-R personality inventory manual.Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Dawe, S., Matthew, J. G., & Loxton, N. J. (2004). Reward drive and rash impulsivenessas dimensions of impulsivity: Implications for substance misuse. AddictiveBehaviors, 29, 1389–1405.

Dickman, S. (1990). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: Personality andcognitive correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 95–102.

Digman, J. M., & Takemoto-Chock, N. K. (1981). Factors in the natural language ofpersonality: Re-analysis, comparison and interpretation of six major studies.Multivariate Behavioral Research, 16, 149–170.

Fling, S., Smith, L., Rodriguez, T., Thornton, D., Atkins, E., & Nixon, K. (1992).Videogames, aggression, and self-esteem: A survey. Social Behavior andPersonality: An International Journal, 20, 39–45.

Funk, J. B., & Buchman, D. B. (1996). Playing violent video and computer games andadolescent self-concept. Journal of Communication, 46, 19–32.

Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure.Psychological Assessment, 4, 26–42.

Greenberg, J., Lewis, S., & Dodd, D. (1999). Overlapping addictions and self-esteemamong college man and woman. Addictive Behaviors, 24, 565–571.

Greven, C., Chamorro-Premuzic, T., Arteche, A., & Furnham, A. (2008). A hierarchicalintegration of dispositional determinants of general health in students: The BigFive, trait emotional intelligence and humour styles. Personality and IndividualDifferences, 44, 1562–1573.

Grossarth-Maticek, R., & Eysenck, H. J. (1990). Personality, stress and disease:Description and validation of a new inventory. Psychological Reports, 66,355–373.

Hogan, R. (1983). A socioanalytic theory of personality. In M. M. Page (Ed.),Personality – Current theory and research: Nebraska symposium on motivation.Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Hoyle, R. H., Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Lorch, E. P., & Donohew, R. L. (2002).Reliability and validity of a brief measure of sensation seeking. Personality andIndividual Differences, 32, 401–414.

Huh, S., & Bowman, N. D. (2008). Perception of and addiction to online games as afunction of personality traits. Journal of Media Psychology, 13, 1–31.

Jensen-Campbell, L. A., & Graziano, W. G. (2001). Agreeableness as a moderator ofinterpersonal conflict. Journal of Personality, 69, 323–362.

Kim, E. J., Namkoong, K., Ku, T., & Kim, S. J. (2008). The relationship between onlinegame addiction and aggression, self control and narcissistic personality traits.European Psychiatry, 23, 212–218.

Kirk, K. M., & Martin, N. G. (1998). The short interpersonal reactions inventory, self-regulation and differentiation scales in an older Australian twin sample.Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 591–604.

LaRose, R., Lin, C. A., & Eastin, M. S. (2003). Unregulated internet usage: Addiction,habit, or deficient self-regulation? Media Psychology, 5, 225–253.

Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of agame addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychology, 12, 77–95.

Mehroof, M., & Griffiths, M. D. (2009). Online gaming addiction: The role ofsensation seeking, self control, neuroticism, aggression, state anxiety and traitanxiety. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 13, 1–4.

Oh, W. O. (2003). Factors influencing internet addiction tendency among middleschool students in Gyeong-buk area. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 33,1135–1144.

Parker, J. D. A., Taylor, R. N., Eastabrook, J. M., Schell, S. L., & Wood, L. M. (2008).Problem gambling in adolescence. Relationships with internet misuse, gamingabuse and emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 45,174–180.

Peters, C. S., & Malesky, L. A. (2008). Problematic usage among highly-engagedplayers of massively multiplayer online role playing games. Cyber Psychology &Behavior, 11, 481–484.

Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotionalintelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 313–320.

Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2006). The role of trait emotional intelligence in agender-specific model of organizational variables. Journal of Applied SocialPsychology, 36, 552–569.

Qiang, M.X. (2008). Demographics, motivations, addictions and usage patternsamong Chinese college student MMORPG players. Unpublished MSc Thesis,Chinese University of Hong Kong.

Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-esteem scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151–161.

Salguero, R. A., & Morán, R. A. (2002). Measuring problem video game playing inadolescents. Addiction, 97, 1601–1606.

Seay, A. F. & Kraut, R. E. (2007). Project massive: Self-regulation and problematic useof online gaming. CHI 2007 Proceedings: Games, April 28-May 3, 2007, San Jose,CA, USA.

Teng, C. I. (2008). Personality differences between online game players andnonplayers in a student sample. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 11,232–234.

Young, K., & Rodgers, R. (1998). Internet addiction: Personality traits associatedwith its development. Paper presented at the 69th annual meeting of the EasternPsychological Association.

Web references

National Gamers Suvery (2009). Retrived from: <http://www.tnsglobal.com/_assets/files/Factsheets_UK.pdf>.

Yee, N. (2001). The Norathian Scrolls: A study of Everquest. Retrieved from: <http://www.nickyee.com/eqt/report.html>.