Personality Characteristics and Teacher Beliefs among · PDF file · 2013-08-02Personality Characteristics and Teacher Beliefs among Pre-Service Teachers ... Sixteen Personality Factor

Lauren E. Decker & Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman

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Teacher Education Quarterly

Personality Characteristicsand Teacher Beliefs

among Pre-Service Teachers

By Lauren E. Decker & Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman

Teachereducationisatacross-road.Publicinterestinschoolreformhasin-creasedandteachereducationhasbeenrediscoveredasa“problem”inpolicycircles(Cochran-Smith,2005).Withthisheightenedvisibilitythereexistsapress,onthenationallevel,forevidenceandanswersconcerningtheeffectsofteacherpreparationonfutureteacherquality.Bransford,Darling-Hammond,andLepage(2005)offeraframeworkforconductingresearchonteacherpreparationthatpointsoutacriticalneedforresearchon“howteacherslearntoengageinpracticesthatsuccessfully

Lauren E. Decker is a fellow in the Interdisciplinary Doctoral Training Program in Education Sciences and Sara E. Rimm-Kaufman is an associate professor, both with the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia.

support student development and learning” (p. 23).Ourinvestigationisconsistentwiththisgoal.Inordertounderstandwhatpre-serviceteachersneedtolearn,itiscriticallyimportanttounderstandwhattheyalreadybelieveandwhatpersonalattributes(e.g.,personality)theyhavethatmayrelatetotheirbeliefsandlearning. Thepresentpaperasksthreequestionsaboutpre-serviceteachers.First,whataretheprevalentbeliefsabout teachingamongpre-service teachers?Second,whatarethepersonalitycharacteristicsofpre-serviceteachers?Third,inwhatwaysdopersonalitytraitsandotherdemographicattributespredictbeliefsaboutteach-ing?Findingshaveimplicationsfortheconsiderationofsuchattributesinteachereducationprograms.

Personality Characteristics and Teacher Beliefs

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Pre-service Teacher Beliefs Manystudieshaveacknowledgedtheimportanceofteacherbeliefs(Fang,1996;McCarty,Abbott-Shim,&Lambert,2001;Nespor,1987).Teachinginvolvesmultiple,simultaneousdecisionsrelatedtocontentpedagogy,studentrelationships,praiseanddiscipline,materialsofinstruction,andinteractionswithcolleagues(Griffin,1999).Teachersdonotpossesstemplatestoguidetheirwork.Rather,teachersdrawuponpastexperiencesandtheirownwaysofapproachingproblems.Theydeveloptheirownsolutionsbasedontheirpersonalunderstandingofthecircumstances(Smylie,1994),anunderstandingthatisrootedintheirbeliefsystems. Twofactorsmotivateourinterestinthebeliefsofpre-serviceteachers.First,existingworkindicatesthatstudentscomeintoteachereducationprogramswithasetofbeliefsaboutteaching,classrooms,andchildrenstemmingfromtheirownK-12educationalexperiences(Kagan,1992;Lortie,1975;Pajares,1992).Thisisincontrasttocollegestudentsplanningtoworkinotherprofessionswhohavelessdirectexperienceuponwhichtobasebeliefsaboutfuturework.Thissituationcreatesachallengetoteachereducatorsstrivingtoimprovethepracticesoffutureeducators.Thischallengeoccursbecause,inhumanlearning,itisclearthatitismoredifficulttounlearnexistingbeliefsthanitistolearnnewbeliefs(Bransford,Brown,&Cocking,2000).Therefore,pre-serviceteachersmayteachthewaytheyrememberbeingtaughtratherthanusingpedagogicalknowledgelearnedinteachereducation(Ginsburg&Newman,1985;Lortie,1975).AsPajares(1992)describes,“unexploredenteringbeliefsmayberesponsiblefortheperpetuationofantiquatedandineffectualteachingpractices”(p.328). Teachers’beliefsaremoremalleableduringtheyearsofteacherpreparation,ratherthanonceanindividualisinaclassroom.SoandWatkins(2005)foundthatpre-service teachers’ thinkingchanged toamoreconstructivist approachbytheirfirstyearofteaching.Amixed-methodsstudyconductedbyBrownlee,Purdie,andBoulton-Lewis(2001)foundgrowthintheepistemologicalbeliefsofpre-serviceteachersduetoayear-longreflectiveteachingprogram.Suchworkprovidesevidencetosuggestthatchangingteacherbeliefsshouldandcanoccurduringthetrainingyears. Second,themajorityofworkonteacherbeliefsisbasedonin-service,notpre-serviceteacherswhichposeaproblem.TheNationalCouncilforAccreditationofTeacherEducationrecommendsthatteachereducatorsincreasetheirawarenessofbeliefsoftheirpre-serviceteachers(NCATE,2002)andRaths(2001)evengoessofarastosaythatbeliefsshouldbeusedasonecriterionforentranceintoteachereducationprograms. Takentogether,thisbodyofworkpointstotheimportanceofteacherbeliefsasausefuloutcomeforunderstandingpre-serviceteachers’futureteachingqual-ity.Werecognizeanimperfectcorrespondencebetweenbeliefsandpractices(e.g.,Wilcox-Herzog,2002).However,wepositthatteacherbeliefsofferareasonableproxyforpracticesinceitisimpossibletouseteachingpracticesasanoutcome


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forpre-serviceteachers.Assuch,thepresentstudystrivestoidentifypredictorsofteacherbeliefs.

Factors Likely to Predict Beliefs Personality.Teachingrequiresnotonlytheabilitytoteachlessons,butalsoanunderstandingoftherulesandroutinesoftheschoolculture,theabilitytocol-laboratewithothereducationprofessionals,andanawarenessofthecommunitiesinwhichoneteaches(e.g.,Sikula,Buttery,&Guyton,1996).Peoplearehighlyvariableinthedegreetowhichtheycanmeetthesemulti-leveldemands.Personalitycharacteristicsarelikelytobeimportantpredictorsofthisability. Investigatingthepersonalitiesofteachersisnotanovelidea,althoughmostinquiriesarenotrecent(Feshbach,1969;Getzels&Jackson,1963;Victor,1976).AqualitativeinvestigationbyWitty(1947)wasconductedintocharacteristicsofteachersthatstudentsfelthadbeenmosthelpful.Throughanalysisof12,000lettersfromstudentsingrades2-12,Wittyfound12characteristicsmentionedconsistently.Theseincludedflexibility,varyinginterests,cooperativeattitudes,andinterestinthestudents’problems.KenneyandKenny(1982),throughadministrationofCattel’sSixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire,compared50femaleteacherswith43femaleschoollibrariansandfoundthatteachersweremoreanxious,conscientious,dutiful,andpractical.Othershavealsosuggestedthatcertaincharacter(tempera-ment)typesmoreoftenentertheteachingprofession.Forexample,KeirseyandBates(1984)suggestthatteacherstendtobethoseindividualsthatarepracticalandconscientious,orinnovativeandcomfortablewithvalue/emotion-ladenjudgmentsasmeasuredbytheKeirseyTemperamentSorter. Personalityresearchhasexperiencedashiftsincetheseearlierstudieswereconducted.Thegreatestchangehasbeen theacceptanceof theBigFivefactormodelofpersonality (John&Srivastava,1999)whichplacespersonality traitsintofivecategories:Neuroticism(anxious,self-conscious),Extraversion(talkative,social),OpennesstoExperience(independent,curious),Agreeableness(altruistic,sympathetic),andConscientiousness(determined,reliable).Thesenewdevelop-mentshavenotbeenreflectedinresearchonteachers. Amongthemostcommontoolsforassessing thefive-factormodelofper-sonalityaretheNEOPersonalityInventory(NEO-PI)andtheNEO-FiveFactorInventory(NEO-FFI),thelatterofwhichisusedherein.Sincethewideuseofthefive-factormodelofpersonality,workonpre-serviceteacherpersonalitieshasnotbeenrevisitedandthus,thecurrentinvestigationrepresentsafirstexploratorystep.Specifically,weexaminewhichpersonalityattributesrelatetopre-serviceteacherbeliefs.Indoingso,itbecomescriticaltocontrolforotherfactorssuchasage,gender,ethnicity,teachingprogram,teachingplans,andexperiencethathavebeenlinkedtoteacherbeliefs. Demographic characteristics and attributes.Age,gender,andethnicitycon-tributetobeliefsthatpre-serviceteachershold(Richardson,1996).Inastudyof


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Turkishpre-serviceteachers,Celep(2000)foundolderteachershadgreaterself-confidenceinabilitytomotivatestudentsandheldmorepositiveviewsofstudents’willingness to learn thanyounger teachers.Minor,Onwuegbuzie,Witcher,andJames(2002)foundthatmenweretwoandahalftimesmorelikelytoendorsesubjectknowledgeasmoreimportantforeffectiveteachingthanwomenandminor-itypre-serviceteachersweremorelikelytoendorseenthusiasmforteachingoverknowledgeofsubjectasmoreimportant. Othercharacteristicsofindividualsmaycontributetoteacherbeliefs;levelofeducation,thelevelthepre-serviceteacherplanstoteach(elementaryormiddle/high),previousteachingexperience,andwhetherornotteachingisonlyafirststeptoanothercareerareafewexamples.Further,beliefsmaybeaffectedbypersonalexperiencesandsocialhistories.Doyle(1997)foundthatviewsofteachingandlearningchangedfrommorepassivetomoreactiveactsofteachingdependingontheyearsspentinaneducationprogram.Numerousstudiesshowdifferentbeliefprofilesdependingonwhetherthepre-serviceteacherplanstoteachatelementaryormiddleandhighschoollevels(Book&Freeman,1986;Rimm-Kaufman,Storm,Sawyer,Pianta,&LaParo,2006).Also,havingexperienceintheclassroommaystronglyinfluenceteacherbeliefs.Aftergaining‘realworld’experienceanindividualmayhavehadsomeoftheirpreconceivedbeliefschallengedandmodifiedduetothatchallenge(Brousseau,Book,&Byers,1988;Swanson,O’Connor,Cooney,1990).Finally,ifanindividualseesteachingasmerelyafirststeptoanothercareergoal,theymayhavedifferentbeliefsthananindividualwhoviewsteachingasalong-termgoal.Wetakethesefactorsintoconsideration.

Research Questions Weaddressedthreeresearchquestions.First,whatarethebeliefsaboutteachingamongpre-serviceteachers?Wehypothesizedvariabilityinbeliefs,butexpectedtoseemorestudentthanteacher-centeredbeliefs(Minor,etal.,2002).Second,whatarethepersonalitycharacteristicsofpre-serviceteachers?Wehypothesizedthatpre-serviceteachersscoredifferentlyfromanaveragesampleoftheircollege-agepeersbecausetheysharetheintenttobecometeachers.Third,inwhatwaysdoper-sonalityfactorsandotherpre-serviceteacherdemographicsandattributes,predictbeliefsaboutteaching?Wehypothesizedthatpersonalitycharacteristicswouldbepredictiveofpre-serviceteacherbeliefs,evenafteraccountingfordemographicvariablesandotherattributes.

Methods

Participants Participantswere397pre-serviceteachersenrolledintheteachereducationprogramattheUniversityofVirginia;288wereenrolledinafive-yearteacheredu-cationprogramand109wereenrolledinatwo-yearmasterofteachingprogram.


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All pre-service teachers enrolled in a requiredLearning and Developmentcourseoverthreeyearswereinvitedtoparticipate.Pre-serviceteachersweregiventhechoiceofparticipatinginthestudyorcompletingapaperforcoursecredit.Ofthe476pre-serviceteachersenrolled,90.8%chosetoparticipate,yieldingasampleof432.Threehundred-eightwerecurrentlyenrolledinthefive-yearteachereducationprogramandinthethirdyearofstudy,while124wereinthefirstyearofatwo-yearmastersofteachingprogram. Tostrengthengeneralizability,33individuals2SDabove/belowthemeanforage,yearsoffull-timeteachingexperience,andyearsasateachingassistant,wereeliminatedfromthestudy(Tabachnick&Fidell,2001).Twoparticipantswerealsoexcludedbecausetheyalreadyhadamaster’sdegree.Thefinalsamplewascomprisedof397participants(288inafive-yearprogram,109inatwo-yearmastersprogram). Thefinalsamplewascomprisedof323femalesand74males,332ofwhomwereCaucasianwithanaverageageof21.20(SD=2.20).Themajority(79%;n=312)hadnoformalteachingexperiencepriortoschool.Becausesofewparticipantswereofethnicminorityorhadteachingexperience,ethnicityandteachingexperiencearedichotomous.

Design and Procedures Datawerecollectedoverthreeyears(02-04).Pre-serviceteacherswereinvitedtoparticipateduringthefirst7weeksofthesemesterbyathirdpartyinvestigator(whowasnottheinstructor).Participantscompletedthreemeasures;astudentde-mographicquestionnaire,theNEOFive-FactorInventory,andtheTeacherBeliefsQ-sort(TBQ).

Measures Demographic questionnaire.This18-itemquestionnaireassesseddemographiccharacteristicsincludingage,gender,ethnicity,yearsofformalandinformalteachingexperience,andtheleveltheyplantoteach(elementaryormiddle/highschool). NEO Five-Factor Inventory(NEO-FFI).Thismeasureassessedpersonalitybasedonafive-factormodel(CostaandMcCrae,1992).This60-itemversionoftheNEOPersonalityInventory(NEO-PI-R)assesses:neuroticism(N;“Ioftenfeelinferiortoothers”),extroversion(E;“Ireallyenjoytalkingtopeople”),openness(O;“Ihavealotofintellectualcuriosity”),agreeableness(A;“Igenerallytrytobethoughtfulandconsiderate”),andconscientiousness(C;“IstriveforexcellenceineverythingIdo”).Studentsrespondedona5-pointscalerangingfromstrongly disagreetostrongly agree. Teacher Beliefs Q-sort(TBQ).TheQ-sortexercisewasusedtoassessthepar-ticipants’beliefsaboutthreecategories:(1)beliefsandprioritiesaboutdisciplineandbehaviormanagement,(2)beliefsandprioritiesaboutclassroompractices,and(3)beliefsaboutchildren.TheTBQ(Rimm-Kaufmanetal.,2006)consistsofthree,20-itemQ-sortexercises,oneeachtothecategorieslistedabove.ForeachQ-sort,


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fiveanchorcards (ranging from“least characteristic” to“mostcharacteristic”ofbeliefs)and20statementcardswereprovided.Participantswereaskedtoplaceonly4statementcardsundereachanchorcard,forcingprioritizationofthestatements.

Results Descriptivestatistics(means,standarddeviations)andcorrelationcoefficientswerecomputedforallvariables.Thesummativemethod(Burt,1940;Block,1961)andafactoranalysis(principalcomponentsanalysisusingvarimaxrotation)wereconductedonallthreeQ-sets.Aparallelanalysis(O’Connor,2000)wasconducted(settingp=.05)todeterminethenumberoffactors.T-testsandeffectsizes(Cohen’sd)werealsocalculatedfortheNEO-FFIcompositesusingthenormativesamplepresentedbyCostaandMcCrae(1992).Thenormativesampleconsistedof389collegestudentsfromages17-20.Onehundredandthirty(40malesand90fe-males)werefromaCanadiansampleand259(108malesand151females)werefromtheSoutheasternUnitedStates.Finally,fourthree-stepregressionanalyseswerecomputedtoaccountforvarianceinthefollowingpre-serviceteacherbelieffactorswhichweregeneratedfromthefactoranalysis.

Description of Beliefs of Pre-service Teachers ThesummativemethoddescribedthemostandleastcommonbeliefsoneachofthethreeQ-sortsets(seeTable1).Thepre-serviceteachersexpressedaveryproactiveapproachtodiscipline,emphasizedpracticesdirectedtowardstudents’metacognitivegrowth,reflectedconcernforthesocialexperienceofchildren,andemphasizedchildren’sactiveinvolvementintheirownlearning. The factor analysis revealed four factors describing teacher priorities: (1)teacher-centeredclassroomenvironment,(2)implicitstructures/focusonprocess,(3)teacher-directedinstruction,and(4)negativeviewofstudents’motivation(SeeTable2forfactorloadingsandcommunalities).Factors1,2,3,and4werefoundtohavecorrespondingCronbach’salphasof .63, .65, .66,and .65, respectively.AlthoughtheCronbach’salphasareonthelowside,theseareconsideredaccept-ablegiventhe“forcedchoice”natureoftheTBQ.Assuch,onlyfourcardscanbegroupedineachcategory.Forexample,only4statementscanberatedashighestpriority,andsoforth.

Personality Characteristics T-testsshowpre-serviceteachersscoredhigheronallfivefactorscomparedtothenormedsample.(TwoparticipantshadmissingdataontheNEO-FFIandwerenotincludedinthefollowinganalyses.)Comparedtoanormativesampleoftheirpeers,thepre-serviceteachersscoredhigherontheneuroticismscale(t=12.79,p<.001,d=.93).Assuch,theyappearedtobemoreanxious(“Ioftenfeeltenseandjittery”)andself-conscious(“Ioftenfeelinferiortoothers”)thananormativesample.


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Table 1.Description of Pre-Service Teachers’ Lowest and Highest Itemson the Teacher Belief Q-Sort.

Q1: Beliefs and Priorities about Discipline and Behavior Management

• Low: o Peer interactions are best left to recess and snack time. o Students learn best in primarily teacher-directed classrooms. o Extrinsic rewards for desirable behavior (e.g., stickers, candy bars) undermine student’s motivation; it’s better not to give such rewards at all. o The curriculum and class schedule need to be prioritized over students’ specific interests.

• High: o Classroom rules should be discussed and posted. o When students are engaged in interesting problems and challenging activities, they tend to have very few discipline problems. o A classroom runs smoothly when there are clear expectations for behavior. o If I treat students with respect, kindness, and concern, there are less behavior problems.

Q2: Beliefs and Priorities about Classroom Practices

• Low: o Using hand signals. o Discussing a written announcement or message created by the teacher. o Using drill and recitation for factual information (math facts, etc.). o Using work sheets.

• High: o Doing an activity to create a sense of community. o Modeling behaviors for students. o Encouraging students and giving feedback that focuses on the process of students’ creations or thinking, not the outcomes or the solutions. o Reflecting on the content of an academic lesson and talking about what we learned.

Q3: Beliefs about Students

• Low: o Students seldom take care of their materials if they are not supervised. o Some students show little desire to learn. o Many of the students in my class try to get away with doing as little work as possible. o Almost all students are equally likeable and enjoyable.

• High: o Students should feel as though they are “known” and “recognized” in the classroom. o Students meet challenges best when they feel that their teachers care about them. o Students need to feel safe and secure in the classroom. o Students learn best by being actively involved in lessons.


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Table 2.Factor Loadings for Four-Factor Solution of the 60-item TBQon Pre-Service Teacher Beliefs.

Item Factor Communality Loading

Factor 1: Teacher-Centered Classroom EnvironmentStudents must be kept busy doing activities or they soon get into trouble. .35 .16When students are engaged in interesting problems and challenging activities, they tend to have very few discipline problems. -.31 .15Peer interactions are best left to recess and snack time. .54 .34The curriculum and class schedule need to be prioritized over students’ specific interests. .33 .15Students learn best in primarily teacher-directed classrooms. .47 .31If I treat students with respect, kindness, and concern, there are fewer behavior problems. -.52 .32Using hand signals. .36 .15Students should feel as though they are “known” and “recognized” in the classroom. -.32 .11Students seldom take care of their materials if they are not supervised. .52 .36Students need to feel safe and secure in the classroom. -.36 .21Students learn best by being actively involved in lessons. -.45 .25

Factor 2: Implicit Practices/Focus on ProcessThe primary goal in dealing with students’ behavior is to establish and maintain control. -.35 .25A noisy classroom is okay as long as all the students are being productive. .32 .19A classroom runs smoothly when there are clear expectations for behavior. -.43 .28Classroom rules should be discussed and posted. -.35 .20It is important to respect students’ autonomy and expect them to act in a responsible manner. .41 .31Students should try to solve conflicts on their own before going to the teacher. .30 .11Rules for the students’ classroom behavior need to be reinforced consistently. -.42 .20Having a morning routine. -.58 .37Talking about our plan or schedule for the day. -.38 .15Having at least a few students share something that has happened to them. .35 .16Conducting the business of the classroom (e.g. collecting lunch or milk money) following a set routine. -.53 .33


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Reflecting and talking about something, such as a social interaction, that “worked” or “didn’t work” in our class. .42 .21Encouraging students and giving feedback that focuses on the process of students’ creations or thinking, not the outcomes or the solutions. .35 .19

Factor 3: Teacher-Directed InstructionDoing an activity to create a sense of community. -.40 .20Using drill and recitation for factual information (math facts, etc.). .49 .36Modeling behaviors for students. -.32 .22Using work sheets. .46 .34Permitting students to choose from a variety of activities. -.51 .33Using whole group instruction. .37 .26Students need some choice of activities within the classroom. -.51 .30Students need to work on skills at which they are not good, even if it means giving them fewer choices. .39 .18Students need opportunities to be creative in the classroom. -.31 .25

Factor 4: Negative view of students’ motivationAlmost all children in my class try their best. -.56 .42Many of the students in my class try to get away with doing as little work as possible. .60 .45Almost all students are equally likeable and enjoyable. -.59 .37Most students respect teachers and authority. -.40 .33Some students show little desire to learn. .63 .46Students are more motivated by grades than they are by the acquisition of competence. .57 .42

Note. N = 371. Total percent variance accounted for is 20.76%.

Table 2 (Continued)

Item Factor Communality Loading


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Pre-serviceteacherswerehigherinextraversionthananormativesample(t=33.71,p<.001,d=2.45).Assuch,theydescribedthemselvesasmorewarm(“Ireallyenjoytalkingtopeople”)andexcitementseeking(“Iliketobewheretheactionis”).Comparedtoanormativesampleoftheirpeers,pre-serviceteach-ersscoredhigheronopenness(t=32.98,p<.001,d=2.40).Forexample,theydescribedthemselvesasmoreopentonovelactions(“Ioftentrynewandforeignfoods”)andhavingmoreopenideas(“Ioftenenjoyplayingwiththeoriesorabstractideas”)thantheircounterparts. Pre-serviceteachersweremoreagreeablethanthenormativesample(t=43.23,p<.001,d=3.15).Theyweremorealtruistic(“ItrytobecourteoustoeveryoneImeet”)andlesstrusting(“Ibelievethatmostpeoplewilltakeadvantageofyouifyouletthem”). Finally,thepre-serviceteachersscoredhigherthanthenormativesampleonconscientiousness(t=31.38,p<.001,d=2.28).Theydescribedthemselvesasmoreachievementstriving(“IstriveforexcellenceineverythingIdo”)andself-disciplined (“I’mprettygoodaboutpacingmyself soas toget thingsdoneontime”).Effectsizesacrosspersonalityscaleswerealllargeinsize.

Predictors of Beliefs and Priorities Four three-stepregressionanalyseswereconducted;oneforeachteacherbelief factor.Participantswere included ifdatawerecomplete, resulting inasampleof357. Thesameapproachwasusedforallfourthree-stepregressionanalyses.Thefirststep,tocontrolforinherentdemographicdifferencesconsistedof:ageoftheparticipant,gender(0=maleand1=female),andethnicity(0=non-Caucasianand1=Caucasian).Thesecondstepconsistedofpre-serviceteacherattributestoaccountforuniquevariancethatmaybeattributedtosuchattributes:program(0=five-yearteachereducationprogramand1=two-yearmastersofteachingpro-gram),teachingexperience(0=noexperienceand1=anyexperience),leveltheparticipantplanstoteach(1=elementaryand2=middle/high),andteachingasafirststeptoanothercareer(0=noand1=yes).Thethirdstepconsistedofscoresforeachofthefivepersonalitycomposites:neuroticism,extraversion,openness,agreeableness,andconscientiousness.Table3includesthefindingsofeachthree-stepregressionanalysis. Thefirstbelieffactorwasteacher-centeredclassroomenvironment.Genderwasfoundtobesignificant.Malepre-serviceteachersweremorelikelytoendorseateacher-centeredclassroomenvironmentthanfemalepre-serviceteachers.Thismodelexplained7%ofthevariance. Fourpredictorswerefoundtopredictimplicitstructures/focusonprocess,amodelexplaining28%ofthevariance.Pre-serviceteacherswhowerenon-Cau-casian,male,moreopen,and/orlessconscientiousweremorelikelytoendorseimplicitstructures(“Itisimportanttorespectstudents’autonomyandexpectthem


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Table 3.Three-Step Regression Analyses Predicting Pre-Service Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices.

Dependent and Block Change Independent Variables F Significance in R2 Beta t Significance

Teacher-Centered Classroom:Step 1: Demographic 4.47 .004 .04 Age -.05 -1.29 n.s. Gender (male=0, female=1) -.43 2.81 .005 Ethnicity (non-Caucasian=0, Caucasian=1) -.05 -.33 n.s.Step 2: Attributes 2.48 .017 .01 Program (BA or MA) .08 .40 n.s. Experience in Classroom -.19 -1.44 n.s. Level (ES or MS/HS) -.13 -1.09 n.s. Teaching as 1st career step -.02 -.16 n.s.Step 3: Personality 2.26 .009 .03 Neuroticism .00 .15 n.s. Extraversion -.01 -1.38 n.s. Openness -.01 -.88 n.s. Agreeableness -.02 -1.59 n.s. Conscientiousness .01 .95 n.s.

Implicit Practices/Process:Step 1: Demographic 11.61 .000 .09 Age .02 .64 n.s. Gender (male=0, female=1) -.35 -2.59 .010 Ethnicity (non-Caucasian=0, Caucasian=1) -.34 -2.57 .011 Step 2: Attributes 6.25 .000 .02 Program (BA or MA) -.11 -.66 n.s. Experience in Classroom -.03 -.23 n.s. Level (ES or MS/HS) .18 1.79 n.s. Teaching as 1st career step .05 .43 n.s.Step 3: Personality 11.02 .000 .17 Neuroticism -.01 -1.29 n.s. Extraversion .02 1.82 n.s. Openness .03 4.28 .000 Agreeableness -.01 -.79 n.s. Conscientiousness -.05 -6.15 .000

Teacher-Directed Instruction:Step 1: Demographic 2.57 n.s. .02 Age -.01 -.19 n.s. Gender (male=0, female=1) -.26 -1.76 n.s. Ethnicity (non-Caucasian=0, Caucasian=1) .15 1.01 n.s.

(Table continued on next page)


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Table 3 (continued)

Dependent and Block Change Independent Variables F Significance in R2 Beta t Significance

Step 2: Attributes 2.87 .006 .03 Program (BA or MA) -.16 -.86 n.s. Experience in Classroom -.09 -.68 n.s. Level (ES or MS/HS) .43 3.94 .000 Teaching as 1st career step -.10 -.75 n.s.Step 3: Personality 3.52 .000 .06 Neuroticism .00 .05 n.s. Extraversion -.00 -.17 n.s. Openness -.03 -3.65 .000 Agreeableness .01 .46 n.s. Conscientiousness .02 1.77 n.s.

Negative View of Student:Step 1: Demographic 4.73 .003 .04 Age -.09 2.28 .023 Gender (male=0, female=1) -.14 -.99 n.s. Ethnicity (non-Caucasian=0, Caucasian=1) .07 .49 n.s.Step 2: Attributes 7.42 .000 .09 Program (BA or MA) .23 1.25 n.s. Experience in Classroom -.12 -.95 n.s. Level (ES or MS/HS) .61 5.64 .000 Teaching as 1st career step -.02 -.12 n.s.Step 3: Personality 5.45 .000 .03 Neuroticism .01 .69 n.s. Extraversion -.01 -.95 n.s. Openness .00 .33 n.s. Agreeableness -.02 -1.75 n.s. Conscientiousness -.01 -1.29 n.s.


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toactinaresponsiblemanner.”)andprocess(“Encouragingstudentsandgivingfeedbackthatfocusesontheprocessesofstudents’creationsorthinking,nottheoutcomesorthesolutions”). Twopredictorswerefoundtorelatetoteacher-directedinstruction.Pre-serviceteachersweremorelikelytoendorseteacher-directedinstructioniftheyplannedtoteachmiddleorhighschoolratherthanelementaryand/orwerelessopen.Thismodelexplained11%ofthevarianceinthisfactor. Thereweretwosignificantpredictorsofthefourthbelieffactor,negativeviewofstudents’motivation,amodelexplaining16%ofthevariance.Pre-serviceteach-erswhowereyoungerand/orwereplanningformiddleorhighschoolplacementsrather thanelementaryweremore likely to endorsenegativeviewsconcerningstudents’motivation.

Discussion Thepresentstudyinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenpre-serviceteacherbe-liefsandpersonalattributeswiththreefindingsemerging.First,pre-serviceteacherspresentedbeliefprofilesthatmatch‘bestpractices’(Brophy,1999).Second,pre-serviceteacherswerefoundtobemuchhigherthanasampleoftheircollege-agedcounterpartswithrespecttoallfivepersonalityfactors:neuroticism,extraversion,opennesstoexperience,agreeableness,andconscientiousness.Finally,personalattributesandpersonalitiespredictedfacetsofpre-serviceteachers’beliefs.Mostimportantforteachereducationprogramsarefindingsrelatedtobeliefsconcerningimplicitstructure,openness,andconscientiousness.Pre-serviceteacherswhoreportbeingmoreopenand/orlessconscientiouspreferimplicitapproachestomanagingtheirclassrooms.Inotherwords,pre-serviceteachersweremoreconcernedwithstudentautonomyandlesswithmaintainingclassroomcontrol. Thisstudyaddstocurrentknowledgeconcerningpre-serviceteacherbeliefsandpersonalitycharacteristicsandsuggeststheusefulnessofpersonalityasapo-tentialinterveningvariableinassessingtherelationbetweenteacherpreparationandteachereffectiveness(Cochran-Smith,2006;Wineburg,2006).Ourfindingscomeatatimewhenthereisapushforteacheraccountabilityinschoolsandteachereducationprogramsalike,andsuggestaneedforcontinuedemphasisindifferen-tiatingourteachereducationprograms.Ultimately,futureworkinthisdirectionmayofferinsightintothepersonalitiesofthosewhostudytheteachingprofessionandthepersonalityandbeliefprofilesthatcontributetohighqualityinstructionorcontinuedcommitmenttotheteachingfield.

Profile of Pre-service Teacher Beliefs Pre-serviceteachers’beliefsconcerningdisciplineandbehaviormanagement,classroompractices,andchildrenshowthatpre-serviceteachersprioritizestrate-giesconsistentwithbestpractices(Brophy,1999).Overall,pre-serviceteachers


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endorsedproactiveapproachestodiscipline,emphasizedcreatingasenseofcom-munityandbelieveditimportanttosupportmetacognitivegrowthinclassrooms.Further,pre-service teachersheldpositiveviewsof children.Past researchhasconnected proactive strategies concerning discipline to children’s achievementoutcomes(Brophy&Good,1986;Wang,Haertel,&Walberg,1993)andevidenceshowsmoreproactivemanagementapproachesearlyintheyearcanincreasetheefficiencyofclassroomsmuchlater(Cameron,Connor,&Morrison,2005).Pre-viousliteraturealsosuggeststhatsupportivelearningcommunitiesthatallowforthoughtfulparticipationarethosewhichstudentslearnbest(Connell&Wellborn,1991).Takentogether,thebeliefsfoundhereareconsistentwithpracticesshowntobeimportantforpromotingchildren’sgrowthanddevelopment.

Personalities of Pre-service Teachers Perhapsthemostnotablefindingisthatpre-serviceteacherswerehigheronallfivepersonalityfacetscomparedtoanormativesample.Alldifferenceswerelargeinmagnitude.Ourfindingsshowthatpre-serviceteacherswerehighinextraversion,openness,andagreeableness,allcharacteristicslikelytobebeneficialforpeopleenteringintoaprofessionrequiringflexibility,abilitytogetalongwithothers,andhighlevelsofsocialinteraction,showingconsistencywithdesirablequalitiesinteacherpreparation. Pre-serviceteachersalsoratedhigherthannationalnormsonconscientiousnessandneuroticism.Neuroticismreflectsindividualswhoarenervousandconcernedabouttheirabilitytosucceedinrelationtoothers.Conscientiousnessreflectsindividualsthataregoalorientedandstriveforexcellence.Takentogether,thesefindingsarenotsurprisingconsideringthesamplewaswellabovenationalnormsforachievement.Asevidence,oursamplehadacombinedSATof1279;muchhigherthanthenationalaverageof1020amongstudentsenteringcollegeduringthesametimeperiod(CollegeBoard,2002).Further,thesepre-serviceteacherswerealsopursuingateachingdegreeatauniversityandeducationschool(topteachereducationprogram)withrigorousselectionprocesses.Pre-serviceteacherseducatingthemselvesinsuchcompetitivesettingsmaybemorelikelytoexperiencefeelingsofstressandinferioritywhilecompetingwithsomanyotherhighperformingindividuals. Eventhoughthesamplescoredhigherthanthenormativesample,differencesalsoexistedwithinthepre-servicegroup.Elementaryschoolpre-serviceteach-ersweremoreagreeableandconscientiousthanmiddleandhighschoolteachers.Middle and high school pre-service teachers were more open than elementaryschoolteachers.Otherstudieshaveshowndifferencesinattributesbetweenteach-ersteachinglowerandhighergrades(Hargreaves,2000;Munthe,2001),andthisstudyisconsistentwithsuchwork.

Predictors of Pre-service Teacher Beliefs Pre-serviceteacherswhoreportbeingmoreopenand/orlessconscientious


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prefermoreimplicitapproachestomanagingtheirclassrooms.Specifically,theyweremoreconcernedwithstudentautonomyandlessconcernedwithmaintainingcontrolintheclassroom(evenaftercontrollingforgenderandethnicity).Theirratingssuggestedthatsuchthingsasclearexpectationsforbehavior,havinganddiscussingroutines,andthenecessityofreinforcingrulesforbehaviorwerelessimportantthanreflection,sharing,andrespectingstudentautonomy. Thereareimplicationsofthisfindingforteacherpreparation.Noviceteachersoftenfeeltheyareunpreparedindisciplineandbehaviormanagement(Martin&Baldwin,1996;Pilarksi,1994).Existingresearchsuggeststhatpre-serviceteachers,especiallythoseearlyintraining,emphasizenurturanceandrelaxedapproachestoclassroommanagementoverhighlydisciplinedclassroomsetting(File&Gullo,2002;Hollingsworth,1989).Ourworkextendsthesefindingsandsuggeststhatnotallpre-serviceteachers,butrather,thosewithparticularpersonalityprofiles(thoseloweronconscientiousnessandhigheronopenness)aremorelikelytoshowthesebeliefprofiles.Thepresentfindingssuggestthatnegotiationoftensionsbetweenfosteringchildren’sselfcontrolandbeingexplicitintheirdirectionsmaybemoreproblematicwhenteachersarelessconscientiousandmoreopeninpersonalitystyle.Thus,itmaybeimportanttooffermoreopenandlessconscientiousstudentsa‘doubledose’ofinstructioninclassroommanagementtoensuretheyunderstandandcanapplythefundamentalsofmanagementtechniques.Thisisjustoneexampleofhowknowledgeofindividualdifferencesamongpre-serviceteacherscanguideeffortstodifferentiateinstructionandtailorteacherpreparationtomeetpre-serviceteachers’individualneeds. Intendedteachinglevel(elementaryorsecondary)alsopredictedtwoofthefourbeliefconstructs.First,secondarypre-serviceteachersweremorelikelythanelementarypre-serviceteacherstoprioritizeteacher-directedinstruction.Assuch,theseteachersweremorelikelytousemoredrillandrecitationandchoosetoworkontheirstudents‘weak’areasratherthanprovideactivitychoice.Thesefindingsparallelacritiqueoftraditionalteachereducationprograms.Darling-Hammond(1999)suggeststhatelementarypreparationisweakinsubjectmatterwhilesecond-arypreparationisweakinknowledgeaboutlearners.Thus,pre-serviceteachersplanningtoteachmiddleorhighschoolgradesmaybemorefocusedoncontentandacquisitionofknowledgebystudentsratherthanalternativemethodsofteaching.Asaresult,theymayresorttotraditional,teacher-directedmethodsofinstruction. Another,andperhapsmorepronounced,findingwasthatpre-serviceteach-erswhowereyoungerand/orplanningonteachingmiddle/highschoolheldmorenegativebeliefsaboutstudents.Thisisnotablegivenexistingworklinkingteachers’negativeperceptionsofchildrenandlong-termdetrimentaloutcomes(Croninger&Lee,2001).Pre-serviceteachersmaybetakingaperspectivethatreflectstheirownmiddleandhighschoolyears,atimewhichadolescentsusuallyexperiencedeclinesineducationalmotivationandanincreaseinproductevaluation(Ander-man&Maehr,1994;Lepper,Sethi,Dialdin,&Drake,1997).Thenegativeregard


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whichsecondarypre-serviceteachersholdadolescentsisconcerninginlightofthepotencyofteachers’relationshipswithadolescentsinbufferingstressandproducingsuccessfullearning(Croninger&Lee,2001). Thesefindingssuggestaneedsdisparitybetweenelementaryandsecondarypre-serviceteachers.Inrelationtoelementarypre-serviceteachers,some(e.g.,thoselowinconscientiousnessand/orhighinopenness)mayneedmoreeducationthanothersinmeetingchildren’sneedsforclassroomstructure,disciplineandroutine.Ontheotherhand,middleandhighschoolpre-serviceteachersmaybenefitfrommoreeducationaltimedevotedtocare(Noddings,1999),developmentofsocialcommunities(Battistich,Schaps,&Wilson,2004),anddevelopmentalneedsofadolescentswhereasthesetopicsmaybelessessentialforthoseplanningtoteachelementarychildren.Takentogether,ourworksuggestsamorediscriminateandtailoredapproachtoinstructionmaybettermeetneedsofpre-serviceteachers,ahypothesisinneedofrigoroustesting.

Limitations Threelimitationsrequiremention.First,theNEO-FFIhasneverbeforebeenusedwithagroupofteachers(pre-serviceorin-service).Futureresearchemploy-ing exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with samples of pre-serviceteacherswouldsolidifytheusefulnessofthismeasureforsuchagroup.Second,thestudywouldhavebeenstrengthenedwithamorecloselymatchedcomparisongroup.Finally,throughthecurrentstudyweseecongruencebetweenbeliefsandrecommendedpractices,buttheabilitytoexaminewhatteachersareactuallydo-inginthefieldisbeyondthescopeofthisstudyandisaquestionrequiringfurtherexamination.

Future Research Thispaperrepresentsafirststepinexaminingpersonalityandbeliefsinpre-service teachers, but the need exists for future research examining personalitystructures. For example, do personality characteristics differ between studentsmajoringineducationversusacontentarea?Aretheredifferencesinpersonalitybetweenstudentsenrolledineducationschoolsversusstudentswhoselectalterna-tiveteachingprogramssuchasTeachforAmerica?Aretherepersonalityqualitiesthatarebeneficialduringyearsofteacherpreparationbutdonotmatchdemandsassociatedwiththechangingdefinitionsofprofessionalismineducation?Futurestudiesexaminingthesequestionsandextendingthiswork(e.g.,howpersonalityqualitieslinktoteachersactualbehaviors)constituteimportantnextsteps.Rigorousresearchinthisareamayleadtoamoretailoredapproachtoteachereducationandultimately,higherqualityinstruction.


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