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Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1983, 25, 97-1 16
REVIEWS OF SCANDINAVIAN PSYCHOLOGY I I
Person a I it y and d eve I o p m en t a I psych o I o g y
JAN-ERIK RUTH and PER SCHULTZ J0RGENSEN Kunrokallio Insritute, Finland and Danish Narional Institute of Social Research, Denmark
Ruth, J.-E. & Jgrgensen, P. S.: Reviews of Scandinavian psychology 11: Personality and developmental psychology. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 1984, 25, 97-1 16.
Research on personality and developmental psychology in Scandinavia in the seventies is presented according to what are considered important and significant research interests. Such interests are defined primarily from the viewpoint of general trends in society. e.g. research on infancy and preschool children and research on old age. Other interests are defined from an almost purely theoretical viewpoint. This applies to research from an interactional perspective. Future research in this branch of psychology seems to place priority on a methodological approach based upon external validity and the use of multidi- mensional models. As to the theoretical frame of reference, future research points to conceptualizations of the influence of society on structure, process and development of personality . Jon-Erik Ruth, Gerontological Research Unit, The Kuntokallio Institute, SF-01100 Osrersun- dom, Finland.
INTRODUCTION: RESEARCH TRENDS
The 1970s can be characterized as a period of debate concerning the role of psychological research in the Scandinavian countries. Earlier psychological research was often related to psycho-technics or psycho-diagnostic endeavour and based upon testing or laboratory experimentation, but during the seventies a tendency to include socio-psychological or even socio-political variables can be seen. The action research and invention research paradigm combined with the neo-positivistic criticism affected psychological research as well as the applications of psychology in society. Psychological research without apparent applied possibilities was considered less fruitful. The questions most often asked were: “What purpose does this psychological activity serve?” or: “Who will benefit from this type of psychology?”
In the psychology of child development, this debate led to a reduced interest in test construction and standardisation and the focus of research was shifted towards effects of different modes of child care or the influcences of different social conditions on the psychological development of the child.
Within adult developmental psychology the new trends emphasized research on working life conditions, life quality, the effects on personality of non-employment and dimensions of welfare. And this research scope included challenges from the increasing number of elderly people in society.
The research trends in the 1970s, especially concerning personality and child develop- ment, might be summarized as follows:
- From reductionism toward pluralism. That means the appearance of new research paradigms, e.g. paradigms rooted in materialism, interactionism and existentialism.
- From quantitative descriptions t o qualitative understanding of the variables studied. The awareness of the restrictions of ready-made questiorinaires and tests has led to the use of more subject centered and softer methods.
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98 J . - E . Ruth and P . S . J4rgensen Scand J Psychoi 25 (1984)
- From internal validity toward external validity. That means more weight upon real life studies and results which may prove useful to society.
- From child psychology toward life-span psychology. Developmental psychology has been widened to issues of middle and old age and the use of longitudinal designs is becoming more common.
- From a purely psychological approach toward an interdisciplinary approach. That means an interest in adopting viewpoints from e.g. sociology and linguistics and the intention of creating a truly comprehensive psychology.
This debate, along with a gradual development of a new research climate, has taken place in all the Scandinavian countries, but in the context of different theoretical tradi- tions.
In Denmark the phenomenological roots are still alive, as they were established at the Psychological Laboratory of the University of Copenhagen under the leadership of Edgar Rubin. The so-called Copenhagen School emphazises the phenomenological description and at the same time takes its starting point in experience. That means that the subject has to describe as precisely as he can the experience that is present to him and not what he knows about it. On this basis From (English edition 1971) studied the perception of other people from the viewpoint of appearing meaning or intention, and Hviid (1972) investigat- ed the reactions of non-handicapped persons towards persons with different types of facial defects. The latest study within this tradition (Jergensen, 1983) is an experimental investi- gation of the social relationship in the opening stage of a conversation between two strangers.
This phenomenological approach is primarily methodological in its orientation and in the seventies has been supplemented by different metatheoretical orientations (e.g. Marxist sc hook) .
In Norway the approach established in the seventies may be termed communicative. That means an approach which underlines meaning-structure. the taken for granted logic of everyday life and language. This approach is formulated most radically by Smedslund (1%9, 1972) who argues that psychology must be based on a common sense understand- ing. Therefore, he says, psychological laws are relative and founded in the context of existing culture. Saugstad (1977, 1980) aiming at an integration of different concepts of language and psychology, outlines a comprehensive and epistemologically based approach for the study of both communication and psychology. Rommetveit (1968, 1974) analyses the message structure in communication from a social-cognitive viewpoint and relies in his conceptual framework on both linguistic and psychological theories. This framework is applied in empirical investigations carried out by Wold (1978) and Blakar (for an overview, see Rommetveit & Blakar. 1979; Blakar, 1980). Blakar develops a particular expenmental method, where the prerequisites for communication can be manipulated. Within this set- up he studies strategies for conflict resolution employed by different groups of subjects.
In Finland a research paradigm integrating psychological and sociological approaches concerning family and personality development has been initiated by Takala and cowork- ers (IW, 1978, 1980). In these life-process studies, the activities of the family members, the interaction within the family and the socialization process are studied through the life- style concept, where time-mapping has been a commonly used research instrument. Studies based on time-budgets have limitations when the results take the form of descrip- tions of behaviour, excluding the psychological meaning and complex interaction between variables. Takala, however, has formulated a broader scope for these studies aiming at the sequential structure of social acts.
In Joensuu Hayrynen (1977, 1980, 1982) has designed the concept of “macropsycho-
Scand J Psycho1 25 (1984) Personulity and deueloprnentul psychology 99
logy” by which the development of psychological abilities.. like creativity, are linked to socio-historical variables. According to a macropsychological reasoning the development of mental abilities is basically guided by social opportunities and social limitations. The dialectics between inner possibilities, life-situations and outer educational and socio- economic prerequisites are central in macropsychological research.
In Sweden different research paradigms have been developed at the universities of Lund and Stockholm. In Lund Krag & Smith (1970) have constnicted an experimental method called percept-genesis, for the study of personality structures. On the basis of tachistosco- pic presentations of provoking stimuli they study different dimensions of adaptation processes, especially defense mechanisms. Personalty is considered as the superordinate process that guides these adaptations. Several studies (see llater) have proved the fruitful- ness of this approach.
In Stockholm, an interactional model is outlined by Magnusson and his co-workers (for an overview, see Magnusson, 1981). In this approach, personality is linked to a character- istic pattern of stable and changing behaviour across situations of a different nature. The individual always forms an important part of a situation to which he attaches importance. Person-situation interaction therefore is a process in which situational information is selected, interpreted and treated, and the outcome of this process is determined by the character of an individual’s mediating system, as it can be described in its structural, content, and motivational aspects. Empirical investigations by this research group will be presented later in this overview.
The following presentation of studies in child development and personality is mainly arranged under headings according to dominant research-endeavours.
INFANTS AND PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Since the middle of the seventies there has been an increased research interest in pregnancy, birth and the early period of life. This is true for all the Nordic countries, where intensive process studies have been made with the aim to reveal complicated psychological aspects.
The investigations have certain points of resemblance in research design, but also differ somewhat in their aims: the relationship between mother and grandmother (Uddenberg, 1974), the parents as a couple (Christensen, 1980), the experiences and role of the father (Brudal, 1979, 1980) and the birth as a potential cause of crisis (Lagercrantz, 1979). Along with these investigations an interdisciplinary summary of Nordic research on pregnancy, birth and the first year of the child has been made (Ggtsche et al., 1979).
In the Lagercrantz-study (1979) eleven of 33 mothers were undergoing an acute crisis during pregnancy and delivery because of unsolved conflicts, traumatic experiences or previous poor health. In the follow-up period of 18 months these mothers had psychologi- cal complaints and were often ill. Therefore they found it difficult to satisfy their infants’ emotional needs, and the scores of infants in these families were below average on developmental ratings, especially ratings that measured speech and emotional develop- ment.
Having a child will greatly influence the family, psychologically and socially. The investigations reveal the deep-rooted emotional and social processes which may lead to crisis. They further point to the need for support and institutional changes.
The early mother-child bond is studied in a number of Norwegian experimental investi- gations from the viewpoint of attachment-theory (Smith &. Martinsen, 1977; Martinsen, Smgrvik & Smith, 1978; Smith & Smgrvik, 1981; Srngrvik &. Smith, 1981 u, 6). The infants
100 J.-E. Rurh and P . s. Jdrnensen S c a d J Psycho1 IS (1984)
(10-24 months of age) are studied in an unfamiliar situation on the basis of video-tape recordings. The studies support the main tenets of attachment theory.
Studies of the quantity and quality of early parent-infant interaction for even younger children (1-8 months) have been carried out by a Swedish-American research group (Hwang, 1981; Frodi et al., 1982). Several of their studies indicate the different parental behaviour of mothers and fathers.
In a longitudinal study (Kyng, 1974) the children were followed from birth up to the age of 6. 68 mothers and 69 children took part and the results are based on interviews, tests and observations. The results confirm the key position of the mother as to the child’s development. The study included questions on the mother’s satisfaction with her mar- riage, her attitudes to the needs of the child and her uses of corporal punishment in the upbringing of the child.
From a purely qualitative angle Haavind (1979) seeks to explore this socialization in the family of the infant. Time is here used as the organizational axis in the analysis of the interviews, where situations are understood as social events, structured according to concerns felt for the infant.
Research on day-care institutions played an increasing role in the seventies. This research was implemented as a broad evaluation of the day-care-milieu (Nafstad, 1976), a methodically controlled comparison of children in day-care and family-care (Gunnarson, 1978; Moore, 1975), and a survey-based exploration of types of child-care (Grgnhoj, 1981).
Gunnarson compares day-care and family-care with regard to social interaction and general development. The investigation is based on interviews, tests and observations, and involves 102 children aged 5 1/2 years. The results show no difference between the two types of child-care, but considerable differences between boys and girls as to social interaction. Boys are peer-oriented, girls adult-oriented.
Moore (1975) focuses on the same difference in orientation (peer vs. adult) in a longitudinal study which makes a comparison of home-care and day-care. The results are strikingly consistent in the case of boys, but much less clear in the case of girls. Home- cared boys achieve a high degree of self-control, an effect which tends to persist into adolescence and involves anxiety for adult approval. Day-cared boys on the other hand care less for the approval of adults and more for that of their peers; their behaviour tends to become active, aggressive and independent.
Research on learning of the mother tongue has been conducted since the 1960s by Ruoppila (1969) at the University of Jyviskyla, Finland. The permanence and transference of the effects of training on Finnish grammatical patterns have been in focus of the research.
The results of the studies show that rather short-term, but individually oriented training, increased the mastery of the morphological patterns and the effects were still visible about half a year after training. It was found, e.g. that five time trained three-year olds increased their level of the five-year olds. Different training programmes: picture-cards, toys and a combination of picture-cards and toys were all found effective in enhancing the language ability of preschool children (Lyytinen, 1973).
Research on the stimulation of the child at home shows that the time the mother spends with the children, the content of the verbal expressions of the mother and the reinforce- ment contingencies were of main importance for the cognitive development of the child (Lyytinen, 1976). It was further found that the symbolic play and delayed imitation of the child predicted later linguistic development.
The effects of nursery and preschool on the development of the child has constituted another important field of research at the Department of Psychology, University of
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Jyvaskyla (Ruoppila & Korkiakangas, 1975, 1977). At present the linguistic intercommuni- cation in father-child-dyads is under study.
Some of the almost exclusively applied studies on developmental problems during the seventies mainly serve a deeply felt social need rather than a serious search for the principles of child-development. An example of such an applied-oriented and controversial piece of research is “The curriculum development for the comprehensive school in Finland” (Nummenmaa, 1980). The philosophical vantage points as well as the validity of the research were discussed in public fora like the mass media and the parliament. Obviously, there is a danger of a trivialization of psychological research when the applied aspect is considered the only essential aim of the research activities.
One of the major themes in developmental psychology in Nordic countries is infants and preschool children. In the light of this trend Jalmert (1979) makes a critical examination of research into the social development of children, and an ongoing cross-national project in Sweden (FAST) seeks from an ecological point of view to elucidate the structures at different levels in which child and family form social networks (Kihlblom, 1979).
EDUCATION
In post-industrial society the school system is an even more important frame of reference for personal development and opportunity. Therefore, research on motivation and socio- logical aspects of educational patterns, was crucial in the seventies.
Madsen (1974) makes a comparative theoretical analysis of more than twenty theories of motivation. They are evaluated with regard to metatheoretical propositions and different levels of conceptualization. The analysis itself presents a taxonomy aiming at a more comprehensive understanding of theories of personality.
A classical problem in studies of motivation is the linkage of aspiration and achieve- ment. Lysne (1972) makes a theoretical and empirical analysis of this problem. The results indicate that failure seems to have a cumulative effect on achievement, especially for boys. This effect is most pronounced for boys with’a high level of aspiration.
But how motivated are pupils in the sense of preference given to the different school subjects? Stensaasen (1975) shows that among 1321 Norwegian pupils at the 7th, 8th and 9th grade levels, drawing and handicraft are the preferred subjects, and physical training comes next. Religion obtained the lowest value in the ranked comparison.
Pupils’ self-realization at school is studied by Sandven (1976). On the basis of research material from about 3500 students he finds a considerable number of cases, characterized by obvious discrepancy between developmental potential and progress at school, and he concludes that an inadequate self-image may be the most fundamental factor of lack of self-realization.
Marton and his research group in Gothenburg, Sweden consider learning to be contextu- ally bound up with both the content of the material to be learned and with the cues and information given in the learning situation (Marton; 1978; Svensson, 1979). The quality of children’s conceptions of the educational material has been studied, contrary to the traditional quantitative approach where the learning criterion is the number of right answers (Dahlgren, 1975; Marton & Saljo, 1976n, b) . Research has also focused on the prerequisites for a deep processing of the educational material as well as the children’s possibilities of forming larger conceptional strategies (Marton, 1978).
From another viewpoint Thorlindsson & Bj@msson ( 1979) investigate some determi- nants of scholastic performance in urban Iceland. Using data on 1438 children in the 6th, 8th and 9th grades they find 1.Q measure to be the best single predictor of scholastic
102 I . -E. Ruth und P. S. JBrgensen Scand 1 Psycho1 2s (1984)
achievement. The findings, though, suggest that both social structure and social psycho- logical antecedents play an important role in school career.
That means an interpretation which questions the myths of equal educational opportuni- ty. Several investigations, among these longitudinal studies in Sweden (Husen, 1969) and Denmark (Hansen, 1982), have tried to elucidate the reality behind this myth, for instance the connection between the father’s occupational status and the educational career of the child. In contrast to political intentions in the design of the welfare system it seems reasonable to conclude, however, that an individual’s mobility in the educational system is to a great extent determined by his socio-economic background.
Within the context of this knowledge, several attempts have been made to innovate the educational system in accordance with needs in the local community and directed at different groups of pupils (e.g. H@gmo & Solstad, 1978). Key words in this innovation process are the “comprehensive school” and “participation”, and general models and pedagogical strategies have been outlined (Bjerg., Jensen & Nissen, 1982).
AGGRESSION AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT
The hereditary disposition for aggressiveness and the impact of social learning have been in focus of research by Lagerspetz at Abo Akademi in Finland ever since 1960. This topic has been approached by animal studie in laboratory settings.
The selective breeding studies made by Lagerspetz (1961, 1964) clearly show the importance of heredity on aggressive behaviour, but marked short-term changes can also be produced by social factors. Animals lacking wcial contact show a remarkable rise in aggression, but this can be modified by social learning. The issue of generalization constitutes the main problem in this research, but it would be tempting to wonder whether the importance of social learning to inherited aggressive tendencies would not be much greater in man, considering his greater cognitive capabilities.
Lagerspetz’ animal studies are still on-going (Lagerspetz & Lindman, 1980) and consti- tute an elegant example of systematically conducted experimental research within the bio- psychological frame of reference. The inclusion of social variables and learning was a new approach, but the reductionistic features that also characterize the studies limit their psychological relevance to some extent. The debate within developmental psychology concerning the relative importance of inner versus outer validity in research has led to a shift from restricted laboratory studies to more ecologically relevant settings. And lately studies of the impact of televized violence on children have been carried out by the Lagerspetz research group.
These studies show that pre-school children react most strongly to physical violence on the screen, but that the children also tend to withdraw from scenes of verbal violence between adults (Lagerspetz, Wahlroos & Wendelin, 1978). Personality type (aggressive, constructive, submissive and anxious) predicts more of the children’s behaviour in a play- situation after TV watching than their facial expressions when watching, or the type of film shown (Lagerspetz & Engblom, 1977).
However, long term effects of the impact of TV violence on the development of children have not been studied by the Lagerspetz research group.
In several studies Olweus (1972, 1973 u, b) has attempted to find the roots of aggressive behaviour of children in school settings. The personality and behavioural features of aggressors as well as their victims have been in focus of research by Olweus. According to Olweus the inhibitive factors of aggressive tendencies in the aggressor as well as aggres- sion eliciting signals from the future victims, together with situational factors, determine the outbursts of violence in school settings.
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Pitkanen, at the University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, ha.s studied the relation between frustration and aggressiveness, using teacher and peer-ratings for the data collection and factor-analysis as an analytical tool (Pitkanen, 1969). Pitkanen shows that non-controlled extrovert children react with more constructive forms of behaviour. Controlled extrovert children were found to be sensitive negotiators in social (role-playing) situations, but this was not the case for the overtly aggressive (Pitkanen & Pulkkinen, 1976). Stability in aggressive behaviour w a s found over a one-year period in spite of changes among those rating aggression and changes in the class-room milieu (Pitkanen, 1973a, 6, c). By means of cognitive training and observational learning Pitkanen (1974) was able to influence the behaviour of young, aggressive schoolchildren towards more constructive behaviour.
Using an aggression machine as the research instrument Pitkanen (1973~1, 6, c , 1974) studied the defence reactions of school boys in pictorially and verbally described situa- tions. The aggression-machine studies show that the strongest defense reactions were to offensive persons of the same age and status as the respondent or to weaker persons (Pitkanen, 1973 a). Pitkanen also shows that a larger proportion of the aggressive variance was explained by situational factors (Pitkanen, 1973 6).
In validity studies of the aggression parameters studied by the aggression-machine, Pitkanen reports predictive validity for a 5-10 year period (Pitkanen & Pulkkinen, 1980). The machine is an improvement over earlier laboratory techniques. The laboratory studies nevertheless provide data on possible reaction tendencies to aggression incentives, but not data on overt reactions to aggression provoking situations in real life.
YOUTH
Youth was a crucial research theme throughout the seventies. This is connected with both the increasing incidence of youth-problems and increasing recognition of responsibility on the part of society and, especially, public authorities. Therefore several research projects have been initiated by governmental commissions.
The research design used most often has been local investigations of leisure activities based on questionnaires and interviews, and related to educational patterns, life style and attitudes. In Denmark such data have been analyzed as to different patterns of organized and non-organized activities (Frederiksen & Sgrensen, 1977). In Norway a series of local investigations shows the dominant influence of school on the life of youth-coincident with the local community being drained of job-possibilities available to youth (Nordland, 1979).
Befring (1972) investigates how young people in a large city manage, using an untradi- tional method: On a certain evening 155 students interviewed 1500 persons between the ages of 12 and 22 years. In advance, the city had been divided according to meeting places supposed to be typical meeting places for young people. The results show a close connection between the local environment and patterns of leisure and education. Ques- tions such as protest against authority and the hippie movement played a minor role contrary to expectations. From a socio-psychiatric viewpoint Lavik (1977) compares adolescents (ldyear-olds) from town and country. Nearly 500 persons were interviewed. The results show a much higher incidence of severe symptoms among adolescents in town. Background variables such as low social status, disharmonious family life and dificulties at school seem to have a disadvantageous influence in town whereas the country-milieu is able to act as a protective factor.
In contrast to these cross-sectional investigations the Orebro project (Magnusson, Duner & Zetterbom, 1975) followed children from school entry to adulthood. The data obtained are based on questionnaires, behaviour ratings, interviews as well as biological
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measurements on a sample of more than one thousands pupils. The longitudinal study seeks to reveal the complicated relationship between social adaptation, scholastic achieve- ment and background variables. The results indicate, among other things, that the family climate, more than socio-economic group, influences status in school and among peers.
The broader sccpe of the Orebro project is to trace back the individual life situation to physical, social and psychological factors that have influenced the course of development. Both normal educational and vocational careers and criminal ones are studied as well as those linked to alcohol addiction (Magnusson & Duner, 1981). This project is not only one of the largest in scope but also theoretically one of the most advanced within Scandinavian developmental research.
A study more restricted in scope was implemented in Finland (von Wright, 1975, 1982). Based on semi-structured interviews and a few tests, Rauste von Wright studies the image of man among Finnish teenagers from rural and urban areas. The beliefs, attitudes, values and intentions of roughly 200 young people are studied in a longitudinal perspective at different ages between 11 and 18 years.
The study shows that the self-appraisal of the young people follows to some extent traditional sex-linked patterns: the girls experience themselves as more emotional and impulsive than the boys, the boys experience themselves as more energetic. The ideal self- image of both sexes was centered around wishes to be successful, energetic and popular in a “cool” way. A change in the girls’ conceptions toward more “masculine” behaviour was noticed as they were getting older.,The girls were found to be quite achievement- oriented in their plans for attending college.
Demographical and sex-linked differences were apparent also in self-esteem: the boys in the metropolitan area showing the highest and the girls in rural areas the lowest self- esteem.
The discrepancy between the views on values of things and attributes as expressed by the group of teenagers and their experience of adult-values is pronounced. This aspect is related to the reduced communication between the teenager and his parents.
That parents actually do influence the behaviour of adolescents appear from a Norwe- gian investigation of smoking habits among school children at the age of 15. There seems to be a close relationship between parents who smoke and the 15-year-olds who do so (Aargie, Hauknes & Berglund, 1981).
/ . - E . Ruth and P. S. J@rgensen Scand I Psycho1 25 (1984)
SEXOLOGY AND SEX-ROLES
Studies of sexology with regard to sexual behaviour, sexual experience and pornography have been made, especially in Denmark. This research interest may be due to the fact that Dmmark is among the most liberal countries in the world as to sexual law restrictions.
In relation to the legalization of pornography in Denmark, Kutchinsky (1978 and in press) studied the attitudes towards pornography in a survey of a representative sample of 400 men and women in Copenhagen. These studies showed that the legalization of pornography was accepted by the majority of the population, where acquaintance with poronography was motivated by mere curiosity. Regular buyers and users constitute a small minority, mainly men aged 2 5 4 0 years.
The immediate and short-term effects of pornography were studied in an experiment in which 72 students of both sexes were exposed to a one-hour stimulation of hard-core pornography. Self-recorded reactions and effects were checked immediately thereafter, after four days, and after two weeks. Some degree of sexual excitement at some time during the stimulation was reported by the majority of both men and women. The most common and lasting reactions, however, were boredom and oversatiation.
Scand J Psycho1 25 (1984) Personality and developmental psychology 105
As concerns the relationship between pornography and the decrease of the reported sex offences (including sex offences against children), studies point to the suggestion that large propcrtions of potential sex offences are being replaced by the use of pornography. Studies of these questions are still ongoing.
Hessellund has studied different aspects of normal sexual behaviour. As to masturbation and sexual fantacies, he found (1977) differences between men and women based on an intensive study of 38 married couples. As far as men are concerned, masturbation appears to be a supplement to coitus behaviour, and for women to be a compensation. Concerning socio-sexual experiences among adolescents, an extensive investigation indicates (Hessel- lund, 1979) that adolescents are no more experienced and knowledgeable than in previous generations.
Childhood masturbation has been studied in Norway (Langfeldt, 1981). The results point to the conclusion that early sexual experiences include masturbation and are to be considered normal processes in sexual development. There are, however, noticeable gender differences in behaviour, language and social organization in masturbation. A social change in attitudes towards childhood sexuality is needed.
Hegeler & Mortensen (1978) study sexual activities in a group of 1 161 old men on the basis of a self-administered questionnaire. The frequency of sexual activity is decreasing with age, but perhaps more surprisingly, more than half of the over-eighties with an available partner had practised sexual intercourse during the last year.
Changing sex-roles in the Scandinavian countries are also reflected in the search for sex- differences within developmental and personality research.
The expectancy to do well on intellectual tasks has been studied by Vollmer (1975) and Sagatun (1981). Vollrner found that Norwegian men show a higher expectancy on examina- tions (in Psychology, sic!). Sagatun found that women show a tendency to consider lack of ability as an explanation of own failures, but that in other fields Norwegian men and women are quite similar in their views on success and failure. Lundberg (1980) also reports higher anxiety levels for women. A significantly higher amount of so-called Type A behaviour in Swedish female university students is reported by Lundberg.
Based on a theory of humour and a questionnaire used to measure this aspect of personal communication, Sveback (19740, b, c, 1975) has described sex-role linked styles of humour. College women tend to perceive themselves as having a “funny”-style of humour while college men found their humour-style to be “sarcastic” or characterized by “mixed-wit”. Developmental trends from adolescence to adulthood indicate a change from “funny” to “mixed-wit’’ for women and from “mixed-wit” to “sarcastic-wit” for men.
Carlsson (1981) has studied the construct validity of the recently developed Bern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) on a Swedish sample. Carlsson & hlagnusson (1980) interpret their results as supporting the notion that masculinity and femininity are still best considered as two independent dimensions. The BSRI is constructed to measure androgyny as well as masculinity and femininity, but validity studies show that the factors measured by the test are quite stereotypic. Modem young men and women are inclined not to follow the traditional sex-role stereotypes (Falkenberg et al., 1977).
ANXIETY
Anxiety is one of the themes around which there has been a marked research interest in several Scandinavian psychological laboratories. In Gothenburg (Sweden) Marton et al. ( 1973) have been interested in stress-inducing instructions on learning. In Turku (Finland) von Wright & Vauras (1980) have concentrated on stress-inducing noise, neuroticism and
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recall from memory. Werdelin (1970) in Malmo (Sweden) has been looking for the dimensions of “nervous behaviour” in social situations. Smith & Sjoholm (1974) in Lund (Sweden) have attempted to study primary processes related to anxiety and the defensive system.
At the University of Stockholm and the Karolinska Institute a large amount of important research concerning the relationships between psychological-physiological variables, stress and emotional functions has been carried out under the guidance of Marianne Frankenhaeuser.
This research comprises laboratory studies as well as studies of stress in school settings and urban environments. Although important, Frankenhaeuser’s stress-research will only be mentioned here, because psysiologically oriented developmental and personality re- search does not fall within the scope of this review.
Another productive research group at the University of Stockholm interested in anxiety as a personality construct is the one headed by David Magnusson. According to the studies of this group, anxiety must be considered to be a multidimensional concept. No separate factors could be obtained between trait and state of anxiety in a study by Endler et al. (1976). The group is at present interested in cross-national comparisons of anxiety as it is appraised and expressed in Swedish, Japanese and Hungarian subjects (Magnusson & Stattin, 19770). The view that concepts of personality are situationally determined is a central aspect of most research in this group (Magnusson & Stattin, 1977b).
Traditionally, most personality research has focused on the trait-model and later on the srare-model (Magnusson, 197 I ) . According to Endler & Magnusson inreroctionism is the most fruitful concept, however (Endler & Magnusson, 1975). According to an interaction- istic reasoning, features of the situation itself (Magnusson & Ekehammar, 1973). e.g. the features chosen and interpreted by a person, serve as cues for a person’s reactions to the situation (Magnusson, 1974). The person himself also has the power to change the situations he encounters and the way he acts (Ekehammar, 19740, b). Research is therefore mainly focused on the person-situation interaction and this has implications for the research instruments used as well as for the statistical procedures chosen for analysis (Ekehammar, Schalling & Magnusson, 1974; Magnusson & Endler, 1977).
Multidimensional patterns of the individuals across situations have been studied by the Magnusson group in three dimensional data-matrices where person-reaction situation variances have been analyzed simultaneously. A much used research instrument for this purpose has been the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness (Endler & Hunt, 1969) where S’s rate their own reactions on several scales for a set-up of verbally described situations.
Ekehammar, Magnusson & Ricklander (1974) as well as several other researchers (see Endler & Magnusson, 1975) have found a considerable degree of situational specificity in their studies of personality (anxiety). The earlier trait-paradigm is therefore seriously questioned. The same conclusions have been reached by means of correlational research studies: cross-situational stability is lacking in behaviour like self-confidence, cooperative ability or leadership (Magnusson, Gerzen & Nyman, 1968; Magnusson, Hemer & Nyman, 1968). It seems rather obvious that little empirical support can be found for the earlier so highly praised trait-model in the psychology of personality, according to Endler & Mag- nusson (1974, 1975). This view has also been expressed elsewhere in Scandinavia, based on aggression research by Olweus (1973).
During the 1970s research on anxiety, defence and percept-genetical methods for the study of these processes constituted one of the main lines of research at the Department of Psychology, Lund University (Sweden). The percept-genetical research method has usual- ly been related to tachistoscopic presentations of stimuli that to varying degrees are anxiety-provoking (Kragh, 1955,1960; Kragh & Smith, 1970). The S’s gradual formation of
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percepts during increasingly longer presentations of the stimuli are recorded and the contents of the records analyzed. The percept-genetic records are considered to disclose the personality of the subjects as well as their use of defence mechanisms. In this connection personality is defined as the superordinate process that guides the adaptive efforts to solve the problems in subject-bject relationships that the stimuli evoke (Wes- terlundh & Smith, 1982). In some studies visual after-effects are used in order to gain personality-linked information (Andersson, Nilsson, Ruutti & Smith, 1972; Andersson & Weiknert, 1974; Smith & Danielsson, 1976-77).
By the use of percept-genesis and a defence mechanism test (developed by Kragh, 1969) anxiety, repression, isolation, denial, reaction formation, identification with the opposite sex, depressive inhibition, projection and regression have been studied at the Psychologi- cal Laboratory in Lund (Nielsson, 1977; Westerlundh & Smith, 1982). The defence operations found through experimental research confirm some of the classical views of Sigmund and Anna Freud, 1926, 1936). Percept-genetic studies reveal corresponding hierarchies of defense with projection developing early and isolation developing late in the ontogeny. Studies of age-differences reveal that young children generally show their anxiety more openly: they avert their heads, shut their eyes or even flee from the situation when highly anxiety-provoking stimuli are perceived. Mature adults tend to use non- threatening distortions and other perceptive defences in similar situations (Westerlundh & Smith, 1982).
The problems of the validity of the percept-genetic methiod are mainly centered around the mimicking of both anxiety provoking situations and personality-linked processes like defensive behaviour in the laboratory. To what extent are the stimuli used representatively for real-life situations and to what extent are the percept-genetic records representative indices of real behaviour? The validity studies by the Lund researchers have dealt with the match between test signs and symptoms of different clinical groups compared to normals. In Kragh & Smith (1970) and Smith & Westerlundh (1980) references can be found to studies showing systematic correlations between clinical symptoms and PG-patterns: hysteroid patients mainly use repression, compulsive patients isolation, paranoid patients projections and depressive patients inflexible stereotypes. Process-oriented validation studies in on-going therapy also show some degree of validity for the =-method by reflecting personal coping stragegies in situations of emotional conflict (Smith, Sjoholm & Nielzen, 1975; Kragh, 1980).
The validity-question is not fully solved, but percept-genesis nevertheless stands out as an innovative research approach where traditional methods of research on perception are used to test Freudian concepts that earlier were even considered untestable. The use of psychoanalytical concepts in applied psychology-now once again much in vogue in Scandinavia-must be guided by empirical research.
Lately the percept-genetic method has been used to study cognitive growth and a dialectical conception of personality (Andersson, 1980, 1983) as well as creative processes (Smith & Danielsson, 1980; Smith, 1981; Maini, 1981).
ADULTHOOD
In Finland a life-span approach in developmental research on the main themes of adult- hood has been adopted by Niemela (1980). In a longitudinal study of ambivalent feelings toward motherhood, real-life behaviour such as attending ante-natal classes, breast feed- ing and baby-care were compared to data pertaining to the development of the child.
Niemela (19820, b) found three types of defence against ambivalent feeiings of the mothers, that is to say denial, repression and idealizing of motherhood. It was found that
108
denial and repression led to less participation in ante-natal classes, more pain in labour, more ambivalent and frightened feelings towards the baby and negatively loaded emotional brezst feeding experiences.
Idealization of motherhood prevented the mothers from working through their ambiva- lent feelings. The women using this type of defence seemed to use motherhood primarily in order to gain an identity of their own. They were found to show morc insecurity in their role of woman, wife and professional person.
In a study of abortion, Niemela et al. (1981) show that repeated abortions are not mainly linked to differences in educational level and knowledge of contraceptive techniques but to the developmental level of the personality structures of the women going through abortion. Women with several abortions were characterized by low control of impulsiveness. emotional balance, self-esteem and realism. Their capacity for integrated personal rela- tionships was also impaired.
At present Niemela (1980) is studying divorce in a longitudinal perspective. The aim of this study is to describe and understand the working through process related to feelings of disappointment and hurt that women experience at such turning-points in their lives.
In research by Niemela, many of the typical trends of psychological research in the 1970s can be found, i.e. process and life-span orientation, use of softer research methods, and focus on real-life situations. These trends can also be seen in some other research projects on events in life and career development in Finland (Tolkki-Nikkonen. 1979; Hurme, 1978; Hayrynen, 1980).
J.-E. Ruth and P. S. JCrgensen Scand J Psycho1 25 (1984)
OLD AGE
During the last decade, studies of aging clearly constitute one of the "new" areas of developmental research. Both research on practical issues of the aged and on the basic parameters of aging is rapidly increasing in the Scandinavian countries.
Problems pertaining to retirement have been approached from psychosomatic, psycho- logical and socio-psychological standpoints. Stenback, Kumpulainen & Vauhkonen (1975) refute the hypothesis that retirement automatically leads to somatic and psychic illness. In 86 per cent of the cases no signs of acute health problems were found. However, persons whose attitudes towards retirement are outspokenly negative and who are inclined to give up, constitute a risk group. Subjective health: considering oneself ill together with a life- style of low socio-economic status including heavy drinking and smoking will add to problems in old age (Stenback, Kumpulainen & Vauhkonen, 1976; Heikkinen et al., 1981).
Possibilities of alleviating the transition into retirement by pre-retirement educational programs have also been studied (Ruth, 1977; Forss, 1978-79). Research shows that most persons find retirement a desirable period of life but that about 10-15% report retirement problems. Worries about their economic situation and health, feelings of lack of activities and fewer social contacts are common for this group. At the same time it has been found that persons that have completed pre-retirement preparation courses show less stereotypic conceptions of old age and are less worried about this period of life. However, an individual and flexible retirement system would apparently have a much greater preven- tive effect than retirement education.
Social aspects of aging defined as role-taking and the availability of meaningful roles in old age have been studied by Simovici (1974) and Farnstrand (1975), and a socio- psychological model for aging has been constructed by Tornstam (1975).
Research on loneliness shows that the common conception of the aged as isolated and lonely is only correct up to a point (Olsen & Hansen, 1981; Platz, 1981; Berg, Johansson & Malmberg, 1982). Most old persons still have a social network of human support in periods
Scand J Psycho1 25 t 1984) Persoiia1ir)i and developmentol psychology 109
with problems. Only a minority of the aged are socially isolated and only some of them also experience feelings of loneliness. The death of one’s spouse seems to be a critical period where psychological intervention may be called for (Berg, Mellstrom, Persson & Svanborg, 1981). Loneliness seems to be related to low life-satisfaction in general and to physical and psychological problems (Tornstam, 1975). Unmarried persons from the working class who have retired from working life constitute the most disadvantaged group with regard to loneliness (Olsen, 1982).
Changes in intelligence caused by age have been in focus of a rather extensive study conducted in Gothenburg by Berg (1980). The Gothenburg studies are of longitudinal design and are still on-going. When comparing the intelligence test values of the same persons at the ages of 70 and 79, changes in intelligence less dramatic than expected were found. Only small changes in verbal capacity and logical reasoning were seen, while tests including a speed factor or spatial material show greater age changes (Berg, 1980). These results are consistent with recent American studies where longitudinal methods have been used (see Schaie, 1975).
Health factors and years of schooling are considered the explanatory variables most important to the level of intelligence in old age. Accumulated disease effects are most clearly reflected in the terminal drop found in intelligence values some years prior to death (Berg & Ruth, 1982).
Age differences in creativity have been studied by Ruth (1980) and Mattlar, Ruth & Knuts (I980-81) in Abo (Finland). Finnish empirical studies of the creativity and age theme confirm to some extent the result of the first studies based on historical methods (i.e. Lehman, 1953; Dennis, 1966). Higher values in creativity tests were found for the adult group (3WO years), gradually declining for the ol.der age groups. However, the extreme aged were not included in the samples, and the studies were based on cross- sectional comparisons.
The length and quality of education as well as demands made on creativity in profession- al life constitute the main cohort effect explaining these results. Age effects related to increased slowness in information processing, problems pertaining to flexibility and re- duced willingness to risk original responses are also regarded explanatory variables.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the literature-search for this review the volumes of Scandinavian Journal of Psychology and the listings of research presented yearly in Nordisk Psykologi during 1970430 have been used as main sources. Additional information was gained through communication with some of the researchers in the field.
A presentation of the research on personality and developmental psychology within the Scandinavian research community covering a decade must necessarily be selective. Bio- physiologically oriented as well as clinically oriented research is not covered by the review, and studies published in English in international available sources have been preferred. Many single pieces of research have been left out, not necessarily because of a qualitative evaluation, but because they did not form a “new trend” or a “main line” of re search.
The selection of studies reviewed has mainly been guided by what seems to be important and significant research interests. Partly these interests have been defined by general trends in society, e.g. research on infancy and preschool children as well as research on old age. Other interests are defined from a theoretical point of view, e.g. psychological research based on an interaction paradigm.
What will happen in the future within this area is an open question, but perhaps some of
110 J.-E. Ruth and P. S. J~rgensen Scand I Psycho1 25 (1984)
the following futuristic speculations may give part of an answer. Future research in this branch of psychology seems to place priority to a methodological approach based on external validity and the use of multidimensional models. The cry for empirical validity will also evidently counter-act an individualization and mystification of socially evoked psychological processes. It remains to see, however, if the “inner” concepts, favoured by phenomenologically or humanistically oriented research, will form a synthesis with the search for “outer” validity.
Some effects on the operationalisation of the research can also be foreseen. Superficial (but perhaps handy) definitions. stating that the concept studied is explained by the measuring instrument used, will no longer be accepted. The instruments must be validated towards real-life behaviour or the abstract tests and laboratory manipulations replaced by more naturalistic research methods.
Prospective longitudinal designs on large normal samples still constitute the ideal experimental design of the future, perhaps combined with repeated cross-sectional studies in the most idealized case. The preference for obtaining qualitative data in addition to simple quantification on the other hand fosters concomitantly retrospective studies on small but selectively chosen samples of individuals.
The strivings to study behaviour as an on-going process where the person as well as his environment are equally important agents will probably gain even more strength in the future. There also seems to be a trend to grasp larger wholes of behaviour both in theory and research, even if atomistic splits still caracterize part of the laboratory bound studies.
Whatever the vantage point might be, there is a demand for mid-range theories tying together dispersed research findings both within personality and developmental psycholo- gy. In developmental psychology models explaining development through life based on dialectical paradigms seems very much needed, and within personality psychology new paradigms are urgently called for to restructure the whole theoretical field integrating seemingly opposite concepts.
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