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INFORMATION TO U SER S
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G nd utt Scfeool Fans 9(ttmmil/H)
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL Thesis Acceptance
This is to certify that the thesis prepared
By _____________________ Xiang Yuan Zhong
Entitled
PERSONAL SELLING: THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN SELLING ABILITY AND SALES PERFORMANCE
Complies with University regulations and meets the standards of the Graduate School for originalityand quality
For the degree of D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y
Signed bvihe final exam ini
Approved by: — Department Head Doe
CD is
This thesis not to be regarded as confidential.
Major Professor
Format Approved by:
Chair, Fioil Adviser/
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PERSONAL SELLING: THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN SELLING ABILITY AND SALES PERFORMANCE
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Purdue University
by
Xiang Yuan Zhong
In Partial Fulfillment o f the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor o f Philosophy
May 2001
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UMI Number. 3037674
UMI*UMI Microform 3037674
Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company
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P.O. Box 1346
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would not be able to complete this five-year long project without
help from many people. I would like to thank everyone for their patience and persistence
with me throughout the long-distance communications with emails, phone calls, etc. It
has not been easy for myself, and, of course, for everyone who has helped me reach this
milestone.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Richard Feinberg, my major
professor, for his guidance and support throughout my dissertation research. Without his
encouragement and caring, it would have been impossible for me to complete this project.
I am mostly grateful to Dr. Lucette Comer, who gave me numerous versions of comments
and kept me on track. I also greatly appreciate the guidance and help from my two other
committee members: Dr. James Binkley and Dr. Tanya Drollinger.
Special thanks are extended to Mrs. Jeannie Navarre, the head secretary, for her
support and co-ordinations throughout this project.
I would like to thank my husband, Jiyin, for his loving and encouragement. Our
two children: 7-year old Nicholas and 3-year old Jessica, deserve special thanks for
having the best behavior whenever their mom needs to get on the computer and work on
her dissertation. I would also like to thank my parents, who helped us take care of the
children from time to time, and their support, encouragement, and caring throughout the
process.
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iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1
Purpose o f the Stud y........................................................................................... 5
Contributions to Consumer Economics Research............................................ 5
Contributions to Personal Selling Literature.................................................... 7
Organization of this S tud y ................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 9
Sales Performance.............................................................................................. 9
Selling Abilities.................................................................................................. 11
Adaptability............................................................................................ 13
Knowledge............................................................................................. 17Presentation Skills ................................................................................. 18
Listening Skills ..................................................................................... 19
Questioning S k ills ................................................................................. 21
Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses......................................................... 22
Other Influencing Factors ................................................................................. 24
Gender .................................................................................................... 25
A g e ......................................................................................................... 26
Education and Job Tenure .................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 3 - ME THOD OLOG Y...............................................................................
28
Data Co llection .................................................................................................. 28
Dependent Variab les ............................................................................. 29
Self-Ratings ............................................................................... 29
Quota Attainmen t..................................................................... 31
Independent Variables.......................................................................... 31
Adaptability............................................................................... 32
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IV
CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY, continued Page
Product Knowledge............................................................................... 34
Presentation Sk ills ................................................................................. 34
Listening Skills ...................................................................................... 37
Questioning Skills.................................................................................
38Statistical Ana lysi s............................................................................................. 38
Review o f Multiple Regression Models .......................................................... 42
CHAPTER 4 - RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.......................................................... 44
Sample Characteristics....................................................................................... 44
Analysis o f Dependent Variables ...................................................................... 45
Self-Reported Sales Perfo rmance........................................................ 45
Quota Attainment .................................................................................. 46
Analysis of Independent Variables .................................................................. 47
Adaptability Scale ................................................................................. 47
Product Knowledge Sca le .................................................................... 49
Presentation Skills Scale ....................................................................... 49
Listening Skills Scale ............................................................................ 51
Questioning Skills S ca le ....................................................................... 52
Multiple Regression Analyses .......................................................................... 56
Composite Scale o f Independent Variables ........................................ 56
At the Factor Level ............................................................................... 58
Influences o f Demographic Variables.............................................................. 60
CHAPTER 5 - CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS.......................................... 62
Implications for Practitioners............................................................................ 66
Implications and Future Rese arch.................................................................... 67
Overall Conclusion ............................................................................................ 68
LIST OF REFER ENC ES ............................................................................................... 69
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 78
Appendix A. I Cover Let ter ..............................................................................
78Appendix A.2 Sales Representative’s Questionnaire .................................... 79
Appendix A.3 Review of Sales Performance M ea su res ............................... 84
Appendix A.4 Review of Adaptability M easures .......................................... 89
Appendix A.5 Review of Listening Skill Measures ...................................... 91
V I T A ................................................................................................................................ 95
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V
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1.1 Sales Force Size Change o f Five Major Pharmaceutical
Companies .................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Importance of Types of Selling Ab ility...................................................... 12
2.2 Situations Under Which Adaptability is Important................................... 15
3.1 Measures of Variables ................................................................................. 32
3.2 Content Analysis on Items from the Knowledge Scale ............... 35
3.3 Content Analysis on Items from the Presentation Skills Sca le ............... 36
3.4 Content Analysis on Items from the Questioning Skills S ca le ............... 39
4.1 Sample Characteristics................................................................................. 44
4.2 Factor Analysis o f Self-Rating Performance Sca le .................................. 45
4.3 Factor Analysis o f Adaptability Scale ...................................................... 48
4.4 Factor Analysis o f Product Knowledge Sca le ........................................... 50
4.5 Factor Analysis o f Presentation Skills Scale ............................................ 53
4.6 Factor Analysis o f Listening Skills S ca le ................................................. 54
4.7 Listening Scale: Comparison with Ramsey and Sohi’s Results ............. 55
4.8 Factor Analysis o f Questioning Skills Sca le ............................................. 56
4.9 Multiple Regression Results o f All Independent Variab les ..................... 57
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vi
Table Page
4.10 Multiple Regression Results of All Fac to rs .............................................. 60
4 .11 Influences o f Demographic V ariables........................................................ 61
Appendix
Table
A.1 Comparison of Measures in Sales Performance ....................................... 88
A.2 Comparison of Listening T e st s .................................................................. 93
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vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 ConceptualFramework ............................................................................... 24
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ABSTRACT
Zhong, Xiang Yuan. Ph.D., Purdue University, May 2001. Personal Selling: The
Relationship between Selling Ability and Sales Performance. Major Professor: Richard
Feinberg.
This study attempted to assess a very basic yet still unresolved relationship
between personal sales representatives and sales effectiveness. Using the arena o f
pharmaceutical sales this study asks the essential question, are personal sales
representatives effective in increasing sales? What is the relationship between selling
ability and the performance effectiveness of salespeople in the pharmaceutical sales
context? Based on past research that defined the factors o f selling ability this study
looked into the five most important selling abilities: adaptability, product knowledge,
listening skills, presentation skills, and questioning skills.
A survey of salesperson's self-ratings on selling abilities and sales performance
was administered. A random sample of 1,500 sales representatives was selected from a
large international pharmaceutical company's total 3,000 representative's sales force. In
addition, quota attainment was obtained for an objective measurement. A total of 547
usable questionnaires were returned for a response rate of 36%, a relatively high response
rate.
The findings from this study provided insights into several areas. First, this study
showed a high correspondence between se lf and objective assessment o f selling ability.
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Based on the findings from this study, these two measures appear to be highly correlated.
It appears that the self-reported performance does reflect the actual quota attainment.
While an overall relationship between selling ability and performance was found
this study also shows clearly that selling ability consists of differing components and
these components may or may not be determinants in performance. The following
dimensions o f selling ability were found to be significantly related to sales performance:
Adaptive selling behaviors, product knowledge, responding dimension o f listening skills,
and basic presentation skills.
This study did not show any positive relationship between adaptive selling beliefs,
sensing/evaluating dimensions o f listening skills, interactive presentation skills and sales
performance. This could mean that these skills are simply not as important as past
research and thinking imply. It could also mean that there is something unique about the
pharmaceutical sales situation (very short) that makes use and effectiveness o f these skills
to be minimal. Both are interesting possibilities for future research.
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1
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Personal selling is o f primary importance to the success of most businesses.
Nothing happens until somebody sells something. Today’s salespeople are responsible
for generating more revenue in our economy than workers in any other profession
because they have a direct impact on the introduction o f new products to markets and the
development o f markets for existing products (Futrell, 1995).
Personal selling is defined as "direct communications between paid
representatives and prospects that lead to purchase orders, customer satisfaction, and
post-sale service” (Dalrymple & Cron, 1995). The need for personal selling appears even
greater today in our high tech business world. There are thousands o f new products
available every year. As products become more complex and faster to market the
personal assistance provided by a well-trained salesperson is more important than ever.
With advertising, publicity, and promotions, personal selling is part of a well-
rounded marketing effort (Manning & Reese, 1995). Compared to other promotional
tools, personal selling has the advantage of more flexibility in operation. Sales
representatives can tailor their sales presentations to fit the needs and behavior of
individual customers. They can see the customer’s reaction to a particular sales approach
and then make the necessary adjustments. Because personal selling focuses on specific
prospective customers, there is less wasted effort. By contrast, in most forms of
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advertising, much o f the cost is devoted to sending the message to people who are not real
prospects. In personal selling, a company has an opportunity to pinpoint its target market
far more effectively than with any other promotional device. Advertisements can attract
attention and arouse desire, but they do not necessarily direct buying action or complete
the sale like personal selling does.
Given the importance of personal selling it is somewhat surprising that there are
few conclusive studies documenting the effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) of personal
selling efforts. This is despite the fact that many companies see the sales force as their
best promotional tool and a necessity (e.g., Futrell, 1995; Manning & Reese, 1995). This
study focuses on a very basic yet still unresolved relationship between personal sales
representatives and sales effectiveness. Using the arena o f pharmaceutical sales this
study asks the very basic question, are personal sales representatives effective in
increasing sales?
Pharmaceutical sales are a specialized type of sales known as “missionary sales’'.
In missionary selling the focus is NOT on actually completing a sales transaction and
gaining a sale on the spot, but rather on promotional activities, introducing new products,
educating a constituent to recommend purchase, stimulating demand for the product and
developing on-going relationship with the clients. Pharmaceutical sales and educational
book representatives are two prime examples of missionary sales positions (McCarthy &
Perreault, 1984; Moncrief, 1986).
The major responsibility of pharmaceutical salespeople is to provide scientific
information to physicians. But from a company’s perspective, the ultimate goal is not
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only to provide information, but also to make a profit. The pharmaceutical salesperson
seeks to persuade doctors (the indirect customers) to specify a pharmaceutical company’s
trade name products for prescriptions. The actual sale is ultimately made through a
wholesaler or is made directly to pharmacists and hospitals that fill prescriptions. A
missionary salesperson provides information about products to decision-makers, who in
turn recommend or sell the products to their customers. Pharmaceutical Sales
Representatives introduce physicians to new drugs and other pharmaceutical products in
the hope that the physicians will prescribe these products for their patients (McCarthy &
Perreauit, 1984; Moncrief, 1986).
Pharmaceutical sales representatives (PSRs) are the most direct points o f contact
with physicians. Their tasks are to meet with physicians, market their companies’
products, and influence physicians to prescribe these products. Lexchin (1989) states that
pharmaceutical companies in industrialized countries view PSRs as the most important
promotional source for their products, and over 50 percent o f their promotional
expenditures are devoted to PSRs. The average annual cost of recruiting, training, and
supporting a PSR is estimated to be SI 00,000 (Freiman, 1992). The importance of PSRs
to sales organizations is supported by the growth of the profession. From 1994 to 1997,
five of the largest U. S. pharmaceutical companies increased their sales forces
substantially. Table 1.1 shows the increases of sales representatives for five major
pharmaceutical companies (Pharmaceutical Sales Force Structure & Strategies, 1997).
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Table 1.1
Sales Force Size Change of Five Major Pharmaceutical Companies
Company 1994 1997 % Change
Pfizer 2,204 3,467 57%Merck & Co 2,553 3,421 34%
Glaxo Wellcome 2,358 3,066 30%
Bristol-Myers Squibb 2,539 3,240 28%
SmithKline Beecham 1,820 2,216 22%
Source: Pharmaceutical Sales Force Structure & Strategies (1997)
Given the expense of PSRs to pharmaceutical companies, PSRs are expected to be
effective in influencing physicians and the sale of pharmaceutical products
(Pharmaceutical Sales Force Structure & Strategies, 1997; Weilbaker, 1990). Simply
based on the costs o f making a sale (expensive), one would expect that there has been a
lot of research to study the effectiveness of PSRs. However, this is not the case
(Weilbaker, 1990).
Although empirical research is lacking in the pharmaceutical sales context, the
perceived influence of PSRs has elicited much discussion. On the one hand there is
research which asserts PSRs to be wasteful and ineffective. Physicians have questioned
the practice o f pharmaceutical sales (Waud, 1992). On the other hand, others have
stressed the importance of PSRs as a source of information (Huston, 1993) given the
increasing complexity of pharmaceutical products and the increasing number of new
drugs. It was suggested that physicians need PSRs to leam (Ferguson, 1989). Thomas
(1989) and Andaleeb & Tallman (1995) found that hospital pharmacy directors viewed
the information provided about new products as the most useful service they received
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from PSRs. Huston (1993) found that physicians ranked PSRs among the three most
useful sources o f information about pharmaceutical products.
Purpose o f the Study
The purpose o f this study is to examine the relationship between selling ability
and the performance effectiveness o f salespeople in the pharmaceutical sales context.
Contributions to Consumer Economics Research
Health care has become a dominant economic and political issue in the United
States (and in many other countries). The American health care system is a complex
mixture o f public and private sector activities. The government’s part in directly and
indirectly delivering health services is quite large (for example, Medicare, Medicaid,
public hospitals). Most individuals and organizations that provide medical services are in
the private, nongovernmental sector (for example, doctor’s offices, hospitals, HMOs).
More than 60 percent of personal health services is privately financed, either through
employment-based health benefits or direct payment by the patient (Gray, 1991).
Expenditures on personal medical services have risen more rapidly than
expenditures on most other goods and services in the economy. Annual expenditures on
personal medical services have increased from S35.8 billion in 1965 to S371.4 billion in
1985 (Waldo, Levit, & Lazenby, 1986). In 1965,5.2 percent of the gross national product
(GNP) was being spent on personal medical services. By 1985,9.3 percent of the GNP
was being allocated to personal medical services (Waldo, Levit, & Lazenby, 1986). If the
rate o f increase in medical care expenditures continues to expand rapidly, personal
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medical services will continue to consume an increasing portion of all goods and services
produced in the United States.
With rapid increases in medical costs, the health care industry has come under
intense scrutiny. One player in this industry that seems to be getting a lot of attention is
the pharmaceutical industry. A major reason for this attention is that pharmaceutical
products are still the single largest out-of-pocket health care expense for consumers
(Haas, 1994). Given the important role of pharmaceutical products in health care
economics, it is, therefore, critical to understand the marketing and promotion process of
pharmaceutical companies.
The effectiveness of PSRs is sharply etched because marketing costs account for a
significant proportion of the price o f pharmaceuticals. IMS America (1998) reports that
companies’ spending on promoting to physicians in the U. S. increased by 10% in 1997 to
S4 billion, accounting for 81% o f all promotional spending. That is an estimate o f $5,000
to S6,000 per physician per year. Since the consumer is the one ultimately paying for
these promotional efforts (it is embedded in the price we pay for drugs) the study of the
factors determining effectiveness (and ineffectiveness) can help pharmaceutical
companies minimize inefficiencies eventually minimizing the passed on costs to
consumers.
Understanding the role that marketing forces (including PSRs) play in influencing
physician behavior is another interesting part o f the issue (Avom, Chen, & Hartley,
1982). Consumers (patients) rely on their physicians to make the right choice o f drugs.
Physicians are trusted to be knowledgeable about the development in their respective
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therapeutic areas. They need to possess all relevant information to make the right
diagnosis for patients. PSRs educate physicians on hundreds of drugs coming to the
market every year, in the hope that physicians will convey the drugs to patients — the
ultimate consumers. The effectiveness of the communication between PSRs and
physicians certainly affects both physicians and their patients — the ultimate consumers.
The extreme end of importance in understanding the dynamics o f the relationship
between PSR and physician is clearly illustrated in a study by Peltzman (1974). Peltzman
examined the consequences of failure by physicians to adopt drugs due to a lack of
information. He cites the case of tuberculosis (TB), estimating that if the use of TB drugs
had spread as rapidly as the Salk vaccine, 80,600 lives would have been saved. He also
suggests that if major tranquilizers had been more heavily promoted, this might have
resulted in savings of 645 million patient days in the hospital.
Contributions to Personal Selling Literature
Selling ability received little scholarly attention before 1990 (Weilbaker, 1990).
Starting from 1990, there have been some studies investigating selling ability (Auglin,
Stoltman, & Gentry, 1990; Goolsby, Lagace & Boorom, 1992; O’Hara, Boles, &
Johnston, 1991; Predmore & Bonnice, 1994; Spiro & Weitz, 1990). However, these
studies appear to be weak because:
1. The prior studies examine selling ability as a unitary concept although the
thinking in this area is that selling is a multidimensional construct.
2. The relationship between particular selling abilities and sales performance has
not been studied.
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This study intends to fill in these gaps by examining the relationship between
multidimensional selling abilities and sales performance. The relationship between the
top five selling abilities, identified by Weilbaker (1990) and sales performance in
pharmaceutical sales will be studied. These five skills are adaptability, product
knowledge, presentation skills, listening skills, and questioning skills.
The relationships between specific selling abilities and sales performance will
provide insights into the management of sales forces. Identification o f the determinant
selling skills can lead to effective training programs, more targeted selection of
salespeople, greater organizational success, efficiency, and effectiveness.
Organization of This Study
The organization of this study is as follows. Chapter Two reviews the literature
pertinent to selling abilities and sales performance. A conceptual framework is presented.
Hypotheses to be tested are presented. In Chapter Three the research design and
procedures are set forth. The scales used in the current study are presented. Chapter Four
presents the results and findings. Finally, discussion and areas for future research and
implications from this study are outlined in Chapter Five.
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CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW
Sales Performance
Sales performance should be and is one o f the key outcome factors in sales
research. There is a wealth o f conceptual and empirical work related to sales
performance (Churchill, Walker, Hartley, & Ford, 1985; Plank & Reid, 1994). However,
the findings of empirical research have often been mixed, and the predictive ability of
past models has been weak. This may be in part due to the different nature of the two
main forms of measuring sales performance.
The performance o f sales forces can be evaluated on behavior-based or outcome-
based standards (Anderson & Oliver, 1987). In a behavior-based system, managers
monitor salesperson's selling activities closely, give them substantial direction, and
evaluate their efforts using multiple criteria. It appears that behavior-based systems are
most appropriate when responsibility for the selling process is difficult to assign, or when
non-selling activities are a key component o f the job. Behavior-based systems enable
sales managers to make recommendations about how salespersons allocate their time, and
resources. Sales managers can also ensure that salespersons perform their jobs
consistently with company policies. However, behavior-based system can be cost
intensive and difficult to administer.
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pharmacy. Therefore, the sales representative does not close a sale himselfTherself. The
information he or she brings to the physician is to help the physician make an informed
decision on which drug to prescribe. The objective of the reps' visits is not to make a sale
at the spot, but to fulfill his or her call objectives with a sales occurring in some removed
future point. If a sales representative effectively communicates relevant scientific
information to a physician, the physician is expected to prescribe the company’s brands
and a sale would occur. A sales representative’s performance can be evaluated as a
function of market sales rather than individual physician sales.
Because of its objective nature, an outcome-based system will be used for the
current study to investigate the relationship between selling ability and performance:
1. Researchers have suggested that managers believe that sales performance can be
evaluated more objectively by an outcome-based system (Anderson & Oliver,
1987);
2. Most o f pharmaceutical companies use this system to evaluate and compensate
sales representatives (Feinstein, 1992). The use of an objective based measure
mirrors the reality of pharmaceutical sales than would the use of other measures.
Selling Abilities
In order to study the determinants o f outcomes and to improve upon prior research
that has used global measures of sales behavior it is important to understand the
components o f effective selling.
The conceptual and operational definitions of selling abilities used in the current
study are based on the research into the relationship between pharmaceutical salespeople's
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abilities and their successfulness in sales interactions conducted by Weilbaker (1990).
Because of the importance o f the Weilbaker's study, the following section is devoted to a
full discussion of how Weilbaker derived the key selling abilities in his research.
Through interviews with salespeople, field sales managers and physicians,
fourteen selling abilities were identified as important for success in sales interactions.
Weilbaker ranked ordered these abilities in terms of their ranked importance to the
various groups involved in pharmaceutical sales (salespeople, managers, and physicians).
The fourteen abilities were adaptability, knowledge, presentation skills, listening skills,
questioning skills, observational skills, confidence, organizational skill, enthusiasm,
empathy, handle rejection, creativity, perseverance, and likability.
Table 2.1 summarizes the ranking results from Weilbaker's study.
Table 2.1
Importance o f Types o f Selling Ability
Abilities Salespeople Managers Physicians Sum of Ranks
Adaptability 1 1 3 5
Knowledge 2 4 1 7
Presentation Skills 5 1 1 7
Listening Skills 2 1 6 9
Questioning Skills 4 4 5 13
Observational Skills 6 6 9 21
Confidence 7 7 10 24
Organization Skills 8 7 11 26
Enthusiasm 9 12 7 28Empathy 10 7 12 29
Handle Rejection 11 7 13 31
Creativity II 12 8 31
Perseverance 11 7 13 31
Likability 14 14 4 32
Source: Weilbaker (1990).
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By summing across the perceived importance the top five selling skills were
(Table 2.1) adaptability, knowledge, presentation skills, listening skills, questioning
skills. The current study proposes to use these top ranked five abilities. If no
relationships are found using these top 5 it is unlikely that relationships exists with any of
the other component factors. Following is a review of the previous studies, which have
examined these five abilities.
Adaptability
Adaptability in personal selling is the ability to change planned sales behaviors
(activities or messages) during or across customer interactions in order to respond to
circumstances that are different than what was expected (Weilbaker, 1990; Weitz, Sujan,
& Sujan, 1986). Adaptive salespeople alter their sales behaviors during a customer
interaction or across customer interactions based on perceived information about the
nature of the selling situation. Work supporting this proposed relationship between
adaptive selling skills and sales performance has been conducted by Anglin, Stoltman and
Gentry (1990); Leong, Busch, and John (1989), Tanner (1994), and Predmore and
Bonnice (1994) and Weitz, (1981) and Weitz, Sujan & Sujan, (1986).
Despite the evidence from some o f the work cited above for a relationship
between adaptive selling skills and sales results, Pettijohn, Pettijohn, Parker, and Taylor
(1996) conducted a meta analysis across 40 studies and concluded that there was
insufficient evidence to show any overall positive relationship between adaptability and
performance.
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Given the conflicting evidence about the effectiveness of adaptive selling on sales
performance, researchers attempted to uncover the boundary conditions that define when
adaptive selling might be related to selling performance. Blackshear (1998) suggested
that part of the inconsistent results from inadequate and inconsistent definitions of
adaptive selling. Blackshear noted that positive findings appeared most likely when a
broad definition o f adaptive behaviors was used. Marks, Vorhies, and Badovick (1996)
proposed that the mixed results occurred because of reliance on a measure o f adaptive
selling that was unidimensional. It may simply be that adaptive selling is dependent upon
the nature of the selling situation (Giacobbe,1991; Spiro & Weitz, 1990).
Both Giacobbe (1991) and Blackshear (1998) suggested that the amount of risk a
buyer perceives during a purchase might relate to adaptive selling behavior. Riskier
purchases may require a more adaptive selling orientation. Variety o f customers is
another area in which adaptability is very important. It is obvious that unique approaches
will help close a sale or facilitate a sale when each customer has his/her distinct
characteristics.
Product varieties may also have an influence on adaptive selling behavior, as
suggested both by Giacobbe ( 1991) and Blackshear (1998). The characteristics of each
product may require a different approach for each product. Giacobbe (1991) suggested
that duration o f relationship might be an important factor in the need to practice adaptive
selling. The longer the relationship is, the more important adaptability is to the
salesperson. Apparently, repeated presentations have to be made for long-term selling
and modified presentations have to be used.
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In addition, Giacobbe (1991) suggested that presence o f a buying center, dollar
value of sale and complexity o f the offering are also important factors affecting adaptive
selling practices. Spiro and Weitz (1992) expanded the situations to company’s resources
and salespeople’s capacity. Consumer goods, as opposed to industrial goods, may require
different selling approaches. Table 2.2 summarizes the situations in which adaptability
may or may not be important from previous studies.
Table 2.2
Situations Under Which Adaptability is Important
Giacobbe (1991) Spiro & Weitz (1992) Blackshear (1998)
1. The buying center
2. Purchase risk
3. Dollar value o f sale
4. Variety o f products
5. Duration of relationship
6. Homogeneity of customers’ needs
7. Complexity o f the offering
1. Large orders
2. Variety o f customers
3. Company’s resources4. Salespeople's capacity
1. Amount o f risk
2. Type o f products
3. Interaction between salesperson
and customers
4. Con sumer goods/industrial goods
Source: Blackshear (1998), Giacobbe (1991), Spiro & Weitz (1992)
Are these moderating factors relevant to pharmaceutical sales? Based on previous
studies, several factors previously found to be boundary conditions for performance
effects of differing levels o f adaptive selling skills appear to be relevant to pharmaceutical
sales selling situation.
First, both Giacobbe (1991) and Blackshear (1998) emphasize that purchase risk
may relate to adaptability. In the pharmaceutical selling, the amount o f purchase risk is
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high for "buyers" — physicians and patients. Physicians have to be knowledgeable of
efficacy, safety, and side effects of all products they prescribe for their patients. In order
to help physicians identify the right product to use, a salesperson will have to make
his/her selling as unique as possible.
Second, the duration of relationship between the salesperson and customers has
been identified as an important factor for promoting adaptive selling. The longer the
relationship is, the more adaptive the salesperson needs to be. In pharmaceutical sales,
the relationship between the salesperson and a physician is long term and repeated
presentations are necessary. Frequent calls to a physician are essential to keep a
physician continuing to prescribe company’s products. A non-adaptive sales presentation
will not be effective when a salesperson makes frequent calls on the same buyer.
Finally, PSRs face a high degree of heterogeneity among customers. Great
differences exist from one physician to another. Physicians differ in geographic region
(e.g., urban-rural), size and type of practice (large hospitals, group practice, or a “solo”
office), type o f patient (old, young, male, female), and disease state o f patients (severe,
mild). Therefore, pharmaceutical sales representatives have to be trained to adapt to the
exact nature o f their situation (Freiman, 1992).
In summary, adaptability is likely to be very important in pharmaceutical industry
selling. Based on a preponderance of the evidence which suggests that PSRs face
differing sales conditions and environments PSRs adaptive selling ability should be
positively related to sales effectiveness.
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Knowledge
Knowledge o f specific products/services is essential for personal selling because it
permits a salesperson to attach a specific set o f product/service solutions to specific
needs. A high degree o f knowledge also may have very positive side effects by helping
the salesperson build a positive self-image and feel thoroughly prepared to interact with
customers (e.g., Anderson, 1995; Futrell, 1992; Peterson, Wright, & Weitz, 1988). This
thinking has been supported by the research. Studies consistently show that more
effective salespeople have greater knowledge about their company’s products (Smith &
Owens, 1995; Sujan, Sujan, & Bettman, 1988).
As product cycles shorten and technology advances salespeople are under pressure
to keep up to date. Today’s pharmaceutical products are extremely complex. New drugs
come into the market every year. Diseases and their treatments are more complex. The
variety of products and services available today is a challenge to consumers and
physicians and help is needed to make informed decisions. Professionally trained and
knowledgeable pharmaceutical sales representatives are the experts. They work with
physicians by demonstrating the efficacy, benefits, safety aspects, and side effects o f the
drug. They help physicians make decisions on which drug to prescribe for which type of
patients that allows consumers (patients) to make informed decisions. The research that
supports this is clear. PSR's expertise is one that is the most trusted of all information
sources available to the professional medical community (Andaleeb and Tallman, 1995;
Avon, Chen & Harley, 1982; Huston, 1993; Thomas, 1989).
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In summary, salesperson knowledge has been found to have a significant impact
on sales performance. The more knowledgeable a salesperson is about his/her products,
the more successful he/she will be.
Presentation Skills
Personal selling is an example of very individualized communication (Weitz,
Sujan, & Sujan, 1986). The ability of the salesperson to use of verbal and nonverbal
means to clearly convey the benefits o f their particular products/service in a sales
message is called presentation skills.
In pharmaceutical sales the presentation of products/services are indirectly
regulated. The Food and Drug Administrations (FDA) has very restrictive regulations on
labeling (what indications a drug can be used for), sales aids, competitive claims and so
on. If any inappropriate promotional materials or claims are used by PSRs, FDA would
impose very severe penalties on corporations. PSR attempts to "sell" his or her
company’s products has to meet the FDA regulations.
The restrictive environment in which presentation skills are displayed is one
reason why PSR’s need well developed presentation skills. In addition, the need for
salespeople to have excellent presentation skills is highlighted by the short duration of
most pharmaceutical sales (6-10 minutes) (Scott-Levin, 1996). In this short time the
pharmaceutical representative's sales presentation may have to show concrete facts about
product efficacy, benefits, safety and side effects. Given the relatively short t ime duration
o f interaction, the presentation has to be very concise and to the point. Good presentation
skills should lead to effectiveness.
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Listening Skills
Listening in the personal sales context has been defined as the cognitive process
of actively sensing, interpreting, evaluating, and responding to the verbal and nonverbal
messages of present or potential customers (Castleberry & Shepherd, 1993; Steil, Barker,
& Watson, 1983). Good salespeople are good listeners. They ask questions, listen as
prospects answer to uncover their needs. Then they show how their products’ benefits
will fulfill these needs. The ability to identify and meet customer needs separates the
successful salesperson from the average salesperson (Oberhaus, Ratliffe, & Stauble,
1993). Indeed, Moore, Eckrich and Carlson (1986) reported in their study that industrial
salespeople rated listening as the most important skill needed to be successful. Ingram,
Schwepker, and Hutson (1992) found poor listening skills to be blamed as the most
important factor in contributing to salesperson failure.
Although researchers have suggested that there is a link between effective
listening, adaptive selling and sales performance (Castleberry & Shepherd, 1993), little
research has focused on effective listening skills in the personal selling context (Comer &
Drollinger, 1999). Only two empirical studies have examined the effectiveness of
listening (Boorom, 1994; Ramsey & Sohi, 1997).
Two frameworks have been proposed to understand this relationship (Castleberry
& Shepherd, 1993; Comer & Drollinger, 1999). Castleberry and Shepherd (1993)
proposed that listening has four dimensions: sensing, interpreting, evaluating, and
responding. In the sensing process, the salesperson receives all verbal and non-verbal
cues (words, inflection, body language, facial expressions) transmitted by others and must
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be able to decode buyer nonverbal cues. Then the salesperson interprets the message and
compares incoming messages to those in memory. In the evaluating process, the listener
identifies the key elements o f the messages and assesses the importance of messages.
The listener decides whether to agree, or not to disagree with the message. The last
process is responding in verbal o r non-verbal forms. In this process, the listener
acknowledges the occurrence of listening and encourages communication to continue.
The response can be verbal feedback such as questioning or summarizing, or nonverbal
cues such as a smile or frown.
Comer and Drollinger (1999) merged the concepts o f active listening and
empathy. In their model, they combined interpreting and evaluating into one step and
added understanding and remembering to the listening dimension. They suggested that
salespeople with active empathetic listening would outperform those with weaker
listening.
The research that has been done in this area supports the conceptions discussed
above. Boorom (1994) examined listening and its interaction with adaptive selling and
reported a positive relationship. A study by Ramsey and Sohi (1997) surveyed a group of
new car buyers to assess listening skills of salespeople. They found a strong, positive
correlation between salespeople listening and two constructs: trust in the salesperson, and
anticipation o f future interactions with that salesperson.
In a pharmaceutical sales environment the need to have good listening skills is
etched by the scientific nature of the information given and the short time in which it
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occurs. Based on previous research and conceptual thought listening skills o f
pharmaceutical reps are expected to be positively related to sales performance.
Questioning Skills
The importance of probing for information, asking questions is well recognized in
selling textbooks (e.g., Oberhaus, Ratliffe, & Stauble, 1993; Pederson, Wright, & Weitz,
1988). There are three main reasons for questioning the customer (Oberhaus, Ratliffe, &
Stauble, 1993). They are: to gather information, to assess how a customer thinks or feels,
and to verify facts and attitudes discovered by other questions or data sources. In this
way salespeople are able to identify the customer’s obvious problems or needs and those
that are not always obvious (Weilbaker, 1990). Weitz (1978) found that sales
performance is related to the salespeople’s ability to form accurate impression o f
customer beliefs and values and the degree to which they develop effective sales
strategies based on these impressions.
Questions persuade more powerfully than any other form o f verbal behavior.
There is a clear statistical association between the use of questions and the success o f the
interaction. The more questions asked, the more successful the interaction is likely to be
(Schuster and Danes 1986).
The time pressure o f a pharmaceutical sales representative may not be the perfect
situation to use various types of questioning techniques. Sales representatives have to be
skilled and ask the most appropriate questions to fit the pharmaceutical sales
environment. As a result good questioning technique may be very helpful.
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Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses
To summarize the previous literature and illustrate the purpose o f the present
study, the following conceptual framework has been developed. The five selling abilities
that have been previously identified as top skills are believed to impact sales
performance. Although there is evidence that selling ability is related to performance
there is not strong evidence o f which o f the components of the process are important.
Adaptive selling ability is the ability to change planned selling behavior in order
to respond to situations that are different than what was expected. A salesperson who is
able to react to the needs o f different customers across various sales situations will be
more successful than one who is less able to react. Therefore, a positive relationship is
expected between sales representative’s adaptability and sales representative's
performance. The following hypothesis is proposed:
H I: There is a positive relationship between salespeople’s adaptability and their
sales performance.
Second, product knowledge a salesperson possesses positively impacts a
salesperson's performance. A high degree of product knowledge increases a salesperson's
confidence in selling and believing in his/her company's products. Customers will have
confidence and trust in a salesperson who is knowledgeable o f his/her company’s
products and those o f the competitors. Therefore the following preposition is stated:
H2: There is a positive relationship between salespeople’s product knowledge
and their sales performance.
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Sales presentation is one of the important steps in personal selling. Presentation
skill is the use o f verbal and nonverbal means to clearly convey the content of the sales
message. Good presentation skills should lead to sales effectiveness. Hypothesis three is
as follows:
H3: There is a positive relationship between salespeople’s presentation skills and
their sales performance.
Effective listening skills are essential to personal selling. Good salespeople are
good listeners. Listening skills can be effectively used to gather information about the
customers. The ability to identify and meet customer needs separates the successful
salesperson from the average salesperson. Skilled salespeople listen carefully to what
information the customer provides and use that information to organize their thoughts
about how to respond to customer's needs. Therefore, listening skills are expected to
have a positive impact on sales representative's sales performance.
H4: There is a positive relationship between salespeople’s listening skills and
their sales performance.
Finally, questioning skills are expected to have positive impact on sales
performance. Questions persuade more powerfully than any other form of verbal
behavior. Probing for information and asking questions may help salespeople to identify
customers’ problems or needs that are not obvious. The use o f questions is associated
with the success o f the interaction. The following hypothesis is proposed:
H5: There is a positive relationship between salespeople’s questioning skills and
their sales performance.
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The following flow chart shows the relationship between the five selling abilities
and sales representative's sales performance. Positive relationships are expected between
each o f the five selling abilities and sales performance.
Adaptability
Knowledge
Sales PerformancePresentation
Skills
Listening
Skills
Questioning
Skills
Figure 2.1. Conceptual Framework.
Other Influencing Factors
Although selling abilities are the primary factors that will be examined in the
present study, it is also important to derive a list o f other factors that may have influences
on sales performance and to rule out alternative explanations. Personal variables are
defined as "intra-individual factors that might be related to salespeople's performance but
which are not part of the aptitude, skill level, motivation, and role perceptions
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components" (Churchill, Ford, Hartley, & Walker, 1985). Past studies have shown that
personal characteristics are predictors o f sales performance (Churchill, Ford, Hartley, &
Walker, 1985). The list of important factors in this current study specifically includes
salesperson’s gender, age, education, and job tenure.
Gender
Salesperson's gender may have an impact on selling effectiveness. While gender
roles have been changing in our culture, vestiges of the past remain. Differential
socialization may leave residual traces that affect the way salesmen and saleswomen
approach their jobs. Lagace and Twibble (1990) suggest that women in industrial selling
tend to be androgynous. Goolsby, Lagace and Boorom (1992) also suggest that
androgyny is more closely related to adaptive selling in saleswomen than it is in
salesmen. Meyers-Levey and Maheswaran (1991) propose that women may use different
processing strategies that could affect the way they relate to customers.
Women are alleged to be actually better suited for selling. Women are said to be
naturally better listeners and adaptive in their selling styles. Comer and Jolson (1991)
suggest that women’s sex-role prepares them very well for selling. Their characteristic
nurturing and sensitivity to others, equip them well for the interpersonal aspects o f the
job. Studies have also demonstrated women’s strength in various areas such as their
empathetic listening (Cole, 1985; Figel, 1983; Skolnik, 1985), their strong work ethic
(Cole, 1985; Figel, 1983), their service orientation (Figel, 1983; Skolnik, 1985), their
organization (Figel, 1983), their detail orientation, their long range thinking (Linkemer,
1989), and their humanistic approach to moral reasoning (Dawson, 1992).
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Based on previous research, gender is expected to have an impact on sales
performance. Women in particular are expected to have higher sales performance than
their male counterparts.
Age
In a retail sales encounter, Kang and Hillery (1998) found that older customers
had more favorable attitudes toward older retail salespeople than toward younger
salespeople. Even younger customers expressed a higher preference for older salespeople
than for younger salespeople.
Thurston, Lennon, & Clayton (1990) suggest that age contributes to a professional
image, with older age conveying an impression of experience and competence.
Organizational behavior perspective also suggests that older salespeople are generally
more involved in their job and place greater emphasis on work values. Therefore, age is
expected to have a positive relationship on sales performance. Older salespeople should
have a higher level of performance than younger salespeople.
Education and Job Tenure
Better-educated and experienced salespeople may have a more ecumenical view
of the world, which might make them better able to see other people's points o f view
(Comer & Drollinger, 1996). They may also have better-developed and richer knowledge
structures than others, which may have some impact on sales performance.
Job tenure is another factor that may have influences on sales performance.
Salespeople who have been in their current positions for a relatively longer time tend to
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be more familiar with the individual territory. They may also have built up a good
relationship with their customers. Their clients may also feel more comfortable to contact
them when they have questions.
In general, it is expected that education and job tenure will have a positive
relationship with sales performance. Sales representatives with higher education and
longer employment history in sales will perform better.
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CHAPTER 3 - METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the research design and statistical procedures to be used for
analysis in the current study. Data collection and variables descriptions are outlined.
Data Collection
The data for this study were obtained from a large international pharmaceutical
company. The first part o f the data was the objective/quantitative measurement. Sales
quota attainment was obtained from the company’s database. The second part of the data
came from a survey o f salesperson’s self-ratings on selling abilities and sales
performance. A questionnaire was developed based on previous studies in the literature.
Before the questionnaire was administered, a pretest was carried out. Five sales
representatives were asked to fill out the questionnaire. Information such as whether
instructions are clear, any problem items, how much time is required to complete the
questionnaire were collected. The feedback from sales representatives was positive. No
revision was made.
After the questionnaire was finalized, it was sent out to the selected participants.
A random sample o f 1,500 sales representatives was selected from the company’s total
3,000 representative’s sales force. A questionnaire was sent to the sales representatives at
their home addresses. A cover letter explaining the intent o f the study and confidentiality
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previous study on international electronics selling environment (Castleberry, Shepherd, &
Ridnour, 1998). The scale was found to be reliable with Cronbach’s alpha o f 0.82.
Validity o f the scale has been demonstrated in the original study by Behrman and
Perreault (1982). The correlation o f these self-report measures with the comparable
component evaluation from sales managers, profitability data and internal company
ratings was derived. In combination it was suggested that the self-report scale captures
common variance with other indicators of performance. In addition, numerous empirical
studies have used this scale and demonstrated the validity of this scale (e.g., Auglin,
Stolman, & Gentry, 1990; Castleberry, Shepherd, & Ridnour, 1998; Churchill, Ford,
Hartley, & Walker, 1985; Goolsby, Lagace, & Boorom, 1992).
Following are the 4 items from Behrman and Perreault (1982):
1. I produce a high market share for my company in my territory.
2. I identify and sell to major accounts in my territory.
3. I exceed all sales targets and objectives for my territory during the year.
4. I generate a high level o f dollar sales.
Another scale with 4 items developed based on job description will also be used.
This scale is based on a study by Blackshear and Plank (1993) in a pharmaceutical sales
context. A Cronbach's alpha of 0.84 was reported in their study. This scale is
appropriate for this study because of several reasons. First, their study was also
conducted in a pharmaceutical sales setting. So these measures are pertinent to this
specific industry. Second, sales manager’s evaluation data were examined in the original
study and similar relationship was found between sales performance and the independent
variables (adaptive behavior).
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Following are the 4 items scale for sales performance from Blackshear and Plank
(1993).
1. I achieve sales call goals.
2. I achieve market share goals.
3. I achieve sales goals.
4. I achieve overall goals.
Quota Attainment
Quota attainment came from the company’s database. Each individual territory is
to compare with its pre-determined quota. The quota is predetermined based on factors
such as territory potential, territory difficulty, and competition. The ratio of actual sales
over preset sales is the quota attainment for that individual territory or salesperson. The
company uses quota attainment as the base for performance evaluation and incentive
compensations.
Independent Variables
Independent variables in this study include five selling ability variables and
control variables. Five selling ability variables are adaptability (ADAPT), knowledge
(KNOW), presentation skill (PRESEN), listening skill (LISTEN), and questioning skill
(INTER). Control variables include age (AGE), gender (GENDER), education
(EDUCA), and job tenure (TENURE). Age was measured as a continuous variable by
subtracting the year the respondent was bom from the current year. Gender was coded as
male (1) and female (0), a dichotomous variable. Education was measured in five
groups: less than high school, high school, some college, college, and graduate degree.
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Job tenure was measured as number o f years in sales profession. Table 3.1 summarizes
the measurement and discussion on scales to be used follows after the table.
Table 3.1
Measures o f Variables
Deoendend Variable Measure
Sales Performance 8 items (Cronbach's alpha = .82)
quota attainment
Independent Variables Measure
Selling Ability Variables
Adaptability 16 items (Cronbach's alpha = .75 & .63)
Knowledge 7 items
Presentation Skill 8 items
Listening Skill 13 items (Cronbach's alpha = .80, .64, .91)
Questioning Skill 7 items
Control Variables Measure
Age year was bomGender male/female
Education < high school, high school, some college, college, graduate degree
Tenure years/months o f service with the company
Adaptability
The measurement of adaptability used the 16-item scale developed by Spiro and
Weitz (1990). The reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of the scale was .85. Marks, Vorhies,
and Badovick (1996) suggested that two constructs (adaptive selling beliefs and adaptive
selling behaviors) were represented by the ADAPTS items. Therefore, the present study
used the modified version o f ADAPTS scale with both the behavior construct and belief
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construct. The be lief construct included questions 1 ,5 ,6 , and 14 and its Cronbach's
alpha is .63. The rest were in the behavior dimension and its Cronbach's alpha was .75.
The following ADAPTS scale was used for this study.
1. Each customer requires a unique approach.
2. When I feel that my sales approach is not working, I can easily change to another.
3. I like to experiment with different sales approaches.
4. I am very flexible in the selling approach I use.
5. I feel that most buyers can be dealt with in pretty much in the same manner.
6. I don’t change my approach from one customer to another.
7. I can easily use a wide variety o f selling approaches.
8. I use a set sales approach.
9. It is easy for me to modify my sales presentation in the situation calls for it.
10. Basically I use the same approach with most customers.
11 .1am very sensitive to the needs o f my customers.
12.1find it difficult to adapt my presentation style to certain buyers.
13.1 vary my sales style from situation to situation.
14.1try to understand how one customer differs from another.
15 .1 feel confident that I can effectively change my planned presentation when
necessary.
16 .1treat all of my buyers pretty much the same.
Appendix A.4 reviewed the measurement used in prior research for adaptability in
details.
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Product Knowledge
The scale for testing product knowledge was based on several textbooks and
Weilbaker’s definition. Studies suggested that more effective salespeople had greater
knowledge about their own company’s products and also competitor’s products (Smith &
Owens, 1995; Sujan, Sujan, & Bettman, 1998). In order to be conclusive, a content
analysis was conducted. Table 3.2 presents the findings from the content analysis. These
items appear to be the most important items from major textbooks and were used for the
knowledge scale. The items were Likert-scaled from 1 to 7. In order to test validity of
these measures, an item was added to the end of the questionnaire, which asks
representatives to evaluate their overall product knowledge.
Presentation Skills
The scale for measuring presentation skills was developed through a content
analysis based on Weilbaker’s definition and several textbooks. A sales message has to
be effectively presented to the customer to maximize selling effectiveness. Verbal and
nonverbal transmissions of selling messages are critical in the selling process. The
results from the content analysis are presented in Table 3.3. These items appear to be the
most important items from major textbooks. Items were Likert-scaled from 1 being
“strongly disagree” to 7 being “strongly agree. One additional item was added to the end
of the questionnaire. This item asked representatives to rate themselves in terms of
presentation skills and was used as a validity check.
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Table 3.2
Content Analysis on Items from the Knowledue Scale
Item Weitz, Castleberry,
& Tanner (1998)
Pederson, Weight,
& Weitz (1984)
Oberhaus, Ratliffe,
& Staubel (1993)
Futrell
(1992)
Anderson
(1995)
Manning
& Reece (1993)
1 1possess product knowledge
more than 1am expected to know. X X X X X X
2 1spend above average time
on obtaining product knowledge. X X X X
3 1 have sufficient knowledge of
my company's products. X X X
4 1am familiar with the pricing of my company*
produc ts as well a s tha t o f our competitors.
s
X X X X X
5 1 have a good understanding of
my comp any’s product line. X X X X
6 1know competitor's products very well.
X X X X X
7 1am familiar with all the clinical side effects
o f my company’s products. X X X X X
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Table 3.3
Content Analysis on Items from the Presentation Skills Scale
Item Weitz, Castleberry,
& Tanner (1998)
Pederson, Weight,
& Weitz (1984)
Oberhaus, Ratliffe,
&Staubel(1993)
Futrcll
(1992)
Anderson
(1995)
Manning
& Reece (1993)
1 When I meet with my clients I am always well
prepared with great information about them. X X X X X X
2 I can verbally convey sales messages
well to my customers. X X X X
3 1speak clearly and understandably.
X X X X
4 1vary the pace of my speech when I give
sales presentations. X X X X X
3 Within very limited interacting time, I can
hardly convey my sales messages. X X X X
6 My clients always actively participate
in my presentations. X X X X X
7 Gestures and nonverbal symbols help me
a lot with my presentations. X X X X X
8 Visual aids (sales aids) are appropriately
used in my presentations. X X X X
ON
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37
Listening Skills
The measurement of listening skills is another area that has been investigated and
debated by researchers. Three widely recognized and used scales o f listening skill
measurement include the Kentucky Comprehensive Listening Test (KCLT), the Watson-
Barker Listening Test (WBLT), and the Communication Competency Assessment
Instrument (CCAI). Appendix A.5 presents a detailed discussion of different types of
listening tests.
Within the sales/marketing arena, Ramsey and Sohi (1997) developed a listening
scale with three dimensions: sensing, evaluating, and responding. The Cronbach alpha of
each dimension is .80, .64, and .91. One additional item was added to the end of the
questionnaire. This item asked representatives to rate themselves in terms of listening
skills and was used as a validity check. The following items were used for the listening
scale.
1. I focus only on my customers in a sales call.
2. I keep firm eye contact.
3. I pay attention to nonverbal gestures.
4. I never appear to be bored in the interactions with my customers
5. I always ask for more details from my customers.
6. I paraphrase my customer’s questions to better understand the meanings.
7. I do not interrupt my customers.
8. I do not change subject too frequently.
9. I try hard to understand what my customer is saying.
10 .1 use full sentences instead o f saying yes or no.
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11.1 offer relevant information to my customer's questions.
12.1show eagerness in my responses to my customers.
13.1 answer my customer's questions at appropriate times.
Questioning Skills
The measurement o f questioning skills is based on Weilbaker’s definition and
guidelines from several textbooks. Pederson, Wright and Weitz (1988) proposed several
guidelines for asking good questions. These are:
1. Encourage longer responses
2. Space out questions
3. Ask short, simple questions
4. Avoid leading questions.
A content analysis was conducted to assess the face validity of these items. The
items was Likert-scaled from 1 being “strongly disagree” to 7 being “strongly agree”.
Table 3.4 presents the results from content analysis. These items appear to be the most
important items from major textbooks. One additional item was added to the end of the
questionnaire. This item asked representatives to rate themselves in terms of
interrogative skills and was used as a validity check.
Statistical Analysis
Coefficient alpha is the basic statistic for determining the reliability o f a measure
based on internal consistency. A low coefficient alpha indicates the sample o f items
performs poorly in capturing the construct which motivated the measure. Conversely, a
large alpha indicates that the items correlates well with true scores. If alpha is low, this
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Table 3.4
Content Analysis on Items from the Questioning Skills Scale
Item Weitz, Castleberry,
& Tanner (1998)
Pederson, Weight,
& Weitz (1984)
Oberhaus, Ratlifle,
& Staubel (1993)
Futrell
(1992)
Anderson
(1995)
Manning
& Reece (1993)
1 I always prepare a list o f questions to askmy clients when 1call on them. X X X X X X
2 1always ask my clients whether they have
questions about my presentations. X X X X
3 1always know what my clients' needs are
from their questions. X X X
4 1receive a lot of questions from my clients
during a sales call. X X X X X
S 1can ea sily start a “small talk" with my clients.
X X X X
6 1ask more open-ended questions andfewer closed-ended questions. X X X X X
7 I always have time to ask my clients in-depth
questions. X X X X X
O J
VO
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outcome suggests that some items do not share equally in the common core and should be
eliminated. The simplest way to find them is to calculate the correlation o f each item
with the total score and to plot these correlations by decreasing order of magnitude.
Items with correlations near zero would be eliminated. Further, items which produce a
substantial or sudden drop in the item-to-total correlations would also be deleted
(Churchill, 1979).
Factor analysis was performed on the data for each scale to determine the possible
dimensionality of the underlying constructs. If factor analysis suggested that dimensions
which were conceptualized as independent clearly overlapped, items which had pure
loadings on the new factor were retained and a new alpha was calculated on the summed
items o f the dimensions.
Reliability checks and factor analyses should produce an internally consistent or
internally homogeneous set o f items. Consistency is necessary but not sufficient for
construct validity (Churchill, 1979). Rather, to establish the construct validity of a
measure, researchers also must determine the extent to which the measures correlate with
other measures designed to measure the same thing.
Construct validity is most directly related to the question o f what the instrument is
in fact measuring the construct. It has been suggested that any particular construct or trait
should be measurable by at least two, and preferable more, different methods. Otherwise
the researcher has no way of knowing whether the trait is anything but an artifact of the
measurement procedure. Evidence of the convergent validity of the measure is provided
by the extent to which it correlates highly with other methods designed to measure the
same construct. The measure should have not only convergent validity, but also
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discriminant validity. Discriminant validity is the extent to which the measure is indeed
novel and not simply a reflection o f some other variable. Quite simply, scales that
correlate too highly may be measuring the same rather than different constructs. The
measures used in this study were then analyzed.
In summary, three steps we