Person Centered Therapy

Frances KaplanTherapeutic Methods

Humanism – Carl Rogers

Therapeutic Methods

Person Centered Therapy – Carl Rogers

Frances Kaplan

Introduction



Person-centered therapy is based on concepts from humanistic

psychology, many of which were articulated by Carl Rogers in the early

1940's. The AllPsych.com dictionary describes Humanistic Psychology

as a theoretical view of human nature which stresses a positive view of

human nature and a strong belief in psychological homeostasis.

Rogers's basic assumptions are that people are fundamentally

trustworthy, that they have an enormous potential for understanding

and that they are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in

a particular kind of therapeutic relationship Corey (2005:164). He

believed that the therapists' personality traits and values; as well as

the relationship built between the client and therapist to be the biggest

determinants of a positive outcome in therapy. Modern-day person-

centered therapy is the product of an evolutionary process that

continues to remain open to change and refinement. His person-

centered approach was not intended to be a fixed and completed

approach to psychology; instead he hoped that others would view his

theory as a collection of tentative principles relating to how the

therapy process develops, not as dogma. Rogers expected for his

theory to be modified and he was open and receptive to change Corey

(2005:164).

Who was Carl Rogers?



Carl Rogers (1902 - 1987) led a life that reflected the ideas he

developed for half a century. He earned recognition around the world

for originating and developing the humanistic movement in

psychotherapy, pioneering in psychotherapy research, and influencing

all fields related to the helping professions. According to Heppner,

Rogers, & Lee in (Corey, G 2005:163) Rogers was once asked what he

would want his parents to know about his contributions if they were

able to communicate. He answered that he was unable to imagine

talking to mother about anything of significance as he was sure that

she would only have negative remarks. Interestingly, one of the major

ideas in his theory is the need for nonjudgmental listening and

acceptance if clients are to change.

Corey (2005:163) points out that "Rogers lived his life in harmony with

his theory and in his dealings with a wide variety of people in diverse

settings. His faith in people deeply affected the development of his

theories and the way that he related to all those with whom he came

into contact. Rogers who knew who he was, felt comfortable with his

beliefs, and was without pretense. He was not afraid to take a strong

position and challenge the status quo throughout his professional

career."



19 Propositions

Rogers' proposed 19 propositions or skills of sort that he believed

therapists should always keep in mind during the therapeutic process.

These propositions are not used in an ordered, structured fashion. They

are to be seen as themes which guide our thoughts and make us aware

of our thoughts and those of others.

Proposition 1: Human experience at a conscious and unconscious

level

'Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience of

which he is the centre.' (Rogers 1987:483)

Proposition 2: Human Perceptions

'The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived.

This perceptual field is, for the individual, reality.' (Rogers 1987:484)

Proposition 3: Wholeness / unity

'The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field.'

(Rogers 1987:486)

Proposition 4: Self-determination

'The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize,

maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism.' (Rogers 1987:487)

Proposition 5: Needs and behaviour

'Behaviour is basically the goal-directed attempt of the organism to

satisfy its needs as experienced in the field.' (Rogers 1987:4 91)

Proposition 6: Emotions



'Emotion accompanies and in general facilitates such goal-directed

behaviour, the kind of emotion being related to the seeking versus the

consummatory aspects of behaviour, and the intensity of the emotion

being related to the perceived significance of the behaviour for the

maintenance and enhancement of the organism.' (Rogers 1987: 492)

Proposition 7: Frames of reference

'Individuals have within themselves vast resources for self-

understanding and for altering their self concepts, basic attitudes, and

self-directed behaviour; these resources can be tapped if a definable

climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided.' (Rogers

1980: 115)

Proposition 8: The self

'A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated

as the self.' (Rogers 1987:497)

Proposition 9: How our perception of our significant others

influences the development of the self

'As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a

result of evaluational interaction with others, the structure of the self is

formed (an organized, fluid, but consistent conceptual pattern of

perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the "I" or the "me")

together with values attached to these concepts.' (Rogers 1987:498)

Proposition 10: Values - own and adopted from other people

'The values attached to experiences, and the values which are part of

the self structure, in some instances are values experienced directly by

the organism, and in some instances are values introjected or taken

over from others, but perceived in a distorted fashion as if they had

been experienced directly.' (Rogers 1987:498)



Proposition 11: Conscious experiences (which fit with the self) and

unconscious experiences (which do not

fit with the self)

'As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a)

symbolized, perceived, and organized into some relationship to the

self, (b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self

structure, (c) denied symbolization or (d) given a distorted

symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the

structure of the self.' (Rogers1987:503)

Proposition 12: Self and behaviour

'Most of the ways of behaving which are adopted by the organism are

those which are consistent with the concept of self.' (Rogers 1987: 507)

Proposition 13: Behaviour and unconscious experience

'Behaviour may in some instances, be brought about by organic

experiences and needs which have not been symbolized. Such

behaviour may be inconsistent with the structure of the self, but in

such instances, the behaviour is not "owned" by the individual.'

(Rogers 1987:509)

Proposition 14: Psychological tension

'Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies to

awareness significant sensory and visceral experiences, which

consequently are not symbolized and organized into the gestalt of the

self-structure. When this situation exists, there is a basic or potential

psychological tension.' (Rogers 1987:510)

Proposition 15: Reconstruction of self



'Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such

that all the sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or

may be, assimilated on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship

with the concept of self.' (Rogers 1987: 513)

Proposition 16: Defense of self

'Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization or structure

of the self will be perceived as a threat, and the more of these

perceptions there are, the more rigidly the self-structure is organized to

maintain itself.' (Rogers 1987:515)

Proposition 17: Conditions for facilitation

'Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of any

threat to the self-structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it

may be perceived, and examined, and the structure of self revised to

assimilate and include such experiences.' (Rogers 1987: 517)

Proposition 18: Acceptance of self and others

'When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and

integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is

necessarily more understanding of others and is more accepting of

others as separate individuals.' (Rogers 1987:520)

Proposition 19: Developing you value system

'As the individual perceives and accepts into his self-structure more of

his organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value

system – based so largely upon introjections which have been

distortedly symbolized – with a continuing organismic valuing process.'

(Rogers 1987:522)

Therapist's values



The therapist's values are those principles which direct his / her

attitude towards all of humankind. The professional values more

particularly reflect the therapist's attitude towards their clients.

Grobler, Schenk & du Toit (2005:86) It is vital that the therapist creates

a warm and safe environment where the client feels able to reveal their

deepest and darkest secrets, only in such conditions, will a client be

able to grow and heal. If the therapist not able to believe in the clients

striving fro growth, the outcome of the therapeutic process may be

questioned.

Respect

One of the most important and central values to the person centered

approach is respect. Rogers (1987:19), warns against the habit of using

respect only as a method or technique. According to him, respect is

more an attitude that is supplemented by certain techniques and

methods. (Grobler, Schenk & du Toit (2005:89). According Grobler,

Schenk & du Toit (2005:92) the following are suggested ways for the

therapist to implement respect in practice.

1. Do not judge your clients decisions or actions

The therapists' job is to guide and assist the client with the

troubles they are experiencing, not to judge whether their actions

have been good or bad or whether they are guilty of anything.

Instead the therapist should focus on understanding the clients'

feelings and pain and in so doing, assist them in growing.

2. Allow and enable the client to work through their pain

Working through the therapeutic process quite often is a painful

experience. The client needs to be able to return to difficult

experiences and relive the past pain. The therapist needs to be

there for the client and guide them through this, rather than try to

avoid it altogether.



Individualization

If the therapist accepts the value of individualization, he or she,

according to Grobler, Schenk & du Toit (2005:1097) as quoted by

Rogers (1987:29) 'assumes the internal frame of reference of the

client, the perceive the world as the client sees it, to perceive the

client himself as he is seen by himself, to lay aside all perceptions

from the external frame of reference while doing so, and to

communicate something of this empathic understanding to the

client.'

Self determination

Every person knows himself better than anybody else and is

therefore in the best position to explore, expose and understand the

self.

According to Grobler, Schenk & du Toit (2005:104) self

determination means that the clients determine for themselves:

o What they wish to discuss

o How they wish to discuss it

o Whether they wish to discuss it

o What their needs are

o How they wish to satisfy their needs

o What their own values are and will be

o What the threatening experiences are

o The direction in which to move in the exploration of painful

experiences.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is a contentious issue as there are many grey areas

which the therapist needs to be aware of. If a client is to build a



trusting relationship with the therapist it is vital that he feel his

experiences will be kept confidential, without confidentiality, the

client will never feel comfortable or safe enough to disclose his

secrets.

How does the humanistic approach differ to other approaches?

In an article by Kirschenbaum (2004:10) he suggests that humanistic

psychology differs from psychoanalysis and behaviourism in at least

three ways.

1. This psychology gave more emphasis and credence to the

individual's phenomenal field, for example, the person centered

therapist's empathizing with the client's frame of reference rather than

evaluating or diagnosing from the outside, or the existential

psychotherapist's helping the patient find 'meaning' in life –meaning as

perceived by the diem.

2. This psychology focused not just on remediation of psychological

problems but on psychological health, wellness, creativity, self-

actualization, or what Rogers (1957b,1961b) described as "the fully

functioning person". The goal was more than "adjustment", but helping

people experience their full human potential.

3. It was a psychology interested in what distinguishes human beings

from other species. Choice, will, freedom, values, feelings, goals, and

other humanistic concerns were all central subjects of study.

Tao Psychotherapy: Introducing a New Approach to Humanistic

Practice.

Tao Psychotherapy can be described as a synthesis of eastern and

western psychotherapies in quest of integrating psychoanalytic,

existential, humanistic, and transpersonal, and Eastern perspectives in

a single coherent approach. It was founded by a Korean psychiatrist,



Dr. Rhee Dongshick in 1974, who grew up rather poor in a little village

called Waegwa. His childhood memories are tainted by memories of his

father leaving him and choosing his friends instead. Further more, at

the tender age of five, his younger sister, who he adored, passed away

suddenly. Adversity thus was no stranger in the life of this child who

grew up to be a admired psychiatrist. Craig (2007:109)

"Students of Tao are taught to be mindful just in order to be mindless,

to have an empty mind, a mind free of determinative, categorical

conceptualizations. Tao psychology rejects linear, abstract, logical

analysis in favour of empathic affect in the flow of immediately given

experience. It is also profoundly culturally sensitive, that is deeply

rooted in the values and customs of Korean culture." Craig (2007:111)

Carl Rogers admired the early teaching of Tao by Lao Tzu and in 1973

added the following passage in an article, indicating that it was

perhaps his very favourite from Lao Tzu:

If I keep from meddling with people, they take care of themselves,

If I keep from commanding people, they behave themselves,

If I keep from preaching at people, they improve themselves,

If I keep from imposing on people, they become themselves.

(Chapter 57, W, Bynner, Trans.)

Rhee was intrigued by the works he read of American psychologists,

especially those of Maslow and Rogers. "Indeed it was some of Rogers'

case studies that was published in the late 1950's (Rogers, 1958, 1959;

Lewis, Rogers & Shlein, 1959) that confirmed some of Rhee's own

independent clinical discoveries." (Craig 2007: 121)



Tao Psychotherapy offers a fundamentally humanistic approach to

depth psychology. It is at once concerned with human suffering and

conflict, and at the same time essentially spiritual. Tao Psychotherapy

centers around four basic emphases Craig (2007:124):

1. The development of the personality of the therapist with the

focus being on the emptying of the mind.

2. The therapist's empathic attunement with and compassion for

the patient.

3. Nuclear feelings - a highly charged affective complex originating

from childhood as a primary motivational influence throughout

ones life.

4. The irreplaceable value of lived experience, without which none

of the above can be appropriately grasped and carried out with

genuineness and grace.

In a nutshell, the therapist establishes rapport, a sense of genuine

concern relatedness with the patients; the therapist abstains from

personal gain and, rather, inquires, listens, and engages the other with

honesty and commitment to the person and to the therapeutic

commission, patients say whatever is alive and true for them in the

moment; together, the therapeutic partners seek the meanings,

limitations, and possibilities that present themselves directly in the

patient's life. Craig (2007:125)

Criticism of the person Centered Approach

Participants of the United Service Organization, where Rogers spent an

interim year training, performed a skit of Rogers in his tenth floor office

counseling a suicidal client. The following is the dialogue in the skit as

described by Kirschenbaum (2004:7-8):



"Dr. Rogers," the client would say, "I'm feeling suicidal."

"You're feeling suicidal?" Rogers would answer.

"Yes, I'm walking over to the window, Dr. Rogers."

"I see. You're walking over to the window," Rogers answers.

"Look, Dr. Rogers, I'm opening the window," the client says.

"You feel like opening the window?" Rogers reflects.

"Yes, I'm putting one foot out of the window, now."

"You're halfway out, is that it?"

"Yes, now I'm jumping Dr. Rogers"

"Uh, huh, uh, huh, you're jumping," says Rogers.

And, sure enough the client jumps, making a whooshing sound as he

falls through the air before landing with a crash.

Thereupon Rogers walks over to the window, looks out and reflects,

"Whooooosh ... Plop!"

Rogers soon recognised that the counselor's attitudes were as

important as his particular techniques. The techniques or methods

were the way to implement the facilitative attitudes of accepting and

understanding. Moreover, if these attitudes of the counselor were not

genuine, all the reflecting of feelings in the world would not be of much

help to the client. Kirschenbaum (2004:7-8)

Corey (2003:184) suggests that accusations of scientific shortcomings

involve using control subjects who are not candidates fro therapy,



failing to use an untreated control group, failing to account for placebo

effects, reliance on self-reports as a major way to assess the outcomes

of therapy, and using inappropriate statistical procedures.

Do Clients Really Prefer Person-Centered Therapy?

Studies done by medical doctors in Washington, reveal that there is

evidence to show that patients do not necessarily prefer patient-

centered therapy. In their research it was found that almost a third of

patients prefer a non-patient-centered approach. (Swenson, Buell,

Zettler, White, Ruston, Bernard 2002:1075)

This leads me to the question: Will we find the same results in the field

of psychology? In today's life, time is money, and both is a luxury to

most people. Do our patients want to spend that luxury on self healing

or do they prefer the 3 minute guide to healing depression. Dr. Phill Mc

Graw has been gracing our Television screens for years and even

Oprah seems to think his approach to be a phenomenon. Have people

reached a point where they want to know what their problem is and

how to fix it in one simple session?

Conclusion

Rogers' person-centered therapy broke new ground and undoubtedly

made a huge impact on psychology as we know it today. His

genuineness and devotion, for his clients and psychology, shine

through in all the articles and books cited. There are however some

short fallings and much room to grow, which Rogers' would have

welcomed with open arms. It is this open and free environment that he

created with his patients and his proposed values and propositions that

make using the person-centered approach so welcoming.



References

Anon. n.d. All Psych Dictionary available from:

http://allpsych.com/dictionary/dictionary2.html (Accessed 2008/02/20)

http://allpsych.com/dictionary/dictionary2.html



Buell, S., Lo, B., Ruston, D.C., Swenson, S.L., White, M., Zetler, P. 2004.

Patient-centred communication – Do patients really prefer it? J Gen

intern Med, 19: 1069 – 1079

Corey, G. 2005 7th Edition. Theory and practice of counseling &

psychotherapy. United States of America: Thomson books/Cole

Craig, E. 2007. Tao Psychotherapy: Introducing a new approach to

humanistic practice. The humanist psychologist, 35(2), 109-133.

Du Toit, D & Grobler, H & Schenck, R. 2005 3rd Edition. Person-centered

communication. South Africa: Oxford university press

Kirschenbaum, H. 2004. Carl Rogers's life and work: an assessment on

the 100th anniversary of his birth. Journal of counseling and

development, v82 i1 (116)

Rogers, C. 2003. Client-centered therapy. London: Constable &

Robinson

Sadock, J & Sadock, V.A. 2007 10th Edition. Synopsis of Psychiatry.

Philadelphia: Kaplan Sadock

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