Persian language

“Farsi” redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Farsi,Iran.

Persian (/ˈpɜrʒən/ or /ˈpɜrʃən/), also known by itsendonym Farsi (English: /ˈfɑrsiː/; Persian: فارسی fārsi[fɒːɾˈsiː]), is the predominant modern descendant of OldPersian, a southwestern Iranian language within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. It is pri-marily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan (officially known asDari since 1958 for political reasons),[8] and Tajikistan(officially known as Tajiki since the Soviet era for po-litical reasons),[9] and some other regions which histor-ically came under Persian influence. The Persian lan-guage is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian,the official religious and literary language of SassanidPersia, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the languageof the Achaemenid Persian Empire.[10][11][12] Persian isa pluricentric language and its grammar is similar tothat of many contemporary European languages.[13] Per-sian is so-called due to its origin from the capital ofthe Achaemenid empire, Persis (Fars or Pars), hence thename Persian (Farsi or Parsi). A Persian-speaking personmay be referred to as Persophone.[14]

There are approximately 110 million Persian speakersworldwide, with the language holding official status inIran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persianhas also been a prestigious cultural language in other re-gions of Western Asia, Central Asia, and South Asia bythe various empires based in the regions.[15]

Persian has had a considerable (mainly lexical) influenceon neighboring languages, particularly the Turkic lan-guages in Central Asia, Caucasus, and Anatolia, neigh-boring Iranian languages, as well as Armenian, Georgian,and Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu. It also ex-erted some influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Ara-bic,[16] while borrowing much vocabulary from it afterthe Muslim conquest of Persia.[10][13][17][18][19][20]

With a long history of literature in the form of MiddlePersian before Islam, Persian was the first language inMuslim civilization to break through Arabic’s monopolyon writing, and the writing of poetry in Persian was es-tablished as a court tradition in many eastern courts.[15]

Some of the famous works of Persian literature are theShahnameh ('Book of Kings’) of Ferdowsi, works ofRumi, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Divan ('miscellany')of Hafiz and the two miscellanea of prose and verse bySa'di of Shiraz, the Golestān (lit., 'flower garden') andthe Būstān (also meaning “garden;" lit., 'a place of fra-

grance').

1 Classification

Persian belongs to the Western branch of the Iranianfamily of Indo-European languages, which also includesKurdish, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Talyshi, and Baluchi. Thelanguage is in the Southwestern Iranian group, along withthe Larestani, Kumzari, and Luri languages.[21]

2 Etymology

2.1 Persian language name in Persian

In Persian, the language is known by several names:

• Farsi [22],(fārsi فارسی) or Parsi ( پارسی) has been thename for Persian used by all native speakers until the20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20thcentury, for political reasons, in English, Farsi hasbecome the name of the Persian language as it isspoken in Iran.

• Dari darī دری) )[23] was a synonym for fārsi in Per-sian, but again for political reasons, since the lat-ter decades of the 20th century, has become thename for the Persian language as it is spoken inAfghanistan, where it is one of the two official lan-guages; it is sometimes called Afghan Persian inEnglish.[24]

• Tajiki (тоҷикӣ / tojikī تاجیکی )[25] is a dialect of Per-sian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and issometimes termed Tajiki Persian.[26]

2.2 English name

Persian, the historically more widely used name of thelanguage in English, is an anglicized form derived fromLatin *Persianus < Latin Persia < Greek Περσίς Persís“Persia”,[27] a Hellenized form of Old Persian Parsa.[28]

According to theOxford English Dictionary, the term Per-sian as a language name is first attested in English inthe mid-16th century.[29] Native Iranian Persian speak-ers call it Fārsi.[30] Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi,subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lackof the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic (i.e., the /p/ was

1

2 3 HISTORY

replaced with an /f/).[31][32][33] The origin of the nameFarsi and the place of origin of the language which isFars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs.[31][32][33]

In English, this language has historically been known as“Persian”, though “Farsi” has also gained some currency.According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the termFarsi was first used in English in 1926, while Parsi datesto 1790.[30] “Farsi” is encountered in some linguistic lit-erature as a name for the language, used both by Iranianand by foreign authors.[34]

In South Asia the word “Farsi” refers to the languagewhile "Parsi" describes the people of Persian origin, par-ticularly Zoroastrians.The Academy of Persian Language and Literature has de-clared that the name “Persian” is more appropriate, asit has the longer tradition in western languages and bet-ter expresses the role of the language as a mark of cul-tural and national continuity.[35] Some Persian languagescholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of EncyclopædiaIranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Ta-lattof, have also rejected the usage of “Farsi” in theirarticles.[36][37]

The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1uses the code “fa”, as its coding system is mostly based onthe local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3uses the name “Persian” (code “fas”) for the dialect con-tinuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan. This con-sists of the individual languages Dari (Afghan Persian)and Iranian Persian.[38]

Currently, VOA, BBC, DW, and RFE/RL use “PersianService” for their broadcasts in the language. RFE/RLalso includes a Tajik service, and an Afghan (Dari) ser-vice. This is also the case for the American Associationof Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Per-sian Language and Literature, and many of the leadingscholars of Persian language.[39]

3 History

Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages.In general, Iranian languages are known from three peri-ods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Mod-ern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranianhistory; Old era being the period from sometime beforeAchaemenids, the Achaemenid era and sometime afterAchaemenids (that is to 400–300 BC), Middle era beingthe next period most officially Sassanid era and sometimein post-Sassanid era, and the New era being the period af-terwards down to present day.[40]

According to available documents, the Persian languageis “the only Iranian language”[10][41] for which close philo-logical relationships between all of its three stages areestablished and so that Old, Middle, and New Persianrepresent[10][42] one and the same language of Persian,

that is New Persian is a direct descendant of Middle andOld Persian.[42]

The known history of the Persian language can be dividedinto the following three distinct periods:

3.1 Old Persian

Main articles: Old Persian and Persian verbsAs a written language, Old Persian is attested in royal

Old Persian

Achaemenid inscriptions. It is an Iranian language and assuch, like its modern-day variant, a branch of the Indo-European language family. The oldest known text writtenin Old Persian is from the Behistun Inscriptions.[43] Ex-amples of Old Persian have been found in what is nowpresent-day Iran, Turkey, Bahrain, Iraq, and Egypt.[44]

Old Persian is one of the oldest Indo-European languageswhich is attested in original texts.[45]

Xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persianexpeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian villagelife and hospitality in around 401 BC, which is at a timewhen Old Persian was the only form of Persian used. Herelates that the Armenian people spoke a language thatto his ear sounded like this language, the language of thePersians.[46]

3.2 Middle Persian

Main article: Middle Persian

The complex conjugation and declension of Old Persianyielded to the structure of Middle Persian in which thedual number disappeared, leaving only singular and plu-ral, as did gender. Middle Persian developed the ezāfeconstruction, expressed through ī, to indicate some of therelations between words that have been lost with the sim-plification of the earlier grammatical system.Although the “middle period” of the Iranian languagesformally begins with the fall of the Achaemenid Empire,the transition from Old to Middle Persian had probablyalready begun before the 4th century. However, Middle

3.3 New Persian 3

Persian is not actually attested until 600 years later whenit appears in Sassanid era (224–651) inscriptions, so anyform of the language before this date cannot be describedwith any degree of certainty. Moreover, as a literary lan-guage, Middle Persian is not attested until much later, tothe 6th or 7th century. And from the 8th century onward,Middle Persian gradually began yielding to New Persian,with the middle-period form only continuing in the textsof Zoroastrian tradition.The native name of Middle Persian was Parsig or Par-sik, after the name of the ethnic group of the southwest,that is, “of Pars", Old Persian Parsa, New Persian Fars.This is the origin of the name Farsi as it is today used tosignify New Persian. Following the collapse of the Sas-sanid state, Parsik came to be applied exclusively to (ei-ther Middle or New) Persian that was written in Arabicscript. From about the 9th century onwards, as MiddlePersian was on the threshold of becoming New Persian,the older form of the language came to be erroneouslycalled Pahlavi, which was actually but one of the writ-ing systems used to render both Middle Persian as well asvarious other Middle Iranian languages. That writing sys-tem had previously been adopted by the Sassanids (whowere Persians, i.e. from the southwest) from the preced-ing Arsacids (who were Parthians, i.e. from the north-east). While Rouzbeh (Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa, 8th cen-tury) still distinguished between Pahlavi (i.e. Parthian)and Persian (in Arabic text: al-Farisiah) (i.e. Middle Per-sian), this distinction is not evident in Arab commentarieswritten after that date.Gernot Windfuhr considers new Persian as an evolu-tion of the Old Persian language and the Middle Persianlanguage[47] but also states that none of the known Mid-dle Persian dialects is the direct predecessor of the [New]Persian [48][49] Professor. Ludwig Paul states: “The lan-guage of the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance ofcontinuous historical development from Middle to NewPersian.”[50]

3.3 New Persian

The history of New Persian itself spans more than 1,000–1,200 years. The development of the language in its lastperiod is often divided into three stages dubbed early,classical, and contemporary. Native speakers of the lan-guage can in fact understand early texts in Persian withminimal adjustment, because the morphology and, to alesser extent, the lexicon of the language have remainedrelatively stable for the greater part of a millennium.[51]

3.3.1 Early New Persian

New Persian developed from the 8th century on as an in-dependent literary language.[52] Upon the decline of theCaliphate at Baghdad in the 9th century began the re-establishment of Persian national life and Persians laid the

Ferdowsi's Shahnameh

foundations for a renaissance in the realm of letters. NewPersian was born in Bactria through the adaptation of thespoken form of Sassanian Middle Persian court languagecalled Dari. The cradle of the Persian literary renaissancelay in the east of Greater Iran, in the Greater Khorasanand Transoxiana regions close to the river Amu Darya.[53]

The mastery of the newer speech having now beentransformed from Middle into New Persian was alreadycomplete during three princely dynasties of Iranian ori-gin Tahirid (820–872), Saffarid (860–903) and Samanid(874–999), and could develop only in range and power ofexpression.[53]

Abbas of Merv is mentioned as being the earliest min-strel to chant verse in the newer Persian tongue and afterhim the poems of Hanzala Badghisi were among the mostfamous between the Persian-speakers of the time.[54]

The first poems of the Persian language, a language his-torically called Dari, have emerged in Afghanistan.[55]

The first significant Persian poet was Rudaki. He flour-ished in the 10th century, when the Sāmānids were at theheight of their power. His reputation as a court poet andas an accomplished musician and singer has survived, al-though little of his poetry has been preserved. Amonghis lost works is versified fables collected in Kalilah vaDimnah.[15]

The language spread geographically from the 11th cen-

4 3 HISTORY

tury on and was the medium through which among oth-ers, Central Asian Turks became familiar with Islam andurban culture. New Persian was widely used as a trans-regional lingua franca, a task for which it was particu-larly suitable due to its relatively simple morphologicalstructure and this situation persisted until at least 19thcentury.[52] In the late Middle Ages, new Islamic literarylanguages were created on the Persian model: Ottoman,Chaghatay and Urdu, which are regarded as “structuraldaughter languages” of Persian.[52]

3.3.2 Classical Persian

See also: List of Persian poets and authorsThe Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of

Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.

the new history of Persian language and literature. Thisperiod produced world class Persian language poets andthe language served, for a long span of time, as the linguafranca of major parts of the Islamic world and South Asia.It was also the official and cultural language of many Is-lamic dynasties, including Samanids, Buyids, Tahirids,Ziyarids, the Mughal Empire, Timurids, Ghaznavid,Seljuq, Khwarezmids, Sultanate of Rum, Shirvanshah,Safavid, Afsharids, Zand, Qajar, Ottomans and also manyMughal successor states such as the Nizams etc. For ex-ample, Persian was the only oriental language known andused by Marco Polo at the Court of Kublai Khan and inhis journeys through China.[56] The heavy influence ofPersian on other languages can still be witnessed acrossthe Islamic world, especially, and it is still appreciated asa literary and prestigious language among the educatedelite, especially in fields of music (for example Qawwali)and art (Persian literature). After the Arab invasion of

Persia, Persian began to adopt many words from Arabicand as time went by, a few words were even taken fromTurko-Mongol languages under the Mongol Empire andTurco-Persian society.

3.3.3 Use in Asia Minor

Persian on an Ottoman miniature.

Despite of Asia Minor (or Anatolia) having been ruledat various times prior to the Middle Ages by variousPersian-speaking dynasties originating in Iran, the lan-guage lost its traditional foothold there with the demise ofthe Sassanian Empire. Centuries later however, the prac-tise and usage of Persian in the region would be stronglyrevived. A branch of the Seljuks, the Sultanate of Rum,took Persian language, art and letters to Anatolia.[57] Theyadopted Persian language as the official language of theempire.[58] The Ottomans, which can “roughly” be seenas their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Per-sian was the official court language of the empire, and forsome time, the official language of the empire.[59] The ed-ucated and noble class of the Ottoman Empire all spokePersian, such as sultan Selim I, despite being SafavidIran’s archrival and a staunch opposer of Shia Islam.[60] Itwas a major literary language in the empire.[61] Some ofthe noted earlier Persian works during the Ottoman ruleare Idris Bidlisi's Hasht Bihisht, which begun in 1502 andcovered the reign of the first eight Ottoman rulers, andthe Salim-Namah, a glorification of Selim I.[60] After aperiod of several centuries, Ottoman Turkish (which washighly Persianised itself) had developed towards a fullyaccepted language of literature, which was even able tosatisfy the demands of a scientific presentation.[62] How-ever, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords con-tained in those works increased at times up to 88%.[62]

3.3.4 Use in South Asia

Main article: Persian language in South AsiaSee also: Persian and UrduThe Persian language influenced the formation of many

5

Persian poem, Agra Fort, India, 18th century

Persian poem, Takht-e Shah Jahan, Agra Fort, India

modern languages in West Asia, Europe, Central Asia,and South Asia. Following the Turko-Persian Ghaznavidconquest of South Asia, Persian was firstly introduced inthe region by Turkic Central Asians.[63] The basis in gen-eral for the introduction of Persian language into the sub-continent was set, from its earliest days, by various Per-sianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.[57]

For five centuries prior to the British colonization, Per-sian was widely used as a second language in the Indiansubcontinent, due to the admiration the Mughals (whowere of Turco-Mongol origin) had for the foreign lan-guage. It took prominence as the language of cultureand education in several Muslim courts on the subcon-tinent and became the sole “official language” under theMughal emperors. Beginning in 1843, though, Englishand Hindustani gradually replaced Persian in importanceon the subcontinent.[64] Evidence of Persian’s historicalinfluence there can be seen in the extent of its influenceon certain languages of the Indian subcontinent. Wordsborrowed from Persian are still quite commonly used incertain Indo-Aryan languages, especially Urdu, also his-torically known as Hindustani. There is also a small popu-lation of Zoroastrian Iranis in India, who migrated around16th-18th century to escape religious execution from theQajar Empire when execution of non-Muslims was on its

high and speak a Dari-dialect.

3.3.5 Contemporary Persian

A variant of the Iranian standard ISIRI 9147 keyboard layoutfor Persian.

Since the nineteenth century, Russian, French andEnglish and many other languages have contributed tothe technical vocabulary of Persian. The Iranian NationalAcademy of Persian Language and Literature is respon-sible for evaluating these new words in order to initiateand advise their Persian equivalents. The language itselfhas greatly developed during the centuries.

4 Varieties

There are three modern varieties of standard Persian:

• Western Persian (Persian, Iranian Persian, or Farsi)is spoken in Iran, and by minorities in Iraq and thePersian Gulf states.

• Eastern Persian (Dari Persian, Afghan Persian, orDari) is spoken in Afghanistan.

• Tajiki (Tajik Persian) is spoken in Tajikistan andUzbekistan. It is written in the Cyrillic script.

All these three varieties are based on the classic Persianliterature and its literary tradition. There are also sev-eral local dialects from Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistanwhich slightly differ from the standard Persian. Hazaragi(in Central Afghanistan and Pakistan), Herati (in WesternAfghanistan), Darwazi (in Afghanistan and Tajikistan),Tehrani (in Iran, the basis of standard Iranian Persian)and Dehwari (in Pakistan) are examples of these dialects.Persian-speaking peoples of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajik-istan can understand one another with a relatively highdegree of mutual intelligibility.[65]

The following are some languages closely related to Per-sian, or in some cases are considered dialects:

• Luri (or Lori), spoken mainly in the southwest-ern Iranian provinces of Lorestan, Kohgiluyeh andBoyer-Ahmad Province, some western parts of FarsProvince and some parts of Khuzestan.

6 6 GRAMMAR

• Tat, spoken in parts of Azerbaijan, Russia, etc.It includes Judæo-Tat & Christian-Tat. It isclassified as a variety of Persian and a Persiandialect.[66][67][68][69][70]

• Judæo-Tat. Part of the Tat Persian continuum,and spoken in Azerbaijan, Russia, as well asnotably by immigrant communities in Israeland New York.

• Lari (in southern Iran)

5 Phonology

Main article: Persian phonology

Iranian Persian has six vowels and twenty-three conso-nants.

5.1 Vowels

i

e

æ

o

u

ɒ

The vowel phonemes of modern Tehran Persian

Historically, Persian has distinguished length: Early NewPersian possessed a series of five long vowels (/iː/, /uː/,/ɒː/, /oː/ and /eː/) along with three short vowels /æ/, /i/ and/u/. At some point prior to the sixteenth century withinthe general area that is today encompassed by modernIran, /eː/ and /iː/ merged into /iː/, and /oː/ and /uː/ mergedinto /uː/. Thus, the older contrasts such as shēr “lion”vs. shīr “milk”, and rūd “river” vs rōd “bow-string” werelost. However, there are exceptions to this rule, and insome words "ē" and "ō" are preserved or merged into thediphthongs [eɪ] and [oʊ] (which are descendants of thediphthongs [æɪ] and [æʊ] in Early New Persian), insteadof merging into /iː/ and /uː/. Examples of this exceptioncan be found in words such as [roʊʃæn] (bright).However, in the eastern varieties, the archaic distinctionof /eː/ and /iː/ (respectively known as Yā-ye majhūl andYā-ye ma'rūf) is still preserved, as well as the distinc-tion of /oː/ and /uː/ (known as Wāw-e majhūl and Wāw-ema'rūf). On the other hand, in standard Tajik, the length

distinction has disappeared and /iː/ merged with /i/, and/uː/ with /u/.[71] Therefore, contemporary Afghan Daridialects are the closest one can get to the vowel inventoryof Early New Persian.According to most studies on the subject (e.g. Samareh1977, Pisowicz 1985, Najafi 2001), the three vowelswhich are traditionally considered long (/i/, /u/, /ɒ/) arecurrently distinguished from their short counterparts (/e/,/o/, /æ/) by position of articulation, rather than by length.However, there are studies (e.g. Hayes 1979, Windfuhr1979) which consider vowel length to be the active featureof this system, i.e. /ɒ/, /i/, and /u/ are phonologically longor bimoraic whereas /æ/, /e/, and /o/ are phonologicallyshort or monomoraic.There are also some studies which consider quality andquantity to be both active in the Iranian system (e.g.Toosarvandani 2004). This view offers a synthetic anal-ysis which includes both quality and quantity, often sug-gesting that modern Persian vowels are in a transitionstate between the quantitative system of classical Persianand a hypothetical future Persian which will eliminate alltraces of quantity, and retain quality as the only activefeature.The length distinction is nevertheless strictly observed bycareful reciters of classic-style poetry, for all varieties (in-cluding the Tajik).

5.2 Consonants

(Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right rep-resents a voiced consonant. Allophones are in parenthe-ses.)

6 Grammar

Main article: Persian grammar

6.1 Morphology

• Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, thoughthere is a small number of prefixes.[72] Verbs canexpress tense and aspect, and they agree withthe subject in person and number.[73] There is nogrammatical gender in Persian, nor are pronounsmarked for natural gender.

6.2 Syntax

Normal declarative sentences are structured as "(S) (PP)(O) V”. This means sentences can comprise optionalsubjects, prepositional phrases, and objects, followed by

7

a required verb. If the object is specific, then the ob-ject is followed by the word rā and precedes prepositionalphrases: "(S) (O + rā) (PP) V”.[73]

7 Vocabulary

Main article: Persian vocabulary

7.1 Native word formation

Persian makes extensive use of word building and com-bining affixes, stems, nouns and adjectives. Persian fre-quently uses derivational agglutination to form new wordsfrom nouns, adjectives, and verbal stems. New words areextensively formed by compounding – two existing wordscombining into a new one, as is common in German.

7.2 Influences

See also: List of English words of Persian origin, Listof French loanwords in Persian and Iranian languages §Comparison table of the Iranian languages

While having a lesser influence on Arabic[18] and otherlanguages of Mesopotamia and its core vocabulary beingof Middle Persian origin,[13] New Persian contains a con-siderable amount of Arabic lexical items,[10][17][19] whichwere Persianized[20] and often took a different meaningand usage than the Arabic original. Persian loanwordsof Arabic origin especially include Islamic terms. TheArabic vocabulary in other Iranian, Turkic and Indic lan-guages are generally understood to have been copied fromNew Persian, not from Arabic itself.[74]

John R. Perry, in his article Lexical Areas and SemanticFields of Arabic, estimates that about 24 percent of aneveryday vocabulary of 20,000 words in current Persian,and more than 25 percent of the vocabulary of classicaland modern Persian literature, are of Arabic origin. Thetext frequency of these loan words is generally lower andvaries by style and topic area. It may approach 25 per-cent of a text in literature.[75] Among the Arabic loanwords, relatively few (14 percent) are from the seman-tic domain of material culture, while a larger number arefrom domains of intellectual and spiritual life.[76] Most ofthe Arabic words used in Persian are either synonyms ofnative terms or could be glossed in Persian.[77]

The inclusion of Mongolian and Turkic elements in thePersian language should also be mentioned,[78] not onlybecause of the political role a succession of Turkic dy-nasties played in Iranian history, but also because of theimmense prestige Persian language and literature enjoyedin the wider (non-Arab) Islamic world, which was oftenruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background. The

Turkish and Mongolian vocabulary in Persian is minorin comparison to that of Arabic and these words weremainly confined to military, pastoral terms and politicalsector (titles, administration, etc.).[79] New military andpolitical titles were coined based partially on Middle Per-sian (e.g. arteš for “army”, instead of the Uzbek qoʻshin;sarlaškar; daryābān; etc.) in the 20th century. Per-sian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other lan-guages, especially other Indo-European languages suchas Armenian,[80] Urdu, and (to a lesser extent) Hindi;the latter two through conquests of Persianized CentralAsian and Afghan invaders;[81] Turkic languages such asOttoman Turkish, Chagatai, Tatar, Turkish,[82] Turkmen,Azeri,[83] Uzbek, and Karachay-Balkar;[84] Caucasianlanguages such as Georgian,[85] and to a lesser extent,Avar and Lezgin;[86] Afro-Asiatic languages like Assyrianand Arabic;[87] and even Dravidian languages indirectlyespecially Telugu and Brahui; as well as Austronesianlanguages such as Indonesian and Malay. Persian hasalso had a significant lexical influence, via Turkish, onSerbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Serbo-Croatian, particu-larly as spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina.Use of occasional foreign synonyms instead of Persianwords can be a common practice in everyday communi-cations as an alternative expression. In some instancesin addition to the Persian vocabulary, the equivalent syn-onyms from multiple foreign languages can be used. Forexample, in Iranian colloquial Persian (not in Afghanistanor Tajikistan), the phrase “thank you” may be expressedusing the French wordmerci (stressed however on the firstsyllable), the hybrid Persian-Arabic phrase motešakkeram (motešakker being “merciful” in Arabic, commonlypronouncedmotčakker in Persian, and the verb ammean-ing “I am” in Persian), or by the pure Persian phrasesepās-gozār am.

8 Orthography

The vast majority of modern Iranian Persian and Daritext is written with the Arabic script. Tajik, which isconsidered by some linguists to be a Persian dialect in-fluenced by Russian and the Turkic languages of CentralAsia,[88][89] is written with the Cyrillic script in Tajikistan(see Tajik alphabet).

8.1 Persian alphabet

Main article: Persian alphabet

Modern Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian are writ-ten using a modified variant of the Arabic alphabet,which uses different pronunciation and additional lettersnot found in Arabic. Tajik Persian, as used in Tajik-istan, is typically written in a modified version of theCyrillic alphabet. There also exist several romanization

8 8 ORTHOGRAPHY

Example showing Nastaʿlīq’s (Persian) proportion rules.[ 1 ]

Dehkhoda's personal handwriting; a typical cursive Persianscript.

The word Persian in Pahlavi scripts

systems for Persian. After the conversion of Persia toIslam (see Islamic conquest of Iran), it took approx-imately 150 years before Persians adopted the Arabicscript in place of the older alphabet. Previously, two dif-ferent scripts were used, Pahlavi, used for Middle Per-sian, and the Avestan alphabet (in Persian, Dīndapirak orDin Dabire—literally: religion script), used for religiouspurposes, primarily for the Avestan language but some-times for Middle Persian.In modern Persian script, vowels that are referred to asshort vowels (a, e, o) are usually not written; only the longvowels ('ā, ī, ū) are represented in the text, so words dis-tinguished from each other only by short vowels are am-biguous in writing: kerm “worm”, karam “generosity”,

kerem “cream”, and krom “chrome” are all spelled krm(کرم) in Persian. The reader must determine the wordfrom context. The Arabic system of vocalization marksknown as harakat is also used in Persian, although someof the symbols have different pronunciations. For exam-ple, an Arabic damma is pronounced [ʊ~u], while in Ira-nian Persian it is pronounced [o]. This system is not usedin mainstream Persian literature; it is primarily used forteaching and in some (but not all) dictionaries.There are several letters generally only used in Arabicloanwords. These letters are pronounced the same as sim-ilar Persian letters. For example, there are four function-ally identical letters for /z/ ظ) ض ذ ,(ز three letters for /s/ث) ص ,(س two letters for /t/ ت) ,(ط two letters for /h/ ه) .(حOn the other hand, there are four letters that don't existin Arabic گ ژ چ پ .

8.1.1 Additions

The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic al-phabet:The že is pronounced with the same sound as the s in“measure” and “fusion”, or the z in “azure”. For Ara-bic speakers, it is similar to the way Lebanese or Syrianspronounce the Arabic letter jīm .(ج) For French speak-ers, it is the sound of the letter j or g when it’s followedby an e or i.The letters pe, če and gaf are similar to the English p, chand “hard” g.

8.1.2 Variations

The Persian alphabet also modifies some letters from theArabic alphabet. For example, alef with hamza below (إ ) changes to alef ( ا ); words using various hamzas getspelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that مسؤول be-comes (مسئول even though the latter is also correct in Ara-bic; and teh marbuta ( ة ) changes to heh ( ه ) or teh ( ت).The letters different in shape are:

8.2 Latin alphabet

Main article: Romanization of Persian

The International Organization for Standardization haspublished a standard for simplified transliteration of Per-sian into Latin, ISO 233-3, titled “Information and doc-umentation – Transliteration of Arabic characters intoLatin characters – Part 3: Persian language – Simplifiedtransliteration”[90] but the transliteration scheme is not inwidespread use.Another Latin alphabet, based on the Uniform Turkic al-phabet, was used in Tajikistan in the 1920s and 1930s.

9

The alphabet was phased out in favor of Cyrillic in thelate 1930s.[88]

Fingilish is Persian using ISO basic Latin alphabet. It ismost commonly used in chat, emails and SMS applica-tions. The orthography is not standardized, and variesamong writers and even media (for example, typing 'aa'for the [ɒ] phoneme is easier on computer keyboards thanon cellphone keyboards, resulting in smaller usage of thecombination on cellphones).

8.3 Tajik alphabet

Tajik advertisement for an academy.

Main article: Tajik alphabet

The Cyrillic alphabet was introduced for writing the Tajiklanguage under the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in thelate 1930s, replacing the Latin alphabet that had beenused since the Bolshevik revolution and the Persian scriptthat had been used earlier. After 1939, materials pub-lished in Persian in the Persian script were banned fromthe country.[88][91]

9 Examples

The following text is from Article 1 of the Universal Dec-laration of Human Rights.

10 See also

• The existential “be” and copula in Persian

• Academy of Persian Language and Literature

• Dari

• Pahlavi

• List of English words of Persian origin

• List of French loanwords in Persian

• Persian alphabet

• Persian braille

• Persian grammar

• Persian name

• Persian phonology

• Persianate

• Persian Romanization schemes

• Southwestern Iranian dialects

11 References[1] Samadi, Habibeh; Nick Perkins (2012). Martin Ball,

David Crystal, Paul Fletcher, ed. Assessing Grammar:The Languages of Lars. Multilingual Matters. p. 169.ISBN 978-1-84769-637-3.

[2] “IRAQ”. Retrieved 7 November 2014.

[3] H. Pilkington,"Islam in Post-Soviet Russia”,PsychologyPress, Nov 27, 2002. p. 27: “Among other indigenouspeoples of Iranian origin were the Tats, the Talishes andthe Kurds”

[4] T. M. Mastiu︡︠gina, Lev Perepelkin, Vitaliĭ Via͡c︡h-eslavovich Naumkin, “An Ethnic History of Russia: Pre-Revolutionary Times to the Present”,Greenwood Publish-ing Group, 1996 . p. 80:""The Iranian Peoples (Ossetians,Tajiks, Tats, Mountain Judaists)"

[5] Windfuhr, Gernot: The Iranian Languages, Routledge2009, p. 418.

[6] Mikael Parkvall, “Världens 100 största språk 2007”(The World’s 100 Largest Languages in 2007), inNationalencyklopedin

[7] Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel,Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). “Farsic – Cau-casian Tat”. Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute forEvolutionary Anthropology.

[8] Asta Olesen, “Islam and Politics in Afghanistan, Volume3”, Psychology Press, 1995. pg 205: “There began a gen-eral promotion of the Pashto language at the expense ofFarsi – previously dominant at the educational and admin-istrative level – and the term 'Dari' for the Afghan ver-sion of Persian came into common use, being officiallyadopted in 1958”

[9] Mona Baker, Kirsten Malmkjr, “Routledge Encyclopediaof Translation Studies”, pg 518: “among them the realign-ment of Central Asian Persian, renamed Tajiki by the So-viet Union”,

[10] Lazard, Gilbert 1975, “The Rise of the New Persian Lan-guage” in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran,Vol. 4, pp. 595–632, Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press. “The language known as New Persian, whichusually is called at this period (early Islamic times) bythe name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified lin-guistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the offi-cial religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, it-self a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the

10 11 REFERENCES

Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects,ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan,Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., OldPersian, Middle and New Persian represent one and thesame language at three states of its history. It had its originin Fars (the true Persian country from the historical pointof view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, stilleasily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran.”

[11] Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, Klaus J. Mattheier, Pe-ter Trudgill, “Sociolinguistics Hsk 3/3 Series Volume 3 ofSociolinguistics: An International Handbook of the Sci-ence of Language and Society”, Walter de Gruyter, 2006.2nd edition. pg 1912. Excerpt: “Middle Persian, alsocalled Pahlavi is a direct continuation of old Persian, andwas used as the written official language of the country.”“However, after the Moslem conquest and the collapse ofthe Sassanids, the Pahlavi language was gradually replacedby Dari, a variety of Middle Persian, with considerableloan elements from Arabic and Parthian.”

[12] Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). Encyclopedia Iranica,“Iran, vi. Iranian languages and scripts, “new Persian, is“the descendant of Middle Persian” and has been “offi-cial language of Iranian states for centuries”, whereas forother non-Persian Iranian languages “close genetic rela-tionships are difficult to establish” between their different(Middle and Modern) stages. Modern Yaḡnōbi belongsto the same dialect group as Sogdian, but is not a directdescendant; Bactrian may be closely related to modernYidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); and Wakhi (Wāḵi) belongswith Khotanese.”

[13] Richard Davis, “Persian” in Josef W. Meri, Jere L.Bacharach, “Medieval Islamic Civilization”, Taylor &Francis, 2006. pp. 602–603. “The grammar of NewPersian is similar to many contemporary European lan-guages."Similarly, the core vocabulary of Persian contin-ued to be derived from Pahlavi.

[14] “Modernity and Modernism in Persophone Literary His-tory”, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

[15] Encyclopædia Britannica: Persian literature, retrievedSeptember 2011.

[16] Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary.Clive Holes. 2001. Page XXX. ISBN 90-04-10763-0

[17] Lazard, Gilbert, “Pahlavi, Pârsi, dari: Les langues d'Irand'apès Ibn al-Muqaffa” in R.N. Frye, Iran and Islam. InMemory of the late Vladimir Minorsky, Edinburgh Univer-sity Press, 1971.

[18] Nushin Namazi (24 November 2008). “Persian LoanWords in Arabic”. Retrieved 1 June 2009.

[19] Classe, Olive (2000). Encyclopedia of literary transla-tion into English. Taylor & Francis. p. 1057. ISBN1-884964-36-2. Since the Arab conquest of the coun-try in 7th century AD, many loan words have entered thelanguage (which from this time has been written with aslightly modified version of the Arabic script) and the lit-erature has been heavily influenced by the conventions ofArabic literature.

[20] Ann K. S. Lambton, Persian grammar, Cambridge Uni-versity Press 1953. “The Arabic words incorporated intothe Persian language have become Persianized”.

[21] Windfuhr, Gernot (1987). Berard Comrie, ed. TheWorld’s Major Languages. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress. pp. 523–546. ISBN 978-0-19-506511-4.

[22] Or فارسی zabān-e زبان fārsi

[23] Or دری فارسئ \ دری fārsi-ye فارسی dari

[24] See Dari – Geographical distribution

[25] Or ������ ������ / تاجیکی zabon-i فارسی tojiki

[26] See Tajik language – Geographical distribution

[27] Περσίς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

[28] Harper, Douglas. “Persia”. Online Etymology Dictionary.

[29] Oxford English Dictionary online, s.v. “Persian”, draft re-vision June 2007.

[30] OED online, s.v. “Pārsi”.

[31] Spooner, Brian (1994). “Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki”. InMarashi, Mehdi. Persian Studies in North America: Stud-ies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery. Leiden: Brill.pp. 177–178.

[32] Spooner, Brian (2012). “Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki”. InSchiffman, Harold. Language policy and language con-flict in Afghanistan and its neighbors: the changing politicsof language choice. Leiden: Brill. p. 94.

[33] Campbell, George L.; King, Gareth, eds. (2013).“Persian”. Compendium of the World’s Languages (3rded.). Routledge. p. 1339.

[34] For example: A. Gharib, M. Bahar, B. Fooroozanfar, J.Homaii, and R. Yasami. Farsi Grammar. Jahane Danesh,2nd edition, 2001.

[35] “Pronouncement of the Academy of Persian Languageand Literature”. Heritage.chn.ir. 19 November 2005. Re-trieved 13 July 2010.

[36] “Persian or Farsi?". Iranian.com. 16 November 1997.Retrieved 23 September 2010.

[37] “Fársi: “recently appeared language!"". PersianDi-rect.com. 15 February 2005. Retrieved 23 September2010.

[38] “Documentation for ISO 639 identifier: fas”. Sil.org. Re-trieved 13 July 2010.

[39] “Kamran Talattof Persian or Farsi? The debate contin-ues”. Iranian.com. 16 December 1997. Retrieved 13 July2010.

[40] (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation.

[41] cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt:Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sog-dian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may beclosely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); andWakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese.

11

[42] cf. (Skjaervo 2006) vi(2). Documentation. Excerpt 1:Only the official languages Old, Middle, and New Per-sian represent three stages of one and the same language,whereas close genetic relationships are difficult to estab-lish between other Middle and Modern Iranian languages.Modern Yaḡnōbi belongs to the same dialect group as Sog-dian, but is not a direct descendant; Bac-trian may beclosely related to modern Yidḡa and Munji (Munjāni); andWakhi (Wāḵi) belongs with Khotanese. Excerpt 2: NewPersian, the descendant of Middle Persian and official lan-guage of Iranian states for centuries..

[43] (Schmitt 2008, pp. 80–1)

[44] Roland G. Kent, Old Persian, 1953

[45] (Skjærvø 2006, vi(2). Documentation. Old Persian.)

[46] Xenophon. Anabasis. pp. IV.v.2–9.

[47] Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of SouthAsia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p.82. Excerpt: " The evolution of Persian as the cultur-ally dominant language of major parts of the Near East,from Anatolia and Iran, to Central Asia, to northwest In-dia until recent centuries, began with the political dom-ination of these areas by dynasties originating in south-western province of Iran, Pars, later Arabicised to Fars:first the Achaemenids (599–331 BC) whose official lan-guage was Old Persian; then the Sassanids (c. AD 225–651) whose official language was Middle Persian. Hence,the entire country used to be called Perse by the ancientGreeks, a practice continued to this day. The more gen-eral designation 'Iran(-shahr)" derives from Old Iranianaryanam (Khshathra)'(the realm) of Aryans’. The dom-inance of these two dynasties resulted in Old and Middle-Persian colonies throughout the empire, most importantlyfor the course of the development of Persian, in the north-east i.e., what is now Khorasan, northern Afghanistan andCentral Asia, as documented by the Middle Persian textsof the Manichean found in the oasis city of Turfan in Chi-nese Turkistan (Sinkiang). This led to certain degree ofregionalisation”.

[48] Comrie, Bernard (1990) The major languages of SouthAsia, the Middle East and Africa, Taylor & Francis,p. 82

[49] Barbara M. Horvath, Paul Vaughan, Community lan-guages, 1991, 276 p.

[50] L. Paul (2005), “The Language of the Shahnameh in his-torical and dialectical perspective” pg 150:"The languageof the Shahnameh should be seen as one instance of con-tinuous historical development from Middle to New Per-sian” in Dieter Weber, D. N. MacKenzie, Languages ofIran: past and present: Iranian studies in memoriam DavidNeil MacKenzie, Volume 8 of Iranica Series, Otto Harras-sowitz Verlag.

[51] Jeremias, Eva M. (2004). “Iran, iii. (f). New Per-sian”. Encyclopaedia of Islam 12 (New Edition, Supple-ment ed.). p. 432. ISBN 90-04-13974-5.

[52] Johanson, Lars, and Christiane Bulut. 2006. Turkic-Iranian contact areas: historical and linguistic aspects.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.

[53] Jackson, A. V. Williams. 1920. Early Persian poetry,from the beginnings down to the time of Firdausi. NewYork: The Macmillan Company. pp.17–19. (in PublicDomain)

[54] Jackson, A. V. Williams.pp.17–19.

[55] Adamec, Ludwig W. (2011). Historical Dictionary ofAfghanistan (4th Revised ed.). Scarecrow. p. 105. ISBN978-0-8108-7815-0.

[56] John Andrew Boyle, Some thoughts on the sources for theIl-Khanid period of Persian history, in Iran: Journal ofthe British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute ofPersian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175.

[57] Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From theseventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. ISBN9231028138 p 734

[58] Ga ́bor A ́goston,Bruce Alan Masters. Encyclopedia of theOttoman Empire Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 ISBN1438110251 p 322

[59] Doris Wastl-Walter. The Ashgate Research Companionto Border Studies Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011 ISBN0754674061 p 409

[60] Bertold Spuler. Persian Historiography &Geography Pus-taka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 68

[61] Franklin D. Lewis. Rumi - Past and Present, East andWest: The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jal l al-Din RumiOneworld Publications, 18 okt. 2014 ISBN 1780747373

[62] Bertold Spuler. Persian Historiography &Geography Pus-taka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 69

[63] “South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny”.Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[64] Clawson, Patrick (2004). Eternal Iran. Palgrave Macmil-lan. p. 6. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6.

[65] Beeman, William. “Persian, Dari and Tajik” (PDF).Brown University. Archived from the original on 30March 2013. Retrieved 30 March 2013.

[66] Gernot Windfuhr, “Persian Grammar: history and state ofits study”, Walter de Gruyter, 1979. pg 4:""Tat- Persianspoken in the East Caucasus""

[67] V. Minorsky, “Tat” in M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., TheEncyclopædia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography,Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peo-ples, 4 vols. and Suppl., Leiden: Late E.J. Brill and Lon-don: Luzac, 1913–38.

[68] V. Minorsky, “Tat” in M. Th. Houtsma et al., eds., TheEncyclopædia of Islam: A Dictionary of the Geography,Ethnography and Biography of the Muhammadan Peo-ples, 4 vols. and Suppl., Leiden: Late E.J. Brill and Lon-don: Luzac, 1913–38. Excerpt: Like most Persian di-alects, Tati is not very regular in its characteristic features”

12 12 FURTHER READING

[69] C Kerslake, Journal of Islamic Studies (2010) 21 (1):147–151. excerpt:"It is a comparison of the verbal sys-tems of three varieties of Persian—standard Persian, Tat,and Tajik—in terms of the 'innovations’ that the lattertwo have developed for expressing finer differentiationsof tense, aspect and modality...”

[70] Borjian, Habib, “Tabari Language Materials from Il'yaBerezin’s Recherches sur les dialectes persans”, Iran andthe Caucasus, Volume 10, Number 2, 2006 , pp. 243–258(16). Excerpt:"It embraces Gilani, Ta- lysh, Tabari,Kurdish, Gabri, and the Tati Persian of the Caucasus, allbut the last belonging to the north-western group of Ira-nian language.”

[71] Perry, J. R. (2005) A Tajik Persian Reference Grammar(Boston : Brill) ISBN 90-04-14323-8

[72] Megerdoomian, Karine (2000). “Persian computationalmorphology: A unification-based approach” (PDF).Mem-oranda in Computer and Cognitive Science: MCCS-00-320.p. 1.

[73] Mahootian, Shahrzad (1997). Persian. London: Rout-ledge. ISBN 0-415-02311-4.

[74] John R. Perry, “Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields ofArabic” in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaks-son, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal dif-fusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic,Routledge, 2005. pg 97: “It is generally understood thatthe bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, con-tiguous Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages was originallyborrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thir-teenth centuries”

[75] John R. Perry, “Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields ofArabic” in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, BoIsaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and arealdiffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Tur-kic,Routledge, 2005. p.97

[76] Perry 2005, p.99.

[77] Perry 2005, p. 99.

[78] e.g. The role of Azeri-Turkish in Iranian Persian, onwhich see John Perry, “The Historical Role of Turkish inRelation to Persian of Iran”, Iran & the Caucasus, Vol. 5(2001), pp. 193–200.

[79] Xavier Planhol, “Land of Iran”, Encyclopedia Iranica.“The Turks, on the other hand, posed a formidable threat:their penetration into Iranian lands was considerable, tosuch an extent that vast regions adapted their language.This process was all the more remarkable since, in spite oftheir almost uninterrupted political domination for nearly1,500 years, the cultural influence of these rough nomadson Iran’s refined civilization remained extremely tenuous.This is demonstrated by the mediocre linguistic contri-bution, for which exhaustive statistical studies have beenmade (Doerfer). The number of Turkish or Mongol wordsthat entered Persian, though not negligible, remained lim-ited to 2,135, i.e., 3 percent of the vocabulary at the most.These new words are confined on the one hand to the mil-itary and political sector (titles, administration, etc.) and,

on the other hand, to technical pastoral terms. The con-trast with Arab influence is striking. While cultural pres-sure of the Arabs on Iran had been intense, they in noway infringed upon the entire Iranian territory, whereaswith the Turks, whose contributions to Iranian civiliza-tion were modest, vast regions of Iranian lands were as-similated, notwithstanding the fact that resistance by thelatter was ultimately victorious. Several reasons may beoffered.”

[80] “ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian influences in Arme-nian Language”. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[81] “South Asian Sufis: Devotion, Deviation, and Destiny”.Retrieved 23 April 2015.

[82] Andreas Tietze, Persian loanwords in Anatolian Turkish,Oriens, 20 (1967) pp- 125–168. Archived September 11,2007 at the Wayback Machine

[83] L. Johanson, “Azerbaijan: Iranian Elements in AzeriTurkish” in Encyclopedia Iranica Iranica.com

[84] George L. Campbell and Gareth King (2013).Compendium of the World Languages. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-1362-5846-6. Retrieved 23 May 2014.

[85] “GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRA-NIAN LANGUAGES”. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

[86] “DAGESTAN”. Retrieved 2 January 2014.

[87] Pasad. “Bashgah.net”. Bashgah.net. Retrieved 13 July2010.

[88] Perry, John R. (2005). A Tajik Persian Reference Gram-mar. Boston: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14323-8.

[89] Lazard, Gilbert (1956). “Charactères distinctifs de lalangue Tadjik”. Bulletin de la Société Linguistique de Paris52: 117–186.

[90] “ISO 233-3:1999”. Iso.org. 14 May 2010. Retrieved 13July 2010.

[91] Smallwars.quantico.usmc.mil

12 Further reading• Asatrian, Garnik (2010). Etymological Dictionaryof Persian. Leiden Indo-European EtymologicalDictionary Series, 12. Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN 978-90-04-18341-4.

• Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammarof the Persian language. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammarof the Persian language: containing dialogues, read-ing lessons, and a vocabulary: together with a newplan for facilitating the study of languages. B. Quar-itch. p. 206. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Bleeck, Arthur Henry (1857). A concise grammarof the Persian language (Oxford University ed.). Re-trieved 6 July 2011.

13

• Dahlén, Ashk (April 2014) [1st edition Octo-ber 2010]. Modern persisk grammatik (2nded.). Ferdosi International Publication. ISBN9789197988674.

• Delshad, Farshid (September 2007). AnthologiaPersica. Logos Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8325-1620-8.

• Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1880). The student’sPersian and English dictionary, pronouncing, etymo-logical, & explanatory. Irish Presbyterian MissionPress. p. 558. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji; Saʻdī (1880). Secondbook of Persian, to which are added the Pandnámahof Shaikh Saádi and the Gulistán, chapter 1, togetherwith vocabulary and short notes (2 ed.). Irish Pres-byterian Mission Press. p. 120. Retrieved 6 July2011.

• Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1879). The Persianprimer, being an elementary treatise on grammar,with exercises. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p.94. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Doctor, Sorabshaw Byramji (1875). A new gram-mar of the Persian tongue for the use of schools andcolleges. Irish Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 84.Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Forbes, Duncan (1844). A grammar of the Persianlanguage: To which is added, a selection of easy ex-tracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary(2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.p. 158. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Forbes, Duncan (1844). A grammar of the Persianlanguage: To which is added, a selection of easy ex-tracts for reading, together with a copious vocabulary(2 ed.). Printed for the author, sold by Allen & co.p. 114. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Forbes, Duncan (1876). A grammar of the Persianlanguage: to which is added, a selection of easy ex-tracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, andtranslations. W.H. Allen. p. 238. Retrieved 6 July2011.

• Forbes, Duncan (1869). A grammar of the Persianlanguage: to which is added, a selection of easy ex-tracts for reading, together with a vocabulary, andtranslations (4 ed.). W.H. Allen & co. p. 238. Re-trieved 6 July 2011.

• Ibrâhîm, Muḥammad (1841). A grammar of thePersian language. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Jones, Sir William (1783). A grammar of the Per-sian language (3 ed.). Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Jones, Sir William (1797). A grammar of the Per-sian language (4 ed.). Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Jones, Sir William (1801). A grammar of the Per-sian language (5 ed.). Murray and Highley, J.Sewell. p. 194. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Jones, Sir William (1823). Samuel Lee, ed. A gram-mar of the Persian language (8 ed.). Printed by W.Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and co. p. 230. Retrieved6 July 2011.

• Jones, Sir William (1828). Samuel Lee, ed. A gram-mar of the Persian language (9 ed.). Printed by W.Nicol, for Parbury, Allen, and Co. p. 283. Re-trieved 6 July 2011.

• Lazard, Gilbert (January 2006). Grammaire du per-san contemporain. Institut Français de Recherche enIran. ISBN 978-2909961378.

• Lumsden, Matthew (1810). A grammar of the Per-sian language; comprising a portion of the elementsof Arabic inflexion etc. Watley. Retrieved 6 July2011.

• Mace, John (18 October 2002). Persian Grammar:For Reference and Revision (illustrated ed.). Rout-ledgeCurzon. ISBN 0700716955.

• Moises, Edward (1792). The Persian interpreter:in three parts: A grammar of the Persian language.Persian extracts, in prose and verse. A vocabulary:Persian and English. Printed by L. Hodgson. p.143. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Palmer, Edward Henry (1883). Guy Le Strange, ed.A concise dictionary, English-Persian; together witha simplified grammar of the Persian language. Com-pleted and ed. by G. Le Strange. Retrieved 6 July2011.

• Palmer, Edward Henry (1883). Guy Le Strange, ed.A concise dictionary, English-Persian: together witha simplified grammar of the Persian language. Trüb-ner. p. 42. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Platts, John Thompson (1894). A grammar of thePersian language ... Williams and Norgate. Re-trieved 6 July 2011.

• Ranking, George Speirs Alexander (1907). Aprimer of Persian: containing selections for readingand composition with the elements of syntax. TheClaredon Press. p. 72. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Richardson, John (1810). Sir Charles Wilkins,David Hopkins, ed. A vocabulary, Persian, Ara-bic, and English: abridged from the quarto edition ofRichardson’s dictionary. Printed for F. and C. Riv-ingson. p. 643. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Rosen, Friedrich; Nāṣir al-Dīn Shāh (Shah of Iran)(1898). Modern Persian colloquial grammar: con-taining a short grammar, dialogues and extracts fromNasir-Eddin shah’s diaries, tales, etc., and a vocab-ulary. Luzac & C.̊. p. 400. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

14 13 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Schmitt, Rüdiger (1989). Compendium linguarumIranicarum. L. Reichert. ISBN 3882264136.

• Sen, Ramdhun (1841). Madhub Chunder Sen, ed.A dictionary in Persian and English, with pronunci-ation (ed. by M.C. Sen). (2 ed.). Retrieved 6 July2011.

• Sen, Ramdhun (1829). A dictionary in Persian andEnglish. Printed for the author at the Baptist MissionPress. p. 226. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Sen, Ramdhun (1833). A dictionary in English andPersian. Printed at the Baptist Mission Press. p.276. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Sen, Ramdhun (1833). A dictionary in English andPersian. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). “Iran, vi. Iranian lan-guages and scripts”. Encyclopaedia Iranica 13.

• Thackston, W. M. (1 May 1993). An Introductionto Persian (3rd Rev ed.). Ibex Publishers. ISBN0936347295.

• Tucker, William Thornhill (1801). A pocket dictio-nary of English and Persian. Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Tucker, William Thornhill (1850). A pocket dictio-nary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145.Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Tucker, William Thornhill (1850). A pocket dictio-nary of English and Persian. J. Madden. p. 145.Retrieved 6 July 2011.

• Windfuhr, Gernot L. (15 January 2009). “Persian”.In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World’s Major Lan-guages (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0415353394.

• Wollaston, (Sir) Arthur Naylor (1882). An English-Persian dictionary. W.H. Allen. Retrieved 6 July2011.

13 External links

• Academy of Persian Language and Literature offi-cial website (Persian)

• Assembly for the Expansion of the Persian Lan-guage official website (Persian)

• Persian language Resources (Persian)

• Persian Language Resources, parstimes.com

• Haim, Soleiman. New Persian–English dictionary.Teheran: Librairie-imprimerie Beroukhim, 1934–1936. uchicago.edu

• Steingass, Francis Joseph. A ComprehensivePersian–English dictionary. London: Routledge &K. Paul, 1892. uchicago.edu

• UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian,ucla.edu

• How Persian Alphabet Transits into Graffiti, PersianGraffiti

15

14 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

14.1 Text• Persian language Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language?oldid=693898077 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Lee Daniel

Crocker, Devotchka, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Manning Bartlett, DanKeshet, RK, Eclecticology, Pgdudda, Wathiik, William Avery, HannesHirzel, Vassili Nikolaev, Michael Hardy, DopefishJustin, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Sannse, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Kricxjo, TUF-KAT, Angela, K1, Kingturtle, MyNameIsClare, Bogdangiusca, Andres, John K, Tobias Conradi, Ideyal, Crusadeonilliteracy, Guaka,Nohat, N-true, WhisperToMe, Wik, IceKarma, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, E23~enwiki, Furrykef, Taxman, Shizhao, Far-shadrbn, Flockmeal, UninvitedCompany, Carlossuarez46, Robbot, Altenmann, Romanm, Naddy, Modulatum, Chris Roy, Babbage, FlautoDolce, Jamshid H, Texture, Hippietrail, Sunray, Hadal, Wereon, Jpbrenna, Refdoc, Roozbeh, Aetheling, Ruakh, GreatWhiteNorth-erner, David Gerard, Xyzzyva, Sina~enwiki, Smjg, DocWatson42, Lupin, IRelayer, Monedula, Everyking, Filceolaire, Guanaco, Alen-sha, Zhen Lin, Prosfilaes, Node ue, Fak119, Critto~enwiki, Kukkurovaca, Wiki Wikardo, Ragib, Golbez, Stevietheman, Utcursch, Lord-SimonofShropshire, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, Mustafaa, Neilm, Oneiros, OwenBlacker, Anárion, Bumm13, PFHLai, Yosafgavani, Soman,Burschik, Mschlindwein, Pinnerup, Moxfyre, Jfpierce, BeavisSanchez, Joseph Philipsson, N-k, Running, D6, Jayjg, Venu62, Poccil,RossPatterson, Discospinster, 4pq1injbok, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Pjacobi, Vsmith, Parishan, Florian Blaschke, Wikiacc, Noti-nasnaid, AlexKepler, Quiensabe, Arthur Holland, Dbachmann, Mani1, Byrial, Tsujigiri~enwiki, Bender235, Bennylin, El C, Lycurgus,Kwamikagami, Amir1, RoyBoy, Aaronbrick, Kaveh, Pablo X, CDN99, Circeus, Imars, Reinyday, John Vandenberg, Cmdrjameson,Jguk 2, NickSchweitzer, Jonsafari, Jumbuck, Zachlipton, Red Winged Duck, Stephen G. Brown, Alansohn, Verdlanco, Sl, Andrew Gray,Maziart, Riana, Water Bottle, Cdc, Ross Burgess, Ksnow, Ish ishwar, Danaman5, GL, Suruena, Garzo, RainbowOfLight, Inge-Lyubov,Khodadad, BrainMafia, BDD, SteinbDJ, Zereshk, Axeman89, Embryomystic, Ogambear, Tariqabjotu, TShilo12, FrancisTyers, Angr,DjKianoosh, Woohookitty, Vikramkr, Jeff3000, TarisWerewolf, Kelisi, Steinbach, Joygerhardt, Plrk, Jon Harald Søby, Essjay, Paxsimius,Mandarax, Graham87, Behdad, BD2412, Amir85, DePiep, Dpr, SouthernComfort, Fox Mccloud, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Pleiotrop3,Lockley, Chirags, Amire80, TheRingess, Feydey, Funnyhat, Kalogeropoulos, Yuber, Yamamoto Ichiro, Gsp, Miskin, FlaBot, Sasan-jan, Strangnet, Hottentot, RexNL, Ulubay, Neofelis Nebulosa~enwiki, Mehrshad123, Fresheneesz, Malhonen, Russavia, JM.Beaubourg,Chobot, 334a, Bgwhite, Skoosh, JPD, YurikBot, RobotE, Sceptre, Deeptrivia, Jimp, SpuriousQ, Krstajic, Mithridates, Shell Kinney,Gaius Cornelius, Dijan, Eleassar, Draeco, EvKnight13, Herbertxu, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, Badagnani, Kubura, Bestofmed, Cal-iforniaAliBaba, Benne, Number 57, E2mb0t~enwiki, Zirland, Wikilo12, Davidsteinberg, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47, .marc., Limetom,Ali1986, AjaxSmack, Vpendse, Johndburger, K.Nevelsteen, Zzuuzz, Larroney, Closedmouth, Јованвб, Arthur Rubin, Pejman, Babakgh,NielsenGW, Anclation~enwiki, Garion96, Tajik, Tropylium, Kungfuadam, Philip Stevens, GrinBot~enwiki, Jade Knight, Sardanaphalus,Attilios, Veinor, BonsaiViking, SmackBot, WilliamThweatt, YellowMonkey, Imz, Reedy, Prodego, Martin.Budden, Flounderer, McGed-don, Anavabi, Shervink, WilyD, Jagged 85, Chairman S., Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Typhoonchaser, Alex earlier account, Magicalsaumy,Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, ParthianShot, Iancaddy, Amatulic, TimBentley, Aleksei, NCurse, Ksenon, JoshNarins, Jprg1966,Robocoder, Hibernian, Vekoler, J. Spencer, Octahedron80, DHN-bot~enwiki, VikSol, Harangutan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Em-rrans, OrphanBot, Mesopotamia, VMS Mosaic, Addshore, Arab Hafez, Khoikhoi, Radagast83, Downwards, Fullstop, Whoistheroach,Nepaheshgar, DylanW, Glover, Paul S, DMacks, Sangak2, Zzorse, Aaker, Nmpenguin, Ligulembot, Mostlyharmless, Bidabadi~enwiki,Bejnar, Dkusic~enwiki, FrancescoMazzucotelli, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, Mukadderat, Omergold, Kashk, John, Dryzen, Marco polo, SirNicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Shlomke, Amitpandey02, Al1encas1no, JorisvS, Behrad18n, ManiF, Marm, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki,SpyMagician, Pedramrahimi~enwiki, Ckatz, The Man in Question, Bless sins, Slakr, Yasha I, Don Alessandro, Ryulong, Houshyar, MTS-bot~enwiki, Jose77, Yoderj, Pejman47, Norm mit, Gorbeh, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Maxee, Nightrider083, Octane, Blehfu,Billw2, DrMoslehi, Audiosmurf, Bruinfan12, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Khosrow II, Bubbha, Afghana~enwiki, Szfski, Alijsh, AidinAfandi, Earthlyreason, Basawala, Bnwwf91, WeggeBot, Ashkan h, Ankimai, Richard Keatinge, Senorelroboto, FilipeS, Rudjek, Beh-nam, Ensa, Cabolitae, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Hamidhassani1, Future Perfect at Sunrise, MC10, Wirya, Gogo Dodo, Khatru2, David A. Vic-tor, Siba, Farzaneh, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Garik, Rex tremendae, After Midnight, Omicronpersei8, Ebrahim, Sosomk, Thijs!bot,Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Jd2718, Missvain, Frank, Afriza, Nick Number, Alexandre-Jérôme, Stevvvv4444, Harsh manutd, Habibpc, AntiVan-dalBot, BokicaK, Mehrdad barani, ArnoldPlaton, Masamage, Ownlyanangel, Nosirrom, North Shoreman, Naturalnumber, Alphachimpbot,Wayiran, Babakexorramdin, Storkk, Huttarl, DragonRouge, Dfitzgerald, JAnDbot, Barek, Spahbod, MER-C, Alite, Epeefleche, Mco-razao, Scythian1, Mcaisse, Zirnevis, Rothorpe, Jakob37, .anacondabot, Mardavich, Hurmata, Sangak, Mesnenor, Magioladitis, Siamax,VoABot II, Dekimasu, Kajasudhakarababu, Nyttend, Zee18, Avicennasis, Tuncrypt, Eldumpo, Greg Grahame, Noori2006, Chris G, Ed-ward321, Jahangard, Daniel885, Khalid Mahmood, JdeJ, CapnPrep, Baristarim, FellFairy, Homafari, Gun Powder Ma, FisherQueen,Skumarla, MartinBot, Ebizur, Ywarnier, Tekleni, JavaMac, Chartinael, Ravichandar84, Azalea pomp, R'n'B, Easyjay, AlexiusHoratius,Heravi~enwiki, Aliazimi, Amareshjoshi, LMP-UCLA, Francis Tyers, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Qwanqwa, Adavidb, Wikipedi-alover20c, Developknowlegewww, Jreferee, Amirshams, Sajjadkhalid, Dr.Marquis, BlackCheese, Dee 4purple, Ctesiphon7, Shawn inMontreal, Johnbod, Victuallers, Mkruijff, Ryan Postlethwaite, DJ1AM, Hessammehr, Belovedfreak, Shawnkhales, Sarayuparin, KansasBear, Slackerlawstudent, Nazanin9, Aminullah, Agh.niyya, Bonadea, Tajik Is A Rat, Wilhelm meis, The Behnam, Arael2, Idioma-bot,Signalhead, Kaspazes, Busha5a5a5, PeaceNT, VolkovBot, ABF, Rayis, Brando130, Allkhanan, Zoroastrian, Thakurji, Dreddmoto, Ep-son291, Smscon, TXiKiBoT, Certiorari, Aidepikiwym, Technopat, A4bot, Atabəy, Qxz, Parsa55~enwiki, Dathangy, Don4of4, Shahin.shn,Wikiisawesome, Amoozeshefarsiran, CO, Alborz Fallah, Q Science, Stardust9292, Blurpeace, Lerdthenerd, BilabialBoxing, Enviroboy,Softlavender, Mallerd, Thanatos666, Splarn crixpen, Doc James, Snaglle, Zhombie, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, MattW93, Fanatix, PareMo, USMC87, SieBot, MuzikJunky, Scarian, Steorra, Euryalus, WereSpielChequers, Dawn Bard, Viskonsas, Acasson, Frahod, Bagra-tioni~enwiki, Yintan, Calabraxthis, Flyer22 Reborn, MaynardClark, Pedram g, Yerpo, Fazyninja, Jemiljan, Djaliakbar, Nuttycoconut,Ezrawyschogrod, Asdf169, OKBot, Gaia2767spm, Vituzzu, Fuddle, Rednbluearmy, Qhnprof, Alefbe, Anchor Link Bot, Fakhredinblog,Dparvaz~enwiki, Ptr123, Roobik, Sitush, Angelo De La Paz, Tomahiv, Martarius, Leahtwosaints, ClueBot, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare,Kafka Liz, Lexington1, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Der Golem, Uncle Milty, Pete unseth, SuperHamster, Masoudnaseri, Sina Sadeghi111,Harland1, Sahar83, El Quebrado~enwiki, Dunia07, DarioushfakhreIran, Tlustulimu, Massreg, Kasperone, Moein.biz, Jaxcorner, Papna,Kanguole, Kanġi Oĥanko, Cheddarbob2332, Ember of Light, Tahmasp, Huntthetroll, Eclipsian, Warrior4321, Cubotic, Geo0910, Thingg,Willm1122, Bowen9314, Rainbow87, DerBorg, Murraytheb, Versus22, Theunixgeek, Apparition11, Bahmei~enwiki, DumZiBoT, MostafaMajd, AlanM1, XLinkBot, Litoo, Kurdo777, Ramtashaniku, AbbasPeretz, Ladsgroup, Ajo114, Belekvor, Phamed, Eleven even, Da-moname, MystBot, Deaniew557, Albania T, Serichard, Jhendin, Getsnoopy, Aucassin, Addbot, Causteau, Kallsupen, KabuliNewMusi-cian, Kman543210, PersianLion, Tajik007, Download, Snazeeram, CarsracBot, Eastshine, AnnaFrance, Favonian, Waynesur, Kingammar,Raayen, Sanawon, Numbo3-bot, Frescodecacao, Erutuon, Tide rolls, AchamaenidPersian550, Rajabalinejad, ,ماني El Mexicano, Teles,Ketabtoon, Contributor777, Amateur55, The Bushranger, Luckas-bot, Yobot, TaBOT-zerem, Anypodetos, Mmxx, WikiPersianHistorian,Neqitan, Luoboni, Iroony, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Tuvalkin, 1exec1, Jim1138, Galoubet, Royote, S00porz2, JackieBot, Scythian77,

16 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Ulric1313, Metti Fasa, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Shayan7, Citation bot, Amit6, Juhur, ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Quebec99, Bigmas-ter1, Parthian Scribe, Obersachsebot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, ManningBartlett, Necirsad, Sionus, Estlandia~enwiki, HannesP, Batman300,Anonymous from the 21st century, J04n, Xashaiar, Twirligig, KevinH22, RibotBOT, Mcferron, Mttll, Esfandieasil, Reallyruby, Mer-lLinkBot, Temerster, Kurdevar, A. di M., Ukbeast62696, Ddd0dd, FrescoBot, Lothar von Richthofen, Grinevitski, Massagetae, Techeditor007, Mìthrandir, D'ohBot, GabEuro, K.Khokhar, Ice-LC, Georodin, Above views edge, Gire 3pich2005, DivineAlpha, Citation bot1, Marixist101, DrilBot, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, R1000R1000, Yahia.barie, Amjad M5, Fat&Happy, Jschnur, Fixer88, Information-Line, Editorgroups, Jeppiz, Tim1357, Orenburg1, Inuit18, FoxBot, Admistratour, Zonafan39, BrokenMirror2, Lotje, Afghan555, Psejfng,Dinamik-bot, Gulbenk, ویکی ,علی Royaeidi, Nataev, Abie the Fish Peddler, GoshtaspLohraspi, Theshanameh, Lapskingwiki, Jeffrd10,Goudarzian, Farhikht, Stephen MUFC, Youknowwho303, Ditictur, Satdeep Gill, Airbag190, Onel5969, Jansentilanus, Kanzler31, Meanas custard, TjBot, NameIsRon, Blueskyscraper, BigDavidoff, Zujine, Ilgar Khankishiyev, Shabidoo, EmausBot, Sasani2, John of Reading,WikitanvirBot, Mfa88, Govindabhattarai, GoingBatty, Closedbirdes, ZxxZxxZ, Stability Information East 2, , Filmfarsi, Iman-abidi, Pro translator, Alsace38, ZéroBot, John Cline, Ida Shaw, Hameedullah36, JohnCengiz77, Tlunkaj, Mar4d, Midas02, Bkiernanphd,Mmahdavim, SporkBot, ,سخ Labnoor, TyA, Reza parsa, Alborzagros, Mohamadriazi, Khodabandeh14, Hezare, Mjbmr, ChuispastonBot,Shemaroo, Diako1971, Любослов Езыкин, Special Cases, Khestwol, Mhiji, Pooyaf, بزرگ ,شمال ClueBot NG, Johnny0964, Usuckman,Dr. Persi, MelbourneStar, Dominic Rogers, Farso777, Saeid24, SHlTbag 12, Guive37, Save me, Barry!, Xythianos, Finding-Truth, Joel B.Lewis, Lysozym, AlwaysUnite, Kutsuit, Vikrantsimha, Texinfo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Persian1111, Iste Praetor, Dr.dollar, Titodutta, Tabrizi78, Calabe1992, Zyztem2000, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Behkar, Moradmandali, Gomada, Bogdan Nagachop, PhnomPencil, Cyber-power678, Alhurra, ElphiBot, Xikenni, Air Miss, AvocatoBot, Darkness Shines, Mooglemann, Zenbb, Zavarzadeh, Solomon7968, Compf-reak7, Maahmaah, AdventurousSquirrel, Reza luke, Cnevis, CSTO, Gazaneh, Irānshahr, Sardr8, Xooon, Dehwar, DPL bot, Azi-azadeh,Maurice Flesier, Winter Gaze, Jaqeli, Perser1, SomeGuy1122, Neonkeon, BattyBot, Xhmee, Xameleon, Justincheng12345-bot, Farzad247,Ariaveeg, Boeing720, HueSatLum, The Illusive Man, Timothy Gu, ChrisGualtieri, Limatt, PenningtonClassical, Anna catherine popplewell,Palaxan, Soulparadox, MahdiGhor9, Iliya Rostampour, JYBot, Elham Reza, Class Avesta, Polycopy, Sminthopsis84, Mogism, ,اردیبهشتTochari, ARASHZ4, Farmokopole, Zyma, Athomeinkobe, Nicole21532, Persian.vahid, Kkumaresan26, Azerbaijan-Tebrizli, PinkAmper-sand, Epicgenius, Bowser2500, Hgvqd, Ugly86, Piruz Pars, BreakfastJr, HistoryofIran, Tentinator, Mitrakana, Abrahamic Faiths, Irtasy,Stinkum21, Glock-19, PiruzRuz, Saugus, Sorena-ashkani, Jan Kaninchen, LouisAragon, FK8964, Elham k e, Nikhilmn2002, Metalman60,Eagle3399, Klax44, Chitooribah, UY Scuti, Bladesmulti, Stamptrader, Farsaj, Djressl8, تبریزی زاده مهدی ,شاهین Lyonflinc, Monkbot,Zumoarirodoka, X.goodarzie, Vieque, Rye-96, ELVİN İBRAHİM, Mansoor1367, Lilpiglet, Mstoofan, Monopoly31121993, Jewiyeane,Vakari71, Peter238, Noorswelm, A54593, Negahbaan, Krzyhorse22, Hamidasadpour, GA-spacecapsule, Khash7788, Khalidafg, Zubair-war, Kukop, Ankush 89, Eurorient, KasparBot, 3 of Diamonds, Turkoglang, Parsiansdfg, Promopersia, SaharZIRIZ, Abiete900, Gamma+,The Spartan 003, Dorpater, History of Persia, Alectheboss, Shayansoleimany, Momoitaly, Englike, Ace.jasb, Filpro, Kanjuzi, Mardomi-rani, Tarofnadarim and Anonymous: 1205

14.2 Images• File:Agra_India_persian_poem.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Agra_India_persian_poem.jpg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maahmaah

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