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Performing Arts

In India, various facets of performing arts are all pervading bringing colour and joy to numerous festivals

and ceremonies, and reaffirming the faith of the people in their heritage. These facets have been

responsible for sustaining the long continuities of ancient traditions. They are the link between the past

and the present. It thus exemplifies the complex, organic interaction of all aspects of life implicit in all

tribal and folk art forms; art is not seen as something apart from life, a mere ornamentation or

entertainment, but as an intrinsic part of it.

Under the patronage of Kings and rulers, skilled artisans and entertainers were encouraged to specialize

and to refine their skills to greater levels of perfection and sophistication. Gradually, the classical forms of

Art evolved for the glory of temple and palace, reaching their zenith around India around 2nd C.E.

onwards and under the powerful Gupta empire, when canons of perfection were laid down in detailed

treatise - the Natyashastra and the Kamasutra - which are still followed to this day. Through the ages,

rival kings and nawabs vied with each other to attract the most renowned artists and performers to their

courts.

While the classical arts thus became distinct from their folk roots, they were never totally alienated from

them, even today there continues a mutually enriching dialogue between tribal and folk forms on the one

hand, and classical art on the other; the latter continues to be invigorated by fresh folk forms, while

providing them with new thematic content in return. In addition, while links with their folk roots

distinguish the regional classical art forms, the myriad folk forms throughout India are bound by common

classical religious and mythological themes.

In India, religion, philosophy and myth can not be divorced from their art forms. Dance and music are

tied inextricably to ceremony of any kind. Weddings, births, coronations, entering a new house or town,

welcoming a guest, religious processions, harvest time , any or all of these are occasions for song and

dance.

Music and dance are probably the most elemental art forms, spontaneously expressing the entire garment

of human emotions and experiences. There are tribal belts throughout India, and although each tribe has

its own distinctive music and dances, they all share a similar form, with men and women forming separate

rows with linked arms and executing intricate leg movements in a gradually increasing tempo that builds

up to a crescendo of vigour.

The folk music and dances of agricultural communities celebrate the rhythms of daily life, the turn of the

seasons, the highlights of the agricultural calendar, religious festivals and important events that punctuate

the flow of life, such as births and marriages. While folk music and dance share common themes and

concerns, there is a wide variety of forms. Along the entire Himalayan region, from Kashmir to

Darjeeling, folk dancers link arms and sway gracefully in undulating movements, celebrate the sowing of

the wheat crop; few can resist the infectious beat of the dholak, the two-sided drum, and pairs of dancers

take turns to execute complex acrobatic movements in the centre of a circle of abandoned dancers.

Women perform the Giddha, also characterised by its spontaneous energy. Rajasthani women, their faces

covered with flowing veils, are swirls of colour as they pirouette in the Ghoomar dance, while their

counterparts in Gujarat perform the famous Garba, dancing in a circle with batons. Their men perform

the Dandiya Ras, a more vigorous version of the same dance, leaping and crouching in twirling patterns.

In the fishing communities of Maharashtra, men and women link arms and dance together and the women

climb on to the men's shoulders to form pyramids. The women's Lavani dance from this area is notable

for its unabashed sensuality. There are also several forms of dance-drama or folk theatre, such as

the Nautanki of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, the Bhavai of Gujarat, the irreverent Tamasha of

Maharashtra , the Bengali Jatra, the spectacular Yakshagana of Karnataka and Theyyam of Kerala, all of

which narrate legends of local heroes, kings and deities. Martial art forms throughout the country have

been stylized to quasi dance forms, notable among which are the martial dances of the North-eastern hill

tribes, the Lazim dances of Maharashtra, theKalaripayattu of Kerala, and the highly stylized

masked Chhau dances of Orissa, West Bengal and Bihar.

Together these dances have formed a vast reservoir from which the classical dances have drawn

sustenance. There are seven major classical dance styles — Bharatnatyam from Tamil Nadu and

Karnataka, Kathakali, a classical dance-drama from Kerala, Manipuri from Manipur, Kathak from Uttar

Pradesh, Odissi from Orissa, and Kuchipudi from Andhra Pradesh and Sattriya from Assam which has

recently been included in the fold of Classical Dances. In their present format, their history cannot be

traced back to over two to three hundred years, but they all have links with the ancient and medieval

literary, sculptural and musical traditions of India and of their particular regions. They all adhere to the

canons of classical dance laid down in the Natya Shastra, a second century C.E. text ascribed to the sage

Bharata, to whom it was supposedly revealed by the Creator, Brahma.

Folk theatre and dance-drama were the common roots of both classical dance and theatre , the traditions

of both of which were elaborated upon the Natyashastra. Kalidasa is India's most famous poet and

dramatist, and his plays are still performed today. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the last ruler of Awadh, was a

noted playwright and staged elaborate dramas at his court.

1. Dances of India

Classical Dance

Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating back to ancient times. Excavations, inscriptions,

chronicles, genealogies of kings and artists, literary sources, sculpture and painting of different periods

provide extensive evidence on dance. Myths and legends also support the view that dance had a

significant place in the religious and social life of the Indian people. However, it is not easy to trace the

precise history and evolution of the various dances known as the 'art' or 'classical' forms popular today.

In literature, the first references come from the Vedas where dance and music have their roots. A more

consistent history of dance can be reconstructed from the epics, the several Puranas and the rich body of

dramatic and poetic literature known as the nataka and the kavya in Sanskrit. A related development was

the evolution of classical Sanskrit drama which was an amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime,

choreography, stylised movement and music. From the 12th century to the 19th century there were many

regional forms called the musical play or sangeet-nataka. Contemporary classical dance forms are known

to have evolved out of these musical plays.

Excavations have brought to light a bronze statuette from Mohenjodaro and a broken torso from Harappa

(dating back to 2500-1500 B.C.E.) These are suggestive of dance poses. The latter has been identified as

the precursor of the Nataraja pose commonly identified with dancing Siva.

The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of

drama, dance and music. It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century

B.C.E- 2nd century C.E.The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda. According to the author, he has

evolved thisveda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from

the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda. There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote

the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses.

In terms of the classical tradition formulated in the Natyashastra, dance and music are an inextricable part

of drama. The art of natyacarries in it all these constituents and the actor is himself the dancer and the

singer, the performer combined all the three functions. With the passage of time the status of an

independent and specialised art, marked the beginning of the 'art' dance in India.

As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as having three aspects: natya, nritya and nritta.

Natya highlights the dramatic element and most dance forms do not give emphasis to this aspect today

with the exception of dance-drama forms like Kathakali. Nrityais essentially expressional, performed

specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea. Nritta on the other hand, is pure dance where body

movements do not express any mood (bhava), nor do they convey any meaning. To

present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should be trained to communicate the navarasas. These are:

love (shringaara), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna), valour(veera), anger (roudra), fear (bhayanak),

disgust (bibhatsa), wonder (adbhuta) and peace (shaanta).

An ancient classification followed in all styles is of Tandava and Lasya. Tandava the masculine, is heroic

bold and vigorous. Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful. Abhinaya, broadly means expression.

This is achieved through angika, the body and limbs, vachikasong and speech and aharya, costume and

adornment; and satvika, moods and emotions.

Bharata and Nandikesvara, the main authorities conceive of dance as an art which uses the human body as

a vehicle of expression. The major human units of the body (anga) are identified as the head, torso, the

upper and lower limbs and the minor human parts (upangas), as all parts of the face ranging from the

eyebrow to the chin and the minor joints.

Two further aspects of natya are the modes of presentation and the style. There are two modes of

presentation, namely the Natyadharmi, which is the formalised presentation of theatre, and

theLokadharmi sometimes translated as folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional. The style or vrittis are

classified into Kaishiki, the deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects, the Arbati, the energetic

masculine the Satvati often used while depicting the rasas and the Bharati, the literary content.

Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in different parts of the country its own distinct style

taking on the culture of that particular region, each acquiring its own flavour. Consequently a number of

major styles of 'art' dance are known to us today, like Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Kathak,

Manipuri, Odissi and Sattriya. Then, there are regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas,

which range from simple, joyous celebrations of the seasons, harvest or birth of a child to dances for the

propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits. Today there is also a whole new body of modern

experimental dance.

Bharatnatyam Dances

Bharatnatyam Dance is considered to be over 2000 years old. Several texts beginning with Bharata

Muni's Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) provide information on this dance form. The Abhinaya

Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material, for the study of the technique

and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance. There is also a great deal of visual evidence of

this dance form in paintings and stone and metal sculptures of ancient times. On the gopurams of the

Chidambaram temple, one can see a series of Bharatnatyam poses, frozen in stone as it were, by the

sculptor. In many other temples, the charis and karanas of the dance are represented in sculpture and one

can make a study of the dance form.

Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in a single

performance. In the early 19th century, the famous Tanjore Quartette, under the patronage of Raja Serfoji

are said to have been responsible for the repertoire of Bharatnatyam dance as we see it today.

The style was kept alive by the devadasis, who were young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the temples

and who were married to the gods. The devadasisperformed music and dance as offerings to the deities, in

the temple courtyards. Some of the renowned performers and gurus of the early part of the century belong

to the devadasi families, a well-known name is Bala Saraswati.

The repertoire of Bharatnatyam is extensive, however, a performance follows a regular pattern. At first

there is an invocation song. The first dance item is the alarippu, literally meaning - to adorn with flowers.

It is an abstract piece combining pure dance with the recitation of sound syllables

The next item, the jatiswaram is a short pure dance piece performed to the accompaniment of musical

notes of any raga of Carnatic music. Jatiswaram has no sahitya or words, but is composed

of adavus which are pure dance sequences - nritta. They form the basis of training in Bharatnatyam

dance.

As a solo dance, Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - thenritya, where

the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement and mime. Shabdam follows the jatiswaram in a

Bharatnatyam dance performance. The accompanying song is generally in adoration of the Supreme

Being.

After the shabdam, the dancer performs the varnam. The varnam which is the most important

composition of the Bharatnatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and nritya and epitomises the

essence of this classical dance form. The dancer here performs complicated well graded rhythmic patterns

in two speeds showing the control over rhythm, and then goes on to depict in a variety of ways,

through abhinaya the lines of the sahitya. This portrays the dancer's excellence in abhinaya and also

reflects the endless creativity of the choreographer.

The varnam is by far one of the most beautiful compositions in Indian dance.

After the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of

moods. Thebhava or rasa is woven into the sahitya and then expressed by the dancer. The common

pieces are keertanam,kritis, padams and javalis. In the keertanam, the text is important whereas kriti is a

composition in which the musical aspect is highlighted. Both are usually devotional in character and

represent episodes from the lives of Rama,Siva, Vishnu, etc. Padams and javalis, are on the theme of

love, often divine.

A Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music.

It is a vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines of sahitya. The

finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance ends

with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.

The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player, a

flautist and a cymbal player. The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.

Kathakali Dance

Kerala is the home of several traditional dance and dance - drama forms, the most notable being

Kathakali.

Kathakali, as a dance form popular today, is considered to be of comparatively recent origin. However, it

is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical forms which existed in the southern

region in ancient times. Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam andRamanattam are few of the ritual

performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and technique.

Legend has it that the refusal of the Zamorin of Calicut to send his Krishnattam troupe to Travancore, so

enraged the Raja of Kottarakkara, that he was inspired to compose the Ramanattam.

In the temple sculptures in Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancheri temple of approximately the 16th

century, dance scenes depicting the square and rectangular basic positions so typical to Kathakali are

seen. For body movements and choreographical patterns, Kathakali is also indebted to the early martial

arts of Kerala.

Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from the

Indian epics. It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of abhinaya - angika, aharya,vachika, satvika and

the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly. The dancer expresses himself through

codified hastamudras and facial expressions, closely following the verses(padams) that are sung.

Kathakali derives its textual sanction from Balarama Bharatam andHastalakshana Deepika.

The attakkathasor stories are selected from the epics and myths and are written in a highly Sanskritised

verse form in Malayalam. Many Malayalam writers have also contributed to the vast repertoire of

Kathakali literature.

Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume and make-up are suited to the characters, as per the tenets

laid down in the Natya Shastra. The characters are grouped under certain clearly defined types like

the pacha, kathi, thadi, kari or minukku. The face of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask

is worn. The lips, the eyelashes and the eyebrows are made to look prominent. A mixture of rice paste and

lime is applied to make the chutti on the face which highlights the facial make-up.

Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative. The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided

into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types. Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined.

In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all. Krishna and Rama wear special

crowns decorated with peacock feathers. The noble characters like Indra, Arjun and the Devas are some

of the pacha characters.

The kathi type depict anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika category, they are sometimes great

warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and Sisupala to name a few. The moustache and the small

knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar to

the kathi character. The characters of the thadi (beard) category are the chuvanna thadi, (red

beard), vellathadi (white beard) and the karutha thadi (black beard). Vellathadi or the white bearded

character is generally that of Hanuman, the dancer also wears the costume of a monkey. Kari are

characters whose make-up have a black base, they wear black costume depicting a hunter or forest

dweller. Apart from these, there are minor characters like minukku which are the women and sages.

Kathakali costumes and make-up are elaborate and designed so as to give a super human effect. The

make-up of Kathakali can be classified into the teppu, chuttikuthu and uduthukettu. The teppud done by

the actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu. The second stage is done by experts who specialise

in make-up. The wearing of huge bellowing skirts is called uduthukettu.

A simple stage is used. A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain

called Tirasseela on the stage, the main dancers stand behind it before the performance.

In no other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali. The technical details cover

every part of the body from facial muscles to fingers, eyes, hands and wrists. The facial muscles play an

important part. The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower eye-lids as described in the

Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in any other dance style. The weight of the body is on the

outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved.

Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express himself and display his

skills. The leaps, quick turns, jumps and the rhythmic co-ordination make kalasams, a joy to watch.

A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention followed by

the todayam. It is a devotional number performed where one or two characters invoke the blessings of the

gods. Kelikottu is the formal announcement of the performance done in the evening when drums and

cymbals are played for a while in the courtyard. A pure nritta piece known as the purappadu comes as a

sequel to this. Then the musicians and drummers hold the stage entertaining the audience with an

exhibition of their skills in melappada. Tiranokku is the debut on the stage of all characters other than

the pacha or minukku. Thereafter, the play or the particular scene of the chosen play begins.

Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala. It is said to be the ritual singing of

the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the sanctum sanctorum. Now, Kathakali music also uses

Carnatic ragas-the raga and talaconforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta and natya).

The orchestra which is also used in other traditional performing arts of Kerala, normally comprises

the Chenda, Maddalam, Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shankhu.

Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their

excellence inabhinaya. For the most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves

in chodiattam which means acting in strict conformity to the words in the padams sung by the

accompanying musicians.

Thanks to the service done by the poet Vallathol, this classical dance form received a new impetus and

today many innovations are also being made to suit the needs of a changing society.

Kathak Dances

The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story.Kathakars or story-tellers,

are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and legends. It probably

started as an oral tradition. Mime and gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more

effective. Thus evolved a simple form of expressional dance, providing the origins of what later

developed into Kathak as we see it today.

The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century. and the resultant bhakti movement

contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. The Radha-Krishna theme proved

immensely popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadas and Krishnadas.

The emergence of Raslila , mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.) was an important

development. It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance in Raslila, however, was mainly

an extension of the basic mime and gestures of the Kathakars or story-tellers which blended easily with

the existing traditional dance.

With the coming of the Mughals, this dance form received a new impetus. A transition from the temple

courtyard to the palace durbar took place which necessitated changes in presentation. In both Hindu and

Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came to be regarded as a sophisticated form of

entertainment. Under the Muslims there was a greater stress on nritya and bhavagiving the dance

graceful, expressive and sensuous dimensions.

The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last

Nawab of Oudh. He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on bhava, the expression of

moods and emotions. The Jaipur gharana known for its layakari or rhythmic virtuosity and the

Benaras gharana are other prominent schools of Kathak dance. The technique of movement in Kathak is

unique to it.

The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis. The full foot contact

is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot are used, their function is limited. There

are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part of the body. Torso

movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the manipulations of the

backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles. In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds

one hand at a level higher than the head and the other is extended out on the level of the shoulder.

The technique is built by the use of an intricate system of foot-work. Pure dance (nritta) is all important

where complex rhythmic patterns are created through the use of the flat feet and the control of sound of

the ankle bells worn by the dancer. As in Bharatnatyam, Odissi and Manipuri, Kathak also builds its pure

dance sequences by combining units of movement. The cadences are called differently by the

names tukra, tora, and parana, all indicative of the nature of rhythmic patterns used and the percussion

instrument accompanying the dance. The dancer commences with a sequence called That where soft

gliding movements of the neck, eyebrows and the wrists, are introduced. This is followed by a

conventional formal entry known as the Amad (entry) and theSalami (salutation).

Then follow the various combinations of rhythmic passages all punctuated with and culminating in a

number of pirouettes. The pirouettes are the most characteristic feature of the dance style

in nritta portions. Recitation of the rhythmic syllables is common; the dancer often pauses to recite these

to a specified metrical cycle followed by execution through movement. The nritta portion of Kathak is

performed to the nagma. Both the drummer (here the drum is either a pakhawaj, a type of mridangam, or

a pair of tabla) and the dancer weave endless combinations on a repetitive melodic line. The metrical

cycle (tala) of 16, 10, 14 beats provides the foundation on which the whole edifice of dance is built.

In the mime portions (nritya or abhinaya), words are not used in simple numbers called the gata, which

is performed in a lyrical manner to gentle rhythm. These are short narrative pieces which portray a brief

episode from Krishna's life. A poetic line set to music is interpreted with gestures in other numbers, such

as the tumri, bhajan, dadra - all lyrical musical compositions.

In these sections, there is a word to word or line to line synchronisation in the same fashion as in

Bharatnatyam or Odissi. Both in nritta (pure dance) and the abhinaya (mime) there is immense scope for

improvisation of presenting variations on a theme. The interpretative and the abstract dance techniques

are interwoven into each other, and the dancer's greatness lies in his capacity for improvisation on the

melodic and metric line on the one hand and the poetic line on the other.

Today, Kathak has emerged as a distinct dance form. Being the only classical dance of India having links

with Muslim culture, it represents a unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art. Further, Kathak

is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music. Both of them have

had a parallel growth, each feeding and sustaining the other.

Manipuri Dances

Manipuri, one of the main styles of Indian Art or Classical Dancesoriginated in the picturesque and

secluded state of Manipur in the north-eastern corner of India. Because of its geographical location, the

people of Manipur have been protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its

unique traditional culture.

The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond recorded history. The

dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, there are legendary references to the

dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe.

Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-

Vaishnavite period. Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylised dances

in Manipur. Literally meaning - the merrymaking of the gods, it is performed as a ceremonial offering of

song and dance. The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses) who re-

enact the theme of the creation of the world.

With the arrival of Vaishnavism in the 15th century A.D., new compositions based on episodes from the

life of Radha and Krishna were gradually introduced. It was in the reign of King Bhagyachandra that the

popular Rasleela dances of Manipur originated. It is said, that this 18th century philosopher king

conceived this complete dance form along with its unique costume and music in a dream. Under

successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and melodic compositions were introduced.

Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the Sankirtanaand

the Thang-Ta. There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked with specific seasons, while

the fifth can be presented at any time of the year. In Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha,

Krishna and the gopis.

The themes often depict the pangs of separation of the gopis and Radha from Krishna. The parengs or

pure dance sequences performed in the Rasleela dances follow the specific rhythmic patterns and body

movements, which are traditionally handed down. TheRas costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff

skirt which extends to the feet.

A short fine white muslin skirt is worn over it. A dark coloured velvet blouse covers the upper part of the

body and a traditional white veil is worn over a special hair-do which falls gracefully over the face.

Krishna wears a yellow dhoti, a dark velvet jacket and a crown of peacock feathers. The jewellery is very

delicate and the designs are unique to the region.

The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as Sankirtana in

Manipur. The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing. The masculine aspect of dance - the

Choloms are a part of the Sankirtana tradition. The Pung and Kartal choloms are performed at all social

and religious festivals.

The martial dancers of Manipur - the Thang-ta - have their origins in the days when man's survival

depended on his ability to defend himself from wild animals

Today, Manipur has an evolved and sophisticated repertoire of martial dances, the dancers use swords,

spears and shields. Real fight scenes between the dancers show an extensive training and control of the

body.

Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous masculine to

the subdued and graceful feminine. Generally known for its lyrical and graceful movements, Manipuri

dance has an elusive quality. In keeping with the subtleness of the style, Manipuri abhinaya does not play

up the mukhabhinaya very much - the facial expressions are natural and not exaggerated -

sarvangabhinaya, or the use of the whole body to convey a certain rasa, is its forte.

The rhythmic complexities are usually overlooked as the dancers do not wear ankle bells to stamp out the

rhythms in a theatrical display, as this interferes with the delicate body movements. However, Manipuri

dance and music has a highly evolved tala system.

The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat - very different from both north and south Indian

music, this style is immediately recognizable with its high pitched open throated rendering with particular

type of trills and modulations. The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum.

There are also many other kinds of drums used in Manipuri dance and music. The Pena, a stringed

instrument is used in Lai Haraoba and Pena singing. Various kinds of cymbals are used in Sankirtana

and Ras. The flute is also used to accompany vocal singing.

The Ashtapadis of Jayadeva's Geeta Govinda are very popular and are sung and danced in Manipur with

great religious fervour.

Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in one's life is celebrated with Sankirtanaperformances -

child birth, upanayanam, wedding and shradha are all occasions for singing and dancing in Manipur.

The whole community participates as song and dance form part of daily life expressions.

Odissi Dances

Odisha, on the eastern sea coast, is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.

Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine and the human, the

sublime and the mundane. The Natya Shastra mentions many regional varieties, such as the south-eastern

style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as the earliest precursor of present day

Odissi.

Archaeological evidence of this dance form dating back to the 2nd century B.C. is found in the caves of

Udayagiri and Khandagiri near Bhubaneshwar. Later, innumerable examples of the Buddhist sculptures,

the tantric images of dancing Yoginis, the Nataraja, and other celestial musicians and dancers of early

Shaivite temples bear testimony to a continuing tradition of dance from the 2nd century B.C.E to the 10th

century C.E. These influences found synthesis in an unique philosophy - the dharma or faith of

Jagannath. With Hinduism taking roots in Odisha by about the 7th century A.D., many imposing temples

were erected. The magnificent Sun Temple at Konarak, built in the 13th century, with its Natya

mandap or Hall of dance, marks the culmination of the temple building activity in Odisha. These dance

movements, frozen in stone, continue to inspire Odissi dancers even today.

For centuries maharis were the chief repositories of this dance. The maharis, who were originally temple

dancers came to be employed in royal courts which resulted in the degeneration of the art form. Around

this time, a class of boys called gotipuas were trained in the art, they danced in the temples and also for

general entertainment. Many of today's gurus of this style belong to the gotipua tradition.

Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra and the

Abhinaya Darpana. In fact, it has derived a great deal from the Abhinaya Darpana Prakasha by

Jadunatha Sinha, theAbhinaya Chandrika by Rajmani Patra, and the Abhinaya Chandrika by

Maheshwara Mahapatra.

As in other parts of India, creative literature inspired the Odissi dancer also and provided the themes for

dance. This is especially true of the 12th century Gita Govinda by Jayadeva. It is a profound example of

thenayaka-nayika bhava and surpasses other poems in its poetic and stylistic content. The devotion of the

poet for Krishna permeates through the work.

Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra. Facial expressions, hand gestures and

body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.

The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowkand the Tribhanga.

The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally

balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the

knees.

The torso movement is very important and is an unique feature of the Odissi style. With the lower half of

the body remaining static, the torso moves from one side to the other along the axis passing through the

centre of the upper half of the body. Great training is required for this control so as to avoid any shoulder

or hip movement. There are certain foot positions with flat, toe or heel contact. These are used in a variety

of intricate combinations. There are also numerous possibilities of leg movements. Almost all leg

movements are spiral or circular, whether in space or on the ground.

In addition to the leg movement, there are a variety of gaits for doing pirouettes and jumps and also

certain postures inspired by the sculptures. These bhangis, as they are called are really units of movement

ending in one particular stance.

Hand gestures play an important role both in nritta where they are used only as decorative

embellishments and in nritya where they are used for communication.

The formal repertoire of Odissi has a certain order of presentation, where each successive item is

systematically put together to produce the desired rasa.

The opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage with flowers in her hands

and makes an offering to mother earth. This is followed by an invocation to the deity of the dancer's

choice. Generally, Ganesha is called upon to grant an auspicious beginning. The item ends with

a nritta sequence with salutations to God, the Guru and the audience.

The next item is called Batu where the basic concepts of the Odissi nritta technique are highlighted

bringing out the duality of the masculine and the feminine through the basic stance of

the chauk and tribhanga. This is danced in praise of Batukeshwar Bhairav or Shiva. The accompanying

music is very simple -only a refrain of dance syllables.

After the very basic exposition of nritta in Batu, comes the flowering and ornamentation of music and

movements in Pallavi. A musical composition in a particular raga is visually represented by the dancer

with slow and subtle movements, building up into complex patterns highlighting rhythmic variations

within the talastructure.

This is followed by the rendering of abhinaya. Odisha has a continuing tradition of dancing of

theAshtapadis of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda since the 12th century. The lyricism of this poem is

particularly suited to the Odissi style. Apart from the Gita Govinda, the compositions of other Odiya

poets like Upendra Bhanja, Baladeva Ratha, Banamali and Gopal Krishna are also sung.

The concluding item of the repertoire, which may consist of more than one pallavi and items based

onabhinaya, is called moksha. Pakhawaj syllables are recited and the dance moves from slow to quick

sequences to reach a climax, when the dancer pays the final obeisance.

An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a

flutist, a sitar or violin player and a manjira player.

The dancer is adorned in elaborate Odiya silver jewellery and a special hair-do. The sari, usually stitched

nowadays, is unique to the style.

In each performance, even a modern Odissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of

the devadasis ormaharis where they sought liberation or moksha through the medium of dance.

Kuchipudi Dances

Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance. Around the third and fourth decade of this

century it emerged out of a long rich tradition of dance-drama of the same name.

In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35 km.

from Vijayawada. Andhra has a very long tradition of dance-drama which was known under the generic

name of Yakshagaana. In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by Siddhendra

Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary who had the capacity to give concrete shape to some of his

visions. He was steeped in the literary Yakshagaana tradition being guided by his guru

Teerthanaaraayana Yogi who composed the Krishna-Leelatarangini. a kaavya in Sanskrit.

It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to compose a dancedrama

based on the myth of the bringing of paarijaata flower for Sathyabhaama, the most beloved queen of

Krishna. In compliance with this command Siddhendra Yogi composed the Bhaamaakalaapam which is

till now considered the piece-deresistance of the Kuchipudi repertoire. Siddhendra Yogi initiated young

Brahmin boys of Kuchipudi village to practice and perform his compositions

particularly Bhaamaakalaapam. The presentation of Bhaamaakalaapam was a stupendous success. Its

aesthetic appeal was so great that the then Nawab of Golconda, Abdul Hasan Tanishah issued a copper

plate in 1675 A.D. granting the village Kuchipudi as an Agrahaarama to the families of Brahmins who

pursued this art. At that time all the actors were male and the female impersonation was of a superb

quality. To have an idea of the high standard of female impersonation one should see Vedaantam

Satyanarayana Sharma, a great Kuchipudi dancer, even today doing the role of Satyabhaama.

The followers of Siddhendra Yogi wrote several plays and the tradition of Kuchipudi dance-drama

continues till today. It was Lakshminarayan Shastry (1886-1956) who introduced many new elements

including solo dancing and training of female dancers in this dance style.

Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate sequences. 'At times,

even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was being presented to punctuate the

presentation and to enhance the appeal. One such number is tarangam inspired by the Krishna-leela

tarangini of Teerthanarayana Yogi.

To show the dexterity of the dancers in footwork and their control and balance over their bodies,

techniques like dancing on the rim of a brass plate and with a pitcher full of water on the head was

introduced. Acrobatic dancing became part of the repertoire. By the middle of this century, Kuchipudi

fully crystallized as a separate classical solo dance style. Thus there are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the

traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance.

From the later part of the fourth decade of this century a sequence of the presentation of the solo recital

has been widely accepted. A recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some

other classical dance styles. Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesha Vandana. Now other gods are

also invoked. It is followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing. Usually jatiswaram is

performed as the nritta number. Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam. One of the

favourite traditional shabdam number is the Dashaavataara. The Shabdam is followed by a natyanumber

called Kalaapam. Many Kuchipudi dancers prefer to perform entry of Satyabhama from the traditional

dance-drama Bhaamaakalaapam. The song "bhamane, satyabhamane, the traditionalpraveshadaaru (the

song that is rendered at the time of the entry of a character) is so tuneful that its appeal is universal and

ever fresh. Next in the sequence comes a pure nrityaabhinaya number based on literary-cum musical

forms like padam, jaavli, shlokam, etc. In such a number each of the sung words is delineated in space

through dance, drishya-kavita (visual poetry). A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam.

Excerpts of Krishna-leela-tarangini are sung with this number. In this the dancer usually stands on a

brass plate locking the feet in shakatavadanam paada and moves the plate rhythmically with great

dexterity.

The music that accompanies the dance is according to the classical school of Carnatic music and is

delightfully syncopatic. The accompanying musicians, besides the vocalist are: a mridangam player to

provide percussion music, a violin or veena player or both for providing instrumental melodic music, and

a cymbal player who usually conducts the orchestra and recites the sollukattus(mnemonic rhythm

syllables).

Sattriya Dances

The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and

reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful medium for propagation of the Vaishnava

faith. The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on. This neo-Vaishnava

treasure of Assamese dance and drama has been, for centuries, nurtured and preserved with great

commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths or monasteries. Because of its religious character and

association with the Sattras, this dance style has been aptly named Sattriya.

Sankaradeva introduced this dance form by incorporating different elements from various treatises, local

folk dances with his own rare outlook. There were two dance forms prevalent in Assam before the neo-

Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali and Devadasi with many classical elements. Two varieties of

Ojapali dances are still prevalent in Assam i.e. Sukananni or Maroi Goa Ojah and Vyah Goa Ojah.

Sukananni Oja paali is of Sakti cult and Vyah Goa Oja paali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva included

Vyah Goa Ojah into his daily rituals in Sattra. Till now Vyah Goa Ojah is a part of rituals of the Sattras of

Assam. The dancers in a Oja paali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by

gestures and stylized movements. As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number

of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of

the influence of the former on the latter. Other visible influences on Sattriya dance are those from

Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gestures and rhythmic syllables are strikingly

similar in these dance forms.

Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in respect

of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc. This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the

Bhaona-related repertoire starting from the Gayan-Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach, secondly the

dance numbers which are independent, such as Chali, Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.

Among them the Chali is characterized by gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is marked by

vigor and majestic beauty.

2. Music of India

Hindustani Classical Music

Throughout the ages, man has sought to express the stirrings of his soul, the search for something beyond

the mundane through the medium of the arts.

The evolution of poetry, painting and other visual arts has been preserved on stone, leaves and paper but

music being auditory, no such evidence exists. As such it is not possible to listen today to the music of the

ancient times.

Inspite of such a variety of cultural interactions, our music has remained essentially melodic. In melody,

one note follows the other, making for a continued unity of effect, whereas in harmony musical sounds

are superimposed on one another. Our classical music has retained its melodic quality.

Today we recognise two systems of classical music: the Hindustani and the Carnatic. Carnatic music is

confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The classical music of the rest of the

country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical Music. Of course. there are some areas in Karnataka

and Andhra where the Hindustani Classical system is also practiced. Karnataka has given us in the recent

past some very distinguished musicians of the Hindustani style.

It is generally believed that the music of India was more or less uniform before the 13th century. Later it

bifurcated into the two musical systems.

The present Indian music has grown from ancient times. Almost every tribe or people have lent their own

share in this growth. What therefore, we now call a raga might have started as a tribal or folk tune.

It is usual to begin the history of Indian music with the melodic patterns of vedic chanting. The oldest

music, which possessed a grammar was the vedic. Of course, the Rig-Veda is said to be the oldest: nearly

5000 years old. The psalms of the Rig-Veda were called the richas. TheYajur Veda was also a religious

chant. But actual music in Northern or Southern India, of those bygone days could not have only been of

this kind. There were non-Aryan people with their own art. For instance, Santhal music from the Eastern

region of India may have been passed down from them. While the differences are obvious, there is no

doubt that such music of the people contributed to the formation of what we now call Hindustani

Classical Music.

Natya Shastra of Bharata is another important landmark in the history of Indian music. It is supposed to

have been written sometime between the 2nd century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. Some scholars are

even doubtful whether it is the work of one author and the work might well have been a compendium - at

least, the version which is available to us. The Natya Shastra is a comprehensive work mainly dealing

with dramaturgy. But a few chapters of this deal with music. Therein we get information on scales,

melodic forms, tala and musical instruments. The then contemporary music recognized two standard

scales. These were called gramas. The word grama is itself perhaps derivable from the idea of group or

sect: a village, for instance. This probably lead to a set of svaras or notes being calledgrama. This could

roughly be translated as scales. There were then two gramas prevalent. One was called the Shadja

grama, the other one was the Madhyama grama. The difference between the two was only in one note,

the panchama. To speak more accurately. we say that the panchama in madhyama grama was

one sruti lower than the panchama in shadja grama.

The sruti thus is the unit of measure or small difference between the various consecutive pitches within a

grama or a scale. For all practical purposes they are said to be twenty two. This is only as far as practical

enumeration is concerned. just as we would say that there are seven notes in an octave or saptak - from Sa

to upper Sa. But in reality the number of srutis employed in Indian music is infinite.

Getting back to gramas in Bharata's time, there were two, with seven notes each. Bharata also mentions

two other note: these were the antara gandhara and kakali nishada.

Now, from each grama subsidiary scales are derived. These are called moorcchanas. The notes are played

or sung in a descending manner. There are seven basic notes in a scale, hence there can be

seven moorcchanas. There were two gramas and each had seven standard notes and two auxiliary ones,

as was mentioned. Since each note could give a moorcchana, numerous such subsidiary scales could be

obtained. It is possible to show that there could be sixty-four moorcchanas derivable from two gramas.

The process gave different tonal orders within which could be grouped or from which could be evolved,

all known classical melodies of those days. This condition remained for many centuries. In approximately

the 13th century A.D. Sarangadeva - whose forefathers hailed from Kashmir - settled in South India and

wrote his monumental Sangeeta Ratankara. He also described technical terms such as gramas and

moorcchanas. The standard scales were still the same. But whereas Bharata mentions two

auxiliary svaras, the number and definition of these were very different in medieval times.

The whole scheme, what is often called the modal music, seems so strange to us now. But there is no

doubting the fact that it was a very highly advanced and a scientific one.

From about the 11th century, music from Central and West Asia began to influence our music tradition.

Gradually this influence took a deeper root and many changes took place. Of these, an important one is

the disappearance of gramas and moorcchanas.

Sometime around about the 15th century, this process of change became manifest, the grama system

became obsolete. The concept of mela or thata takes its place. In this there is only one standard scale. All

known notes are referred to a common note Sa.

By about the 18th century even the standard or shuddha svara in Hindustani music becomes different.

The following is the current one, accepted from the 18th century.

Sa re ga ma pa dha ni

This is the mela aaroh of the modern raga Bilaval. Besides these seven shuddha notes or svaras there are

five variants, making in all twelve notes to a saptak.

Sa re re ga ga ma ma pa dha dha ni ni

There are, of course, finer variations: these are the shrutis, It is better, therefore, to call these 12 tonal

regions rather than notes.

All known ragas are grouped within this twelve tone scale. Indeed. it was a Carnatic musicologist -

Venkatmukhi of the 17th century, who gave a system of 72 melas formed out of these twelve tones. Later

on, in the 20th century, Pt. Bhatkhande, chose 10 out of the 72 to classify Hindustani ragas.

So far we have been speaking of scales: the grama, moorcchana and mela. These are obviously concepts

developed after melodies were born. No folk singer thinks of a grama or a mela. The tribal and folk songs

existed and still exist without a conscious grammar. It is the musicologist who later classifies melodies

or ragas into scales.

We shall now turn our attention to the melodic structures. Again it is to the Vedas that we must turn for

the first codified melody. In theNatya Shastra of Bharata are found descriptions of melodic forms

called jati. How they were sung or played, we have no idea; but some salient points can be called

from Natya Shastra and later commentaries. Every one of these jatis could be put in some moorcchana or

the other. They were distinguished by characteristics like the graha (starting note) nyasa (note on which a

phrase stops). the range of notes - from low pitch to high - and so on. Many scholars are of the opinion

that the concept of raga which is so basic to our music, was born and developed out of jati. The major

work dealing with the raga is the Brihaddesi of Matanga. The work is dated around the 6th century, A.D.

By this time, the idea of the raga as a melodic scheme had become clear and well defined. Matanga was

from the southern areas of India, to be specific he was from Carnatic. This shows that up to this era, at

least, the grammar of Indian music was more or less one throughout the country. Secondly, what he deals

with is desi music. That is why he had titled the work Brihaddesi.

A characteristic contribution of India to musical rhythm is the tala. Tala is a cyclic arrangement of time

units. The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta. These are actually derived from poetic

prosody. Laghu comprises one syllable,guru two, and plutathree. There are also larger units. Bharata's

Natya Shastra gives details of construction of tala out of various time units, how they should be played

and so on. Later authors developed a scheme of 108 talas. Besides some ancient talas new ones, as for

example, Firdost, seem to have entered Hindustani music. The most important aspect of playing

the tala in the Hindustani system has been the development of the ideas of theka. This technique is

characteristic of Hindustani music. A theka is the definition of a tala by the stroke of a tabla. Each stroke

on the drum has a name called a bol or syllable. For instance, dha, ta, ghe. etc.

In any language one can have an epic, a sonnet, a lyric, a short story and so on. Similarly, given

a raga and a tala, various musical forms have been created. Right from ancient times, musical forms can

be divided into two broad categories. These were the anibaddhaand the nibaddha sangeeta. The first

may be called the open or free form and the second as the closed or bound form.

Anibaddha sangeeta is one which is not restricted by meaningful words and tala. It is a free

improvisation. The finest form is the alap.

Of the nibaddha variety, there are many. The earliest about which some knowledge is available is

the prabandha giti. Indeed,prabandha is often used as a generic term to indicate any nibaddha song or

musical composition. We have little evidence of these closed forms, except that they were set to

definite ragas and talas. Of all known prabandhas those of Jayadeva are the best known. This poet lived

in Bengal in the 12th century and composed his Gita Govinda, a Sanskrit work with songs and verses.

The songs are ashtapadis: that is, each song has eight couplets. Today, the songs have spread throughout

the country and each region has its own style. As a matter of fact, singers have taken the liberty of giving

the prabandhas their own tunes. In the face of this, it is impossible to determine the original tunes of

the ashtapadis.

The popularity of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda is due to many reasons. The first, naturally is the intrinsic

poetic beauty of the work almost unequalled. It also lent itself to dance and any conceivable style of

music. Again, it was in Sanskrit, thus transcending many linguistic barriers. Besides all this, the greatest

significant force sustaining it is bhakti. Bhakti or adoration is as old as man. It really is a state of mind

beseeching the Lord.

While the Godhead takes on many forms to the bhakta, as Shiva or as Parabrahma - the Bhagavata, as the

story of the ten avatarasof Sri Vishnu, has captured the Indian mind. Round this were woven songs and

hymns, preachings and psalms of these two travelled in waves to North India to give us singer saints like

Jayadeva ,Chaitanya, Sankardeva, Kabir, Tulsi, Meera, Tukaram, Eknath, Narsi and Nanak. This bhakti

movement engulfed all religions and classes including the sufis. It has given us numerous devotional

forms such asabhangas, kirtans, bhajans, baul songs.

The next great formal aspect in Nibaddha Sangeet is met within the Dhrupad. It is believed to have been a

further elaboration of theprabandha structure. While it might have had an impetus for popularity even by

the 14th century, it finds a blossoming period from 15th century onwards to about the 18th century.

During these centuries we meet the most respected and renowned singers and patrons of this form. There

was Man Singh Tomar, the Maharaja of Gwalior. It was he who was mainly responsible for the enormous

vogue of dhrupad. There were Baiju, Bakshu and others. Swami Haridasa a hermit of Brindavan was not

only a dhrupadiya, but one of the most central figures in the Bhakti cult in the Northern areas of India.

By tradition he was the guru of Tansen, one of the best known dhrupad singers and one of the nine jewels

of Emperor Akbar's court.

In structure dhrupad has two parts, the anibaddha section and the sanchari dhrupad proper. The first is

free alap. The dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee, the antara, the Sanchari and

the abhoga.

The essential quality of the dhrupadic approach is its sombre atmosphere and emphasis on rhythm.

There were four schools or vanis of singing the dhrupad. The Gauhar vani developed the raga or

unadorned melodic figures. The Dagarvani emphasized melodic curves and graces. The Khandar vani

specialised in quick ornamentation of the notes. Nauhar vani was known for its broad musical leaps and

jumps. These vanis 'are now indistinguishable.

The dhrupad is even now highly respected and can be heard on the concert platform but more often in

temples of North India. Thedhrupad has somewhat receded to the background and is not so popular with

the masses. The Been and Pakhawaj which were closely associated with the dhrupad also do not find

much patronage these days.

Today the pride of place in classical Hindustani Music is occupied by the Khyal. We are really not sure

about the beginning of the Khyal. The word is alien and means 'imagination'. And as you will find when

you hear it is more lyrical than the dhrupad. But whether the musical form itself is foreign. is a matter of

doubt. Some scholars are of the opinion that in fact, it has its roots in the ancient Indian roopaka alaps. It

is also said that Amir Khusrou of the 13th century gave it an impetus. Sultan Mohammed Sharkhi of the

15th century is credited with encouraging this form. However, it attained its maturity at the hands of

Niyamat Khan Sadarang and Adarang of the 18th century.

As sung today, the khyal has two varieties: the slow or vilambit khyal and the fast or drut khyal. In form

both are similar, they have two sections - the asthayee and the antara. The vilambit is sung in slow tempo

and the drut at a faster speed. In technique. the exposition is less grave than the dhrupad. There are more

delicate gamkas and ornamentations.

Both types of khyals have two sections. The asthayee and the antara. The asthayee mostly confines itself

to the low and middle octaves. The antara generally moves in the middle and upper

octaves. Together asthayee and antara make one song, a composition, or bandish, 'cheez' as it is called.

As a total work it reveals the essence of the raga in which it is set.

Comparable to the vanis of the dhrupads, we have gharanas, in the khyal. These are schools of singing

founded or developed by various individuals or patrons such as kings or noblemen.

The oldest of these is the Gwalior gharana. The father of this school was one Nathan Peerbaksh, who

settled down in Gwalior, and hence the name. He had two grandsons Haddu Khan and Hassu Khan who

lived in the 19th century and were regarded as great masters of this style. The qualities of

this gharana are an open voice clear enunciation of words, a comprehensive attention to raga.

svara andtala. Some of the prominent musicians of this gharana are Krishna Rao Shankar Pandit, Raja

Bhaiya Poonchwale etc.

The Agra Gharana is said to have been founded by one Khuda Baksh of Agra. He had studied with

Nathan Peerbaksh of Gwalior, but developed his own style. Here again the voice is open and clear, a

speciality of this gharana is its bol taan: that is, a fast or mediumlayakari passage using the bols or

words of the song. The song itself is rendered in medium tempo. Of the most well known musicians of

this gharana in recent times are Vilayat Hussain Khan and Fayyaz Khan.

The Jaipur Atroli gharana is said to take off directly from dhrupad. It is associated with Alladiya Khan

of the 19th-20th century. The khyal is always in medium speed. The words are pronounced clearly and in

an open and clear voice. The distinguishing characters are the passages which are primarily based on

alankars - that is. repetitive melodic motifs - and an almost metronomic insistence of tala division. Some

of the prominent musicians of recent times are Mallikarjun Mansur, Kishori Amonkar etc.

Finally we come to the Rampur Saheswan gharana. Since the earlier singers came from Rampur in Uttar

Pradesh, this school has come to be called so. The slow and fast Khayals usually are followed by

a Tarana. The style is very lyrical and full of finer tonal embroidery. Nisar Hussain Khan, Rashid Khan

are the two prominent musicians of recent times belonging to this gharana.

Thumri and Tappa are popular types heard in concerts. The thumri is very lyrical in its structure and

presentation. These forms are termed as 'semi' or 'light' classical. Thumri is a love song and hence the

textual beauty is very important. This is closely coordinated with the musical rendition. And keeping in

mind its mood a thumri is usually set to ragas like Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical

grammar is not strictly adered to. There are two styles of thumri singing: the Poorab or Banaras which is

fairly slow and staid and the Punjab style which is more mercurial. Rasoolan Devi, Siddheshwari Devi are

prominent musicians of this style.

The Tappa consists of the song uttered in fast note patterns. It is a difficult composition and needs much

practice. Both the Thumriand Tappa require special training as do the Dhrupad and Khyal forms of

singing. Ragas in which Tappa compositions are set remain same as in Thumri style. Pt. L.K. Pandit,

Malini Rajurkar are names who specialize this form of singing.

Carnatic Classical Music

The history of the system of music that prevailed in India from ancient times, goes back to the Vedas. The

Indian musical system shows to what heights the genius of man could soar in quest of new forms of

musical expression. Apart from its entertainment value, music was cherished and practised for its quality

of lifting mankind to a nobler plane, enabling the soul to attain eternal bliss. The perfect tone system and

the extensive raga and tala systems of Indian music, make it comparable with any other sophisticated

musical system of the world.

The earliest treatise we have on music is the Natya Sastra of Bharata. Other treatises on music after

Bharata, such as the Brihaddesi of Matanga, Sangeeta Ratnakara of Sharangadeva, Sangeet Sudhakara of

Haripala, Swaramelakalanidhi of Ramamatya, etc., provide us a fund of information about the different

aspects of music and its development during the different periods.

The ancient Tamils of South India had also developed an highly evolved system of music with its solfa

methods, concordant and discordant notes, scales and modes, etc. A number of instruments were also

used to accompany song and dance. The Tamil classic of the 2nd century A.D. titled the Silappadhikaram

contains a vivid description of the music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the

contributions of the Saivite and Vaishnavite saints of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. also serve as resource

material for studying musical history.

The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence of two different sub systems as

Hindustani and Carnatic music. In Haripala's "Sangeeta Sudhakara", written in the 14th century A.D., the

terms Carnatic and Hindustani are found for the first time. The two distinct styles, Hindustani and

Carnatic came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims, particularly during the reign of the Mughal

Emperors of Delhi. Both the systems of music received their nourishment from the same original source.

Whereas the Indian music of the Northern part of India assimilated some features of the music of the

Persian and Arabic musicians who adorned the courts of the Mughal rulers of Delhi, the music of the

South continued to develop along its own original lines. But the fundamental aspects of both the systems

of the North and South have been the same.

It is said, that South Indian Music, as known today, flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas

in the middle ages, and that after the invasion and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural

life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign of Krishnadevaraya.

Thereafter, the music of South India came to be known as Carnatic Music.

The advent of Purandaradasa, in the year 1484, marked a very important landmark in the development of

Carnatic music. He effected such a thorough systematisation and refinement in the art, that, up to the

present day, it has remained the same. He has been justly termed as "Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha". He

was not merely a composer but a Lakshanakara of the highest calibre. The system of South Indian Music,

as we have it now, is entirely his gift to posterity. He introduced the Malavagowla scale as the basic scale

for music instruction. He also framed graded exercises, forming part of the series of lessons to beginners

of music. This system prevails even today in the teaching of music. The Svaravalis, Janta varisas, the

Suladi Sapta tala alankaras and gitams, composed by Purandaradasa, form the basis for mastery in the art.

Among the compositional types, he has to his credit numerous lakshya gitams and lakshna gitams, tana

varnams, tillanas, suladis, ugabhogas, vritta namas and kirtanas. His kirtanas are popularly referred to as

Dasara Padas or Devarnamas.

Moving into the 17th century, the history of Carnatic music saw the epoch-making scheme of the 72

Melakartas, introduced by Venkatamakhi and laid down in his monumental work Chaturdandi Prakasika

in the year 1620 A.D. The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula which

includes within its fold all the modes used in ancient as well as modern systems of music of the different

parts of the world. The scheme opened out new vistas of raga creation and later composers like Tyagaraja

invented many a beautiful raga by following it.

In the field of practical music, South India had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who

enriched the art with thousands of compositions. After Purandaradasa, Tallapakam Annamacharya

Narayana Tirtha, Bhadra-chalam Ramdasa and Kshetranja made contributions to the wealth of

compositions

The birth of the Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - at Tiruvarur

between the years 1750 to 1850 A.D. ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music. The

Trinity were not only contemporaries among themselves but, also contemporaries of great composers of

Western Music, as Beethoven, Mozart, Wagner and Haydn. It was the 'Golden Age' of music throughout

the world. Carnatic music reached its pinnacle of artistic excellence during this period.

A galaxy of composers in the post-Trinity period kept the banner of Carnatic music flying high. Vina

Kuppayyar, Patnam Subrahmanya Iyer, Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar, Mysore Sadasiva Rao, Mysore

Vasudevathar and Papanasam Sivan are only a few names to be mentioned here.

The Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarsini, written by Subbarama Dikshithar in the year 1904, serves as an

authority for information regarding the music, musicians and composers of the previous centuries.

Many of the musicians and composers of the South were closely acquainted with the Hindustani system

of music also and wherever permissible, adopted Hindustani ragas for their compositions. The ragas

Yaman Kalyan, Hamir Kalyan, Malkaunsa, Brindavani Sarang, Jaijaivanti, etc. were adopted in their

compositions by the Musical Trinity. Raga Kaphi, Kanada, Khamaj, Paraj, Purvi, Bhairav, etc. bear a very

close resemblance to their counterparts in the Hindustani system of music.

There are musical forms belonging to Nibadha and Anibadha Sangeeta, that is, Kalpita sangeeta and

Manodharma sangeeta or improvised music. All these forms are generally classified under different

heads, as Sacred music, Art music, etc. The several forms under these heads possess distinctive

characteristics of their own. The ancient musical forms like Prabandhas, etc. gradually gave away to the

different musicals forms that are in use in present day music, though the basic elements of the ancient

Prabandhas are still retained in the modern forms. The following musical forms offer interesting study:

GITAM

Gitam is the simplest type of composition. Taught to beginners of music, the gitam is very simple in

construction, with an easy and melodious flow of music. The music of this form is a simple melodic

extension of the raga in which it is composed. The tempo is uniform. It has no sections dividing one part

of the song from the other. It is sung without repetition from the beginning to the end. There are no

intricate variations in the music. The theme of the song is usually devotional, though there are a few gitas

in praise of musical luminaries and Acharyas. A notable feature of the gitam is the existence of

gitalankara phrases like a iya, a iyam, va iya, etc., called matrika padas, reminiscent of similar syllables

occuring in Sama gana. Gitas have been composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Bhandira bhasha.

Purandaradasa's introductory gitas in praise of Ganesha, Maheswara and Vishnu, collectively referred to

as Pillari gitas, form the very first set of gitas taught to the students of music. As distinguished from the

type of gitas described above, known as Lakshya gitas or Samanya gitas, which, as the name itself

suggests, describe the Lakshanas of the raga in which they are composed. Paidala Gurumurti Sastry was a

prolific composer of gitas after Purandaradasa. Venkatamakhi too has composed many Lakshana gitas.

SULADI

Very much like the gitam in musical structure and arrangement, the Suladis are of a higher standard than

the gitam. The Suladi is a talamalika, the sections being in different talas. The sahitya syllables are fewer

than in the gitas and there is a profusion of vowel extensions. The theme is devotional. Suladis are

composed in different tempos vilambita, madhya and druta. Purandaradasa has composed many Suladis.

SVARAJATI

This is learnt after a course in gitams. More complicated than the gitas, the Svarajati paves the way for the

learning of the Varnams. It consists of three sections, called Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam. The

theme is either devotional, heroic or amorous. It originated as a dance form with jatis (tala, solfa syllables

like taka tari kita naka tatin gina tam) tagged on. But later, Syama Sastri, one among the Musical Trinity,

composed svarajatis without jatis, which are brilliant concert pieces, noted for their musical value.

JATISVARAM

Very similar to the svarajati in musical structure, this form- Jatisvaram-has no sahitya or words. The piece

is sung with solfa syllables only. It is noted for its rhythmical excellence and the jati pattern used in it.

This is a musical form belonging to the realm of dance music. In some Jatisvarams, the Pallavi and

Anupallavi are sung to jatis and the Charanas are sung to a mixture of svaras and jatis. There are also

Ragamalika Jatisvarams.

VARNAM

The Varnam is a musical form in Carnatic Music. Whereas musical forms like the Kirtana, Kriti, Javali,

Tillana, etc. have their similar counterparts in Hindustani Music, the Varnam does not find a counterpart.

The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order, combining in itself all the

characteristic features of the raga in which it is composed. This form is aptly called a Varnam, since many

of the svara group patterns called 'Varnas' in ancient music, are dexterously interwoven in its texture.

Practice in Varnam singing helps a musician to attain mastery in presentation and command over raga,

tala and bhava. The vocalist gets a good training for the voice and the instrumentalist a good mastery over

technique. Very few words and profusion of vowels mark the sahitya of this form. The theme of the piece

is either bhakti (devotion) or sringara (love).

There are two types of varnams, one called the Tana Varnam and the other called the Pada Varnam.

While the former is a musical/concert form, the latter is purely a dance form. There are two angas or

sections in a varnam, known as the Purvanga constituting the pallavi, anupallavi and the muktayi svaras,

and the Uttaranga or the Ettukadai, comprising the charanam and the charana svaras. The pada varnam

has sahityarn or words for all the angas unlike the tana varnam which has sahityam only for the pallavi,

anupallavi and charanam.

Varnams have been composed in all the major ragas and most of the minor ragas, in all the principal talas.

Pachchimiriyam Adiyappayya, Sonti Venkatsubbayya, Syama Sastri, Swati Tirunal, Patnam

Subrahmanya Iyer, Ramnad Srinivasa Iyengar and Mysore Vasudevachar were prominent composers of

Varnams.

KIRTANAM

The Kirtanam had its birth about the latter half of the 14th century. It is valued for the devotional content

of the sahitya. Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is suited for

congregational singing as well as individual presentation. The Talapakam composers of the 15th century

were the first to compose kirtanas with the sections, pallavi, anupallavi and charanas. Usually there are

more than two charanas the music of all of them being the same. Composed in all the important

traditional ragas and set to simple talas, the kirtanas offer soul-stirring music of the highest form of

devotion. Bhadrachalam Ramadasa and Tyagaraja were prolific composers of Kirtanams.

KRITI

The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. It is an highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of

aesthetic excellence is reached in the Kriti composition. The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and

varied colours in this form. It was only after the emergence of the kriti as a musical form, that a definite

style in musical compositions became a possibility. The pallavi, anupallavi and charanam are the

minimum and essential angas of a kriti. The pallavi is sung first, followed by the anupallavi and ends with

the pallavi. The charanam is sung next and linked with the pallavi before ending. The Carnatic music

world owes its debt of gratitude to the Musical trinity for having made such a monumental contribution in

the field of nibaddha sangeeta, in the form of kritis. There are kritis in all the existing ragas and in all the

principal talas. The kriti as a musical form has many features in common with the Dhrupad of Hindustani

music. Muthuswamy Dikshitar has composed many kritis in the Dhrupad style.

Besides the essential angas, many decorative angas are also appended to kritis for embellishment. They

are (a) Chittasvaras or a set of solfa passages, sung at the end of the anupallavi and charanam, (b) Svara-

sahitya - an appropriate sahitya is supplied for the chittasvara, (c) Madhyamakala sahitya - an integral part

of the kriti, (d) Solkattu svara - resembling the chittasvara, this has jatis along with svaras, (e) Sangati -

variations on a musical theme, developed step by step, (f) Gamaka - the dhatu is flooded with gamakas,

(g) Svarakshara dhatu matu alankara, where the svara and the sahitya are identical, (h) Manu-pravala

beauty - words of two or three languages figure in the sahitya of a kriti, (i) Prosodical beauties like Prasa,

Anuprasa, Yati and Yamaka also figure mainly in many of the Kritis.

PADA

Padas are scholarly compositions in Telegu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance

forms, they are also sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence and aesthetic appeal. A

padam also has the sections, pallavi, anupallavi and charana. The music is slow-moving and dignified.

There is a natural flow of music and, sustained balance between the words and the music is maintained

throughout. The theme is madhura bhakti, portrayed as bahir sringara and antar bhakti. The characters

nayaka, nayika and sakhi represent respectively the Lord (Paramatma), the Devotees (jeevatma) and the

Guru, who leads the devotee on to the path of mukti (liberation) by his sage counsel. Various rasas are

depicted in all their delicate shades, through suitable ragas which reflect such rasas. All the nava rasas are

portrayed in padas, though sringara is the main theme.

The pada, when sung, presents an epitome of the raga in which it is composed. Ragas specially noted for

evoking typical rasa bhavas, such as Anandabhairavi, Sahana, Nilambari, Ahiri, Ghanta, Mukhari,

Huseni, Surati, Sourashtram and Punnagavarali, to mention only a few are specially chosen for padas.

Kshetrajana is the most prolific composer of padas.

JAVALI

A javali is a composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music. Sung both in concert

programmes and dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of the attractive melodies in which they

are composed. In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis are songs which are sensuous in

concept and spirit. They are generally set in madhyama kala. In these forms also, the nayaka, nayika and

sakhi figure is the theme, but, there is no dual interpretation of the sahitya. The catchy and lilting tunes of

the javalis enhance their appeal. Desya ragas like Paraj, Kaphi, Behag, Jhinjhoti, Tilang, etc. have also

been used in these compositions. Javalis are composed in Telugu, Kannada and Tamil. This form

resembles the Thumris of Hindustani Music.

TILLANA

The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a

dance form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds a place in music concerts

as a conclusion piece. It usually begins with jatis.

The name Tillana is constituted of the rhythmic syllables, ti la na. It is the liveliest of musical forms. This

form is said to have had its birth in the 18th century. The sahitya of a tillana may be in Sanskrit, Telugu or

Tamil. The presence of rhythmical solfa syllables alongwith a sprinkling of sahitya enhance the beauty of

the form of the Tillana. The music is of comparatively slow tempo in Tillanas meant for dance purposes.

The pallavi and anupallavi consists of jatis and the charana has sahitya, jatis and svaras. Ramnad

Srinivasa Iyengar, Pallavi Seshayyar and Swati Tirunal are some of the prominent composers of Tillanas.

PALLAVI

This is the most important branch of creative music. It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the

musician has ample opportunities of displaying his or her creative talents, imaginative skill, and musical

intelligence. The term Pallavi is coined from the initial syllables of the three words: Padam, meaning

words; Layam, meaning time and Vinyasam, meaning variations. The words chosen for a Pallavi may be

either in Sanskrit, Telugu or Tamil and may be on any theme, though the devotional is always preferred.

Neither the sahitya nor the music is precomposed. The singer has the choice to choose the sahitya, the

raga and the tala. The two parts Prathamangam and Dvityangam are divided by the period of a short

pause, called Padagarbham. The sahityam is repeated again and again, as the musical variations develop

and proceed in stages of increasing complexity. The Khyal of Hindustani music has very much in

common with the Pallavi of Carnatic music. Kalpana svaras are sung to the Pallavi after the different

stages of development, including the Sangatis, Anuloma and Pratiloma (singing the theme in double and

quadruple speeds and vice-versa) are sung. Sometimes the kalpana svaras are sung in different ragas to

present a Ragamalika Pallavi.

'Niraval ' literally means filling up by adjustments. In musical parlance, it refers to the art of singing the

sahitya within the rhythmical setting, with improvisations in the musical theme. A suitable line of the

sahitya from a kriti is chosen and musical improvisation is done within each cycle of the tala. Niraval is a

must in Pallavis and an option in Kritis.

TANAM

This is a branch of raga alapana. It is raga alapana in Madhyamakala or medium speed. There is

perceptible rhythm in this. The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes tanam

singing the most captivating part of raga exposition. The word 'Anantam ' is dexterously used to merge

with the musical patterns.

To sum up; the outstanding feature of Carnatic music is its raga system, in the concept of which, the ideal

or 'absolute music' is reached, and the highly developed and intricate tala system, which has made it

extremely scientific and systematic and unique in all respects. Though clear cut demarcations in the style

of musical presentation, similar to the gharanas of Hindustani music are not seen in Carnatic music, yet,

we do come across different styles in rendering compositions.

Regional Music

Cultural traditions from various regions of the country reflect the rich diversity of Regional Music of

India. Each region has its own particular style.

Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way that Indian classical music is taught. There is no

formal period of apprenticeship where the student is able to devote their entire life to learning the music,

the economics of rural life does not permit this sort of thing. The musical practitioners must still attend to

their normal duties of hunting, agriculture or whatever their chosen profession is.

Music in the villages is learnt from childhood, the music is heard and imbibed along with numerous

public activities that allow the villagers to practice and hone their skills.

The music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births. There

is a plethora of songs for such occasions. There are also many songs associated with planting and

harvesting. In these activities the villagers routinely sing of their hopes, fears and aspirations.

Musical instruments are often different from those found in classical music. Although instruments like

the tabla may sometimes be found it is more likely that cruder drums such as daf, dholak, or nal are used.

The sitar and sarod which are so common in the classical genre are absent in the folk music. One often

finds instruments such as the ektar, dotar, rabab, and santur. Quite often they are not called by these

names, but may be named according to their local dialect. There are also instruments which are used only

in particular folk styles in particular regions. These instruments are innumerable.

The instruments of classical music are crafted by artisans whose only job is the fabrication of musical

instruments. In contrast the folk instruments are commonly crafted by the musicians themselves.

It is very common to find folk instruments that have been fabricated of commonly available materials.

Skin, bamboo, coconut shells, and pots are but a few commonly available materials used to make musical

instruments.

Rasiya Geet, Uttar Pradesh

The rich tradition of singing Rasiya Geet flourished in Braj which is the sacred land of Lord

Krishna’s charming leelas from time immemorial. This is not confined to any particular festival, but is

closely woven into the very fabric of daily life and day to day chores of its people. ‘Rasiya’ word is

derived from the word rasa (emotion) because rasiya means that which is filled with rasa or emotion. It

reflects the personality of the singer as well as the nature of the song.

Pankhida, Rajasthan

Sung by the peasants of Rajasthan while doing work in the fields, the peasants sing and speak while

playing algoza and manjira. The literal meaning of the word ‘Pankhida’ is lover.

Lotia, Rajasthan

‘Lotia’ is sung in the chaitra month during the festival - ‘Lotia’. Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill

water) and kalash (a vessel considered to be auspicious to fill water during worship) filled with water

from ponds and wells. They decorate them with flowers and come home.

Pandavani, Chhattisgarh

In Pandavani, tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two episodes are chosen for the

night’s performance. The main singer continuously sits throughout the performance and with powerful

singing and symbolic gestures he assumes all the characters of the episode one after another.

Shakunakhar - Mangalgeet, Kumaon

Numberless songs are sung on auspicious occasions in the foothills of Himalaya. Shakunakhar are

sung during religious ceremonies of baby-shower, child-birth, Chhati (a ritual done on the sixth day from

the birth of a child) Ganesh pooja etc. These songs are sung by only ladies, without any instrument.

In Shakunakhar on each auspicious occasion prayer for good health and long life is made ……..

Shakuna de, Shakuna de

Kaj ye Ati Neeko So Rangeelo

Patlo Anchli Kamloo Ko Phool……

Barhamasa, Kumaon

This regional music from Kumaon is describing the twelve months of an year, each with its specific

qualities. In one of the songs the Ghughuti bird symbolizes the onset of chait month. A girl in her in laws

place asks this bird not to speak because she is disturbed with the memories of her mother (Ija) and she is

feeling sad.

Mando, Goa

Goan regional music is a treasury of the traditional music of the Indian subcontinent. Mando, the

finest creation of Goan song is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and both

social injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in Goa.

Alha, Uttar Pradesh

Alha, typical ballad of Bundelkhand narrates the heroic deeds of Alha and Udal, the two warrior

brothers who served Raja Parmal of Majoba. This is the most popular regional music of Bundelkhand

which is popular elsewhere in the country as well.

The Alha is full of tales of feudal chivalry, which have appeal to common men. It highlights the

high principles of morality, chivalry and nobility prevalent in those times.

Hori, Uttar Pradesh

The history of Hori, its evolution and tradition is quite ancient. It is based on the love pranks of

‘Radha-Krishna’. Hori singing is basically associated with the festival of Holi only. In India tradition of

singing Hori during spring season and while celebrating Holi has been continuing since ancient

times……. ‘Braj mein Hari Hori Machayi………. .

Sohar, Uttar Pradesh

Social ceremonies have, at times, served as a potent factor for intermingling of different cultures.

North India has a strong tradition of singing ‘Sohar’ songs when a son is born in a family. This has

influenced the muslim culture and a form of ‘Sohar’ song gained currency in the muslim families living in

some regions of Uttar Pradesh. ‘Sohar’ songs unmistakably point to the mingling of two cultures.

Chhakri, Kashmir

Chhakri is a group song which is the most popular form of Kashmir’s folk music.

It is sung to the accompaniment of the noot (earthen pot) rababs, sarangi and tumbaknari (an

earthen pot with high neck).

Laman, Himachal Pradesh

In Laman a group of girls sing a stanza and a group of boys give reply in the song. This continues

for hours. Interesting is that the girls singing on one of the peaks of the hill seldom see the faces of the

boys singing on another peak. In between is the hill which echoes their love song. Most of these songs are

sung especially in Kullu Valley.

Kajri, Uttar Pradesh

Kajri is a folk song sung by women, from Uttar Pradesh and adjacent region, during rainy season.

On the third day in the second half of the bhadra, women sing Kajri songs all through the night, while

dancing in a semi-circle.

Qawwali

Originally, Qawwalis were sung in praise of God. In India Qawwali was brought from Persia

around thirteenth century and Sufis enlisted its services to spread their message. Amir Khusro (1254-

1325) a Sufi and an innovator contributed to the evolution of Qawwali. It is a mode of singing rather than

a form of composition. In performance Qawwali presents a fascinating, interchanging use of the solo and

choral modalities.

Tappa, Punjab

Tappa is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of camel riders in the

Punjab area. Tappa, in Punjabi and Pashto language, is set in ragas generally used for the semi classical

forms. It is characterized by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic and rapid notes.

Powada, Maharashtra

Powada is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra. The word Powada itself means “the narration

of a story in glorious terms”. The narratives are always odes in praise of an individual hero or an incident

or place. The chief narrator is known as the Shahir who plays the duff to keep the rhythm.The tempo is

fast and controlled by the main singer who is supported by others in chorus.

The earliest notable Powada was the Afzal Khanacha Vadh (The Killing of Afzal Khan) (1659) by

Agnidas which recorded Shivaji’s encounter with Afzal Khan.

Teej Songs, Rajasthan

Teej is celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan. This is a festival celebrated on

the third day after the new moon or amavasya of shraavana month. The theme of the songs sung during

this festival revolve around the union of Shiva and Parvati, the magic of monsoon, greenery, peacock

dance etc. One of the song is ………..

Aakha Teej Aayi Re,

Savan ki Kudti ke Male Mor

Manda De Re..……..

Burrakatha, Andhra Pradesh

Burrakatha is a highly dramatic form of ballad. A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is played by the

main performer while reciting a story. The ballad singers, like stage actor, wear make up and a highly

stylised costume.

Bhakha, Jammu and Kashmir

The Bhakha form of folk music is popular in Jammu region. Bhakha is sung by the villagers when

harvesting is done. It is considered to be the regional music with most melodic and harmonious elements.

It is sung to the accompaniment of instruments like harmonium.

Bhuta song, Kerala

The basis of Bhuta song is rooted in superstitions. Some communities of Kerala do Bhuta rituals to

send away the evil ghost and spirits. This ritual is accompanied with vigorous dancing and the music has

a piercing and eerie character.

Daskathia, Odisha

Daskathia is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha. Daskathia is a name derived from a

unique musical instrument called “Kathi” or “ Ram Tali”, wooden clappers used during the presentation.

The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the “Das”, the devotee.

Bihu songs, Assam

Bihu songs (bihu geet) are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both for their literary

content and for their musical mode. Bihu songs are blessings for a happy new year and the dance is

associated with an ancient fertility cult. It is Bihu time when an opportunity is there for marriageable

young men and women to exchange their feelings and even to choose their partners. The joyfulness is

reflected in song like………

‘Mikir bore sangot koo koo kuliye binale

Bojai bore rahe koo koo kuliye binale’

Sana Lamok, Manipur

Manipur’s hills and valley-both are fond of music and dance. Sana Lamok is sung at the time of

coronation ceremony by the Maaiba (priest). It may also be sung to welcome the king. It is sung to evoke

the spirit of Pakhangba, the presiding deity. There is a belief that this song is potent with magical powers.

Songs of Lai Haraoba Festival, Manipur

The meaning of Lai Haraoba is the festival of gods and goddesess. It is performed for the Umang-Lai

(forest deity). Ougri Hangen, song of creation and Heijing Hirao a ritualistic song is sung on the last day

of Lai Haraoba festival.

Saikuti Zai (songs of Saikuti), Mizoram

Mizo are traditionally known as a ‘singing tribe’. The regional folk songs of Mizoram constitute the

richest heritage of Mizos. Saikuti, a poetess of Mizoram composed songs in praise of warriors, brave

hunters, young men aspiring to be great warriors and hunters etc.

Chai hia (songs of the Chai Dance), Mizoram

As per Mizo custom during the Chapchar Kut festival not only singing, dance should also continue

throughout the festival. Special occasion for singing and dancing is called ‘chai’ and songs are known as

‘chai hia’ (chai songs).

Basanti/ Basant Geet, Garhwal

Basant or spring season is welcomed in a unique manner in Garhwal. Land is filled with different

colourful flowers. On Basant Panchmi floor designs are made with the rice flour and the green oats

bundles are used to put impressions with cowdung. Swings are tied on the trees and folk songs are sung.

One of the Basanti songs is : -

‘Seeri Panchami Mau ki

Paili Haryali Jau ki’

Ghasiyari Geet, Garhwal

Young women of mountains have to go in far off forests to get grass for their cattle. They go to the

forest dancing and singing in groups. Alongwith entertainment emphasis is laid on the importance of

labour in the Ghasiyari Geet.

‘Bajli Teri Jhanwar Jham Jham O ho…………..

Sukar ke Biah, Bhojpuri Song

Bhojpuri songs portray a lively picture of common folk. They give expression to the innermost

feelings of simple hearts. Village folks have their own interpretations of nature, planets and

constellations. The story of Shukra and Brihaspat is sung even today – how Shukra forgets the wedding

ornament and comes back to take it, where he finds his mother drinking rice water, which is poor man’s

food. On asking mother about this, his mother answers that she dosen’t know whether Shukra’s would be

wife will even give her rice water or not. Shukra decides to remain unmarried.

Villu Pattu, “Bow Song”, Tamil Nadu

Villu Pattu is a popular folk music of Tamil Nadu. The lead singer also plays the role of the main

performer. He also handles the dominating instrument which is bow shaped. The songs revolve around

theological themes and the conquest of good over evil is emphasised.

Ammanaivari, Tamil Nadu

Ammanaivari are songs sung in praise of Chola monarch. Ammanai is a wooden ball and the women folk

sing appropriate songs while playing the ball. This game of Ammanai is still current in Tamil Nadu.

Musical Instrument

India is the inheritor of one of the most ancient and evolved music systems in the world. The continuity of

the musical traditions of India is established through a study of musical texts and numerous visual

references one finds of musical instruments in painting and sculpture from prehistoric times to the present

day.

The earliest evidence of music activity is found on the walls of cave paintings at Bhimbetka and in several

parts of Madhya Pradesh, which were occupied by man approximately 10,000 years ago. Much later, in

the excavations of the Harappan Civilization also, evidence is available of dance and music activity.

Musical instruments are the tangible and material representation of music which is an auditory art. A

study of these helps in tracing the evolution of music and also explains many aspects of the material

culture of the group of people to which these instruments belong. For instance, the hair used for making

the bow, the wood or clay used for making the drum, or the hide of animals used in the instruments, all

these tell us about the flora and fauna of a particular region.

The Tamil word for instrument-Karuvi is found in Sangam literature of the 2nd to 6th century A.D., the

literal meaning of which is "tool". This is extended to mean instrument in the context of music.

Very ancient instruments may be seen as an extension of the human body and we find even today, sticks

and clappers. Dried fruit rattles, the Kaniyani Danda of Oraons or the dried berries or shells tied to the

waist are used for producing rhythm, even today.

The hand was referred to as the Hasta Veena, where the hands and fingers are used to show the notation

system of vedic chanting, coordinating sound with mudra-hand gesture.

In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200 B.C.-200 A.D., musical instruments have been

divided into four main categories on the basis of how sound is produced.

(i) The Tata Vadya or Chordophones- Stringed instruments

(ii) The Sushira Vadya or Aerophones- Wind instruments

(iii) The Avanaddha Vadya or Membranophones- Percussion instruments

(iv) The Ghana Vadya or Idiophones- Solid instruments which do not require tuning.

Tata Vadya - Stringed Instruments

The tata vadya is a category of instruments in which sound is produced by the vibration of a string or

chord. These vibrations are caused by plucking or by bowing on the string which has been pulled taut.

The length of the vibrating string or wire, the degree to which it has been tightened, determines the pitch

of the note and also to some extent the duration of the sound.

The tata vadya are divided into two broad categories-the plucked and the bowed, and further subdivided

into the fretted and non-fretted variety.

The oldest evidence of stringed instruments in our land, however, are harps in the shape of the hunters

bow. They had a varying number of parallel strings made of fibre or gut. There used to be one string for

each note, plucked either with the fingers or with the plectrum called the kona. Veena was the generic

term for stringed instruments referred to in texts: and we have the ekatantri, the sata-tantri veena, etc. The

Chitra had seven strings and the Vipanchi nine; the first was played with the fingers and the second with a

plectrum.

Representation of these can be found in many sculptures and murals of olden days, as for example, in the

Bharhut and Sanchi Stupa, the reliefs of Amaravati and so on. Mention of. Yazh are found in old Tamil

texts from the 2nd century A.D. The playing of such instruments was an important part of ritual and

ceremonies. As the priests and performers sang, their wives played on instruments.

Another class is of the dulcimer type, where a number of strings are stretched on a box of wood. The best

known of these was the sata-tantri veena-the hundred stringed veena. A close relative of this is the

Santoor, a very popular instrument still played in Kashmir and other parts of India.

A later development of stringed instruments are the fingerboard variety, which were most suited to Raga

Sangeet and many of the prevalent instruments of the concert platform, whether fretted or non-fretted,

bowed or plucked fall into this category. The great advantage of these instruments is the richness of tone

production and continuity of sound. In the finger-board instruments all the required notes are produced on

one chord (string or wire) by altering the length of the wire either by pressing it with a finger or a piece of

metal or wood. This increase or decrease in the length of the vibrator wire is responsible for the changes

in pitches of notes-swaras.

Bowed instruments are usually used as an accompaniment to vocal music and are referred to as

Geetanuga. They are divided into two broad categories-the upright and the inverted. In the first category

the fingerboard is held straight up as in the case of Sarangi and in the second category, that is, in the

inverted variety, the board or resonator is held towards the shoulder and the fingerboard dandi is held

across the arm of the player as in the case of the Ravanhastaveena, the Banam, the Violin.

Kamaicha

The Kamaicha is a bowed lute played by the manganiars of west Rajasthan. The whole instrument is one

piece of wood, the spherical bowl extending into a neck and fingerboard; the resonator is covered with

leather and the upper portion with wood. There are four main strings and a number of subsidiary ones

passing over a thin bridge.

The kamaicha links the sub-continent to Western Asia and Africa and is considered by some scholars to

be the oldest instrument, with the exception of the Ravana Hatta or Ravana Hasta Veena.

The variety of upright bowed instruments are generally seen in the northern areas of ttie country. In these

there are again two varieties, the fretted and the non-fretted.

(a) Different parts of a stringed instrument The resonator- Toomba of most stringed instruments is either made of wood or from a specially grown

gourd.

Over this Toomba there is a plate of wood known as the Tabli. The resonator is attached to the

fingerboard-the Danda at the top end of which are inserted the pegs-the Khoontis, for tuning the

instrument.

On the Tabli there is a bridge made of ivory or bone. The main strings pass over the bridge, some

instruments also have a number of sympathetic strings below the main strings. They are called the Tarab.

When these strings vibrate, they add resonance to the sound.

On the fingerboard of danda, in some instruments, metal frets are attached which are either permanently

fixed or are movable. Some stringed instruments are plucked with the fingers or by using a small plectrum

called the Kona, while in others, sound is produced by bowing,

(b)Placement 0f Swaras The line drawing shows placement of notes-the swaras-Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa on a 36" length of

wire, the frequency of vibration of each note is also shown in the picture.

Sushira Vadya

In the Sushira Vadya group, sound is produced by blowing air into an hollow column. The pitch of the

note is determined by controlling the air passage and the melody is played by using the fingers to open

and close the in the instrument. The simplest of these instruments is the flute. Generally flutes are made of

bamboo or wood and the Indian musician prefers these due to the tonal and musical attributes of these

materials. However, there are references of flutes made of red sandalwood, black wood, cane, ivory,

bronze, silver and gold also.

The diameter of the bamboo flutes is usually - about 1.9 cms; though, flutes with wider diameters. are

also commonly, used. The musical text Sangeet Ratnakar written in the 13th. century by Sharangdev

refers to 18 kinds of flutes. These categories are based on the distance between the blow hole and the first

finger hole (see diagram).

Excavations of the Indus civilizations have shown bird whistles of clay, and seals which show wind and

percussion instruments. Actual musical instruments are made of bamboo, wood, animal hide, etc. which

perish when buried for any length of time, hence, flutes made of wood or bamboo have not survived the

ravages of time and are not found in excavations of past civilizations.

There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu which was used as an accompaniment to

chanting and recitation. There is also mention of a kind of a flute called the Nadi. The flute has a variety

of names like Venu, Vamsi, Bansuri, Murali and so on in the north, and Pullankuzhal, Pillankarovi and

Kolalu in the south. The wind instruments are roughly divided into two categories on the basis of how

sound is produced. They are:

- the flutes, and

- the reed instruments

Flutes

Single or double flutes with only one hollow tube with finger holes for controlling the pitch of the note

are very common in many parts of the country. Long horizontal flutes with a larger diameter are used to

play slow passages such as Alap of the lower registers. Smaller and shorter flutes, sometimes held

vertically, are used for Taans, the faster passages, and also for producing higher pitches of sound. The

double flutes are mostly played by musicians of the tribal and rural areas and are rarely found on the

concert platform. They resemble beak flutes which have a narrow aperture at one end. One finds

references to these types of instruments in the sculptures of the first century in the Sanchi Stupa which

shows a musician playing on a double flute

Reed instruments

Reed instruments like the Shehnai, Nadaswaram, etc., have one or two reeds inserted in the hollow beak

or tube of the instrument, these vibrate when air is blown into them. In this type of instrument the reeds

are bound together with a gap between them before inserting into the body of the instrument. The body of

the tube is conical in shape narrow at the blowing end and opening out gradually with a metallic bell at

the farther end to enhance the volume of the sound. A set of spare reeds, an ivory or silver needle for

adjusting and cleaning the reeds are also hung from the mouth piece of the instrument.

The Shehnai is a reed instrument in which there are seven holes along the tube which are used for playing

the melody by opening and closing them with the fingers. It is known as a Mangal vadya and is usually

played on all auspicious occasions in north India such as marriages, temple festivals, etc. The Shehnai is

considered to have come to India from West Asia, there are other scholars who believe that this

instrument travelled to China from India. It is now a popular instrument in concerts, the sound is very

sweet and suited for playing Raga Sangeet. In the early fifties of this century, Ustad Bismillah Khan is

credited for popularising this instrument. Today, Pt. Anant Lal, Pt. Daya Shankar are also noted Shehnai

players.

Avanaddha Vadya

In the Avanaddha Vadya category of instruments, sound is produced by striking the animal skin which

has been stretched across an earthern or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame. The earliest references to

such instruments have been found in the Vedas where there is mention of Bhumi Dundhubhi; this was a

hollow pit dug in the ground and covered with the hide of a buffalo or ox which was stretched across the

pit. The tail of the animal was used for striking the animal hide and thus sound was produced.

Drums have been divided into different categories on the basis of their shapes and structure as also the

position and placement for playing. The main categories are-Oordhwaka, Ankya, Alingya and the waisted

or the Damaru family of drums. (see diagrams).

Oordhwaka

The Oordhwaka drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is produced by striking them

with sticks or the fingers. Prominent among these are the Tabla pair and Chenda.

Tabla

The Tabla pair is a set of two vertical Oordhwaka drums. The right side is called the Tabla and the left,

the Bayan or Dagga. The Tabla has a wooden body with a covering of animal skin, this is held together

with leather straps. Between the straps and the wooden body, oblong wooden blocks are placed. These are

used for tuning the drums. There is a syahi paste applied in the centre of the animal skin, the tabla can be

tuned accurately by striking the rims with a hammer. The body of the bayan is made of clay or metal and

is covered with anil'J1al skin which also has syahi paste applied on it. Some musicians do not tune this

drum to an accurate pitch.

The tabla pair is used as accompaniment to vocal and instrumental Hindustani music and with many

dance forms of northern India. The complicated talas of the Hindustani music are played with great

virtuosity on the tabla. Prominent musicians playing the tabla today are-Ustad Alia Rakha Khan and his

son Zakir Hussain, Shafat Ahmed and Samata Prasad to name a few.

Ankya

The Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both sides are covered with

animal hide. Sound is produced by striking both sides with sticks or fingers. Today, in this variety, the

Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc. are prominent. The musician may sit on the floor and play the

instrument or hang it from the neck while dancing or standing. Seals which have been excavated of the

Indus Civilization show figures of men playing the horizontal drums hung from the neck.

Alingya

The third variety are the Alingya drums. These drums have the animal hide fixed to a wooden round

frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the other hand is used for playing

on the instrument. Under this category, the Duff, Dufflies, etc. are very popular.

Damaru types Another prominent group of drums are the waisted or Damaru variety. The instruments in this category

range from, the small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to the larger instrument known as Timila of the

southern region. The former is struck with the hands while the latter is hung from the shoulders and

played with sticks and fingers. These are also known as the hourglass variety of drums as their shape

resembles an hourglass.

Ghana Vadya

The earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya. Once constructed, this variety

of instrument do not need special tuning prior to playing. In early times these instruments were the

extension of the human body such as sticks, clappers, rods, etc. and were also closely related to objects of

utility in daily life such as pots and pans, jhanj, falams, etc. They are principally rhythmic in function and

are best suited as accompaniment to folk and tribal music and dance.

Jhanj Player, Konarak, Orissa

In the Sun temple of Konarak, Orissa, we see this large sculpture nearly 8 f1. high of a lady playing the

Jhanj.

3. Theatre Forms of India

Living traditions occupy a prominent place in the Indian social system. Any living tradition has a natural

flow. There can be no doubt about the fact that traditional art forms reflect the ideals of the society, its

determination to survive, its ethos, emotions, fellow-feelings, and so on. Drama in itself is a complete

form of arts. It includes in its framework acting, dialogue, poetry, music, etc.

In community living, the art of singing has its own importance. In all the traditional theatre-forms, songs

and the art of singing have an important role to play. Traditional music of the theatre is an expression of

the feelings of the community.

Traditionally the language of ordinary people has an element of creativity, though not based on classical

or grammatical roots. This kind of creativity is spontaneous, emerging from the circumstances. When

there is intensity of emotions, there is a natural kind of rhythm in the expressions. It is this natural rhythm

from which emerges the traditional theatre-form. In this art form, sorrow, joy, frustration, hatred and love

have their role and place.

In different regions of India, there are religious festivals, fairs, gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers, almost

throughout the year. During these occasions, traditional theatre forms are presented. They reflect the

common man’s social attitudes and perceptions. In this social portrayal, there is also the individual’s role

which is given due importance.

Traditional theatre forms incorporate not only the common man’s interests but there is also a classical

element in them. This classical facet, however, takes on regional, local and folk coloring. It is possible,

that those associated with the classical world of Sanskrit drama, went to the neighbouring regions after its

decline and intermingled with the local theatre forms. This kind of synthesis, give-and-take must have

taken place on various levels such as written, verbal, classical, contemporary, national and local.

In traditional theatre forms there are special styles of dance portraying the entry on to the stage or

platform, narrative and descriptive roles. The best example of descriptive acting is the Bidapat naach. In

this traditional theatre form, emphasis is not on beauty but on acting itself and narrative and descriptive

skills. Dance as a narrative art is the base of theatre form which can be seen in the traditional theatre form

of Bhavai of Gujarat. In this form, quick or slow foot movement is a means of narration. The art of

making the entry by dancing has been perfected in the traditional Kashmiri theatre form, Bhand Jashn.

The way each character walks and enters the platform, identifies him. In Koodiyaattam and Ankia Naat,

the entry by dancing itself is complicated and artistic. In the forms, the tempo and basic posture and

gesture identifies the role of the character.

In traditional theatre, age-old forms, customs and the desire to improvise are intermingled. It is usually

when the significant themes are enacted, that the acting restricts itself to traditional norms, not deviating

from it. But, every time the theme inches towards the contemporary, the actors improvise as far as

dialogue delivery is concerned.

In traditional theatre forms there are certain conventions of presentations depending upon and changing

according to the form and size of the stage or the platform and other available situations. There is no

formal setup governing the entry or exit of the actors. Depending on the situation or context, the actors

enter into the stage and enact their role without being formally introduced. After a particular event or

incident is over, all the artists make an exit, or all of them sit down on the sides of the stage or near the

backdrop, conveying the change of a scene.

n traditional theatre forms, there is no such thing as episodes. There is always continuity in its theme,

structure and presentation. There is also a scope for improvisation and incorporation of new references

leading to subtle extension in the story-line. There is direct and intimate communication between the

actors and the audience.

Traditional theatre forms have definitely been influenced by industrial civilization, industrialization, and

urbanization. The socio-cultural aspects of these influences should be carefully studied. There was a time

when Kanpur became the centre of the traditional theatre Nautanki. Artists, dancers and singers produced

plays based on local heroes, their popularity and traditional love stories. Thus, a local theatre form

acquired significance in the field of entertainment.

Traditional theatre forms have a common distinguishing feature that is the element of simplicity. What is

the underlying force of traditional theatre forms that has enabled it to survive and maintain its simplicity?

The fact remains, that it is the immediate, direct, realistic and rhythmic relationship that the spectators are

able to develop with the artists of traditional theatre forms which is generally not experienced in other art

forms. It is reflected in the applaud by the spectators by means of clapping their hands.

Secondly the development of traditional theatre forms is based on such local and regional peculiarities

which are not bound and restricted by social and economic divisions, limitations, etc. Tradional art forms

have influenced classical art forms and vice-versa. It is an eternal journey in the sphere of ‘culture’.

In traditional theatre forms, characters keep changing their place on the stage to be more impressive and

to give the situation a greater significance. This technique also reduces the chance of boredom through

repetition and stillness. Dialogues delivery is usually carried out in a high pitch. This helps the actors in

reaching out to a larger audience. The artists always add something or the other to the original dialogue

on their own. The changes brought through improvisations, make the spectators ecstatic. Also, it

establishes a direct relationship between the artists and the spectators. The clown also plays a similar role.

While being humorous, he also touches upon the socio-economic, political issues and situations with lot

of satire. There are different methods too, in the way the clown makes his appearance. If the king, in

traditional theatre forms, decides on a step not beneficial for the people at large, the clown appears and

takes the side of the common man. He makes the audience laugh and at the same time discloses the anti-

people attitude of the king.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF TRADITIONAL THEATRE

Bhand Pather, the traditional theatre form of Kashmir, is a unique combination of dance, music and

acting. Satire, wit and parody are preferred for inducing laughter. In this theatre form, music is provided

with surnai, nagaara and dhol. Since the actors of Bhand Pather are mainly from the farming community,

the impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity is discernible.

Originally the theatre form Swang, was mainly music-based. Gradually, prose too, played its role in the

dialogues. The softness of emotions, accomplishment of rasa alongwith the development of character can

be seen in this theatre form. The two important styles of Swang are from Rohtak and Haathras. In the

style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi (Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha.

Nautanki is usually associated with Uttar Pradesh. The most popular centres of this traditional theatre

form are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras. The meters used in the verses are: Doha, Chaubola, Chhappai,

Behar-e-tabeel. There was a time when only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also

started taking part in the performances. Among those remembered with reverence is Gulab Bai of Kanpur.

She gave a new dimension to this old theatre form.

Raasleela is based exclusively on Lord Krishna legends; it is believed that Nand Das wrote the initial

plays based on the life of Krishna. In this theatre form the dialogues in prose combined beautifully with

songs and scenes from Krishna's pranks.

Bhavai is the traditional theatre form of Gujarat. The centers of this form are Kutch and Kathiawar. The

instruments used in Bhavai are: bhungal, tabla, flute, pakhaawaj, rabaab, sarangi, manjeera, etc. In

Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.

Fairs in honour of gods, or religious rituals and ceremonies have within their framework musical plays are

known as Jatra. This form was born and nurtured in Bengal. Krishna Jatra became popular due to

Chaitanya's influence. Later, however, worldly love stories too, found a place in Jatra. The earlier form of

Jatra has been musical. Dialogues were added at later stage. The actors themselves describe the change of

scene, the place of action, etc.

Maach is the traditional theatre form of Madhya Pradesh. The term Maach is used for the stage itself as

also for the play. In this theatre form songs are given prominence in between the dialogues. The term for

dialogue in this form is bol and rhyme in narration is termed vanag. The tunes of this theatre form are

known as rangat.

Bhaona is a presentation of the Ankia Naat of Assam. In Bhaona cultural glimpses of Assam, Bengal

Orissa, Mathura and Brindavan can be seen. The Sutradhaar, or narrator begins the story, first in Sanskrit

and then in either Brajboli or Assamese.

Tamaasha is a traditional folk theatre form of Maharashtra. It has evolved from the folk forms such as

Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan. Unlike other theatre forms, in Tamaasha the female actress is the chief

exponent of dance movements in the play. She is known as Murki. Classical music, footwork at lightning-

speed, and vivid gestures make it possible to portray all the emotions through dance.

Dashavatar is the most developed theatre form of the Konkan and Goa regions. The performers personify

the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu-the god of preservation and creativity. The ten incarnations are

Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narsimha (lion-man), Vaman (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama,

Krishna (or Balram), Buddha and Kalki. Apart from stylized make-up, the Dashavatar performers wear

masks of wood and papier mache.

Krishnattam, folk theatre of Kerala, came into existence in the middle of 17th century A.D. under the

patronage of King Manavada of Calicut. Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight

consecutive days. The plays are Avataram, Kaliamandana, Rasa krida, kamasavadha, Swayamvaram,

Bana Yudham, Vivida Vadham, and Swargarohana. The episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna

- his birth, childhood pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.

Mudiyettu, traditional folk theatre form of Kerala is celebrated in the month of Vrischikam (November-

December). It is usually performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala, as an oblation to the Goddess. It

depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura Darika. The seven characters in Mudiyettu-

Shiva, Narada, Darika, Danavendra, Bhadrakali, Kooli and Koimbidar (Nandikeshvara) are all heavily

made-up.

Koodiyaattam, one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of Kerala, is based on Sanskrit theatre

traditions. The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists

and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles. The Sutradhar or narrator and the Vidushak or jesters are

the protagonists. It is the Vidushak alone who delivers the dialogues. Emphasis on hand gestures and eye

movements makes this dance and theatre form unique.

Yakshagaana, traditional theatre form of Karnataka, is based on mythological stories and Puranas. The

most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e. Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu

vadh, Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek, Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva

yuddha and Panchavati.

Therukoothu, the most popular form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu, literally means "street play". It is

mostly performed at the time of annual temple festivals of Mariamman (Rain goddess) to achieve rich

harvest. At the core of the extensive repertoire of Therukoothu there is a cycle of eight plays based on the

life of Draupadi. Kattiakaran, the Sutradhara of the Therukoothu performance, gives the gist of the play to

the audience and Komali entertains the audience with his buffoonery.

4. Puppet Forms of India

A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious inventions of the man. It has been said that a

puppet has to be more than his live counterpart for it is definitely the suggestive element that is more

captivating and enduring in a puppet.

Ancient Hindu philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened God

Almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage. Srimad Bhagavata, the great epic

depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his childhood say that with three strings-Satta, Raja and Tama, the

God manipulates each object in the universe as a marionette.

In Sanskrit terminology Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’. The root of Puppet is derived from the

latin word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll. India is said to be the home of puppets, but it is yet to awaken to its

unlimited possibilities. The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic

‘Silappadikaaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.

Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd century BC to 2nd

century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-cum-director of the human theatre has

been termed as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings. The word might have found its place in

theatre-terminology long before Natyashastra was written but it must come from marionette theatre.

Puppetry, therefore, must have originated in India more than 500 years before Christ.

Almost all types of puppets are found in India. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an important place

in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are mostly based on epics

and legends. Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity. Regional styles of

painting and sculpture are reflected in them.

Puppetry has been successfully used to motivate emotionally and physically handicapped students to

develop their mental and physical faculties. Awareness programmes about the conservation of the natural

and cultural environment have also proved to be useful. These programmes aim at sensitising the students

to the beauty in word, sound, form, colour and movement. The aesthetic satisfaction derived from making

of puppets and communicating through them helps in the all round development of the personality of the

child.

Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of traditional

puppet theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all creative expressions like painting,

sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc. The presentation of puppet programmes involves the creative efforts

of many people working together.

• String Puppets

• Shadow Puppets

• Rod Puppets

• Glove Puppets

In modern times, educationists all over the world have realised the potential of puppetry as a medium for

communication. Many institutions and individuals in India are involving students and teachers in the use

of puppetry for communicating educational concepts.

• String Puppets

India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes having jointed limbs

controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are, therefore, the most articulate of the puppets.

Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has

flourished.

• Kathputli, Rajasthan

The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as Kathputli. Carved from a single piece of wood,

these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. Their costumes and headgears are designed

in the medieval Rajasthani style of dress, which is prevalent even today. The Kathputli is accompanied by

a highly dramatised version of the regional music. Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips

are some of the distinct facial features of these string puppets. These puppets wear long trailing skirts and

do not have legs. Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally tied to their

fingers and not to a prop or a support.

• Kundhei, Orissa

The string puppets of Orissa are known as Kundhei. Made of light wood, the Orissa puppets have no legs

but wear long flowing skirts. They have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy

to manipulate. The puppeteers often hold a wooden prop, triangular in shape, to which strings are attached

for manipulation. The costumes of Kundhei resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.

The music is drawn from the popular tunes of the region and is sometimes influenced by the music of

Odissi dance.

• Gombeyatta, Karnataka

The string puppets of Karnataka are called Gombeyatta. They are styled and designed like the characters

of Yakshagana, the traditional theatre form of the region. The Gombeyatta puppet figures are highly

stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees. These puppets are manipulated by

five to seven strings tied to a prop. Some of the more complicated movements of the puppet are

manipulated by two to three puppeteers at a time. Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta are usually based on

Prasangas of the Yakshagana plays. The music that accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends folk

and classical elements.

• Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu

Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as Bommalattam combine the techniques of both rod and string

puppets. They are made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the

puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.

A few puppets have jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by rods. The Bommalattam puppets

are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional Indian marionettes. A puppet may be as

big as 4.5 feet in height weighing about ten kilograms. Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries

which are divided into four parts - Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam

• Shadow Puppets

India has the richest variety of types and styles of shadow puppets. Shadow puppets are flat figures. They

are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent. Shadow puppets are pressed against

the screen with a strong source of light behind it. The manipulation between the light and the screen make

silhouettes or colourful shadows, as the case may be, for the viewers who sit in front of the screen. This

tradition of shadow puppets survives in Orissa. Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and

Tamil Nadu.

• Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka

The shadow theatre of Karnataka is known as Togalu Gombeyatta. These puppets are mostly small in

size. The puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size for kings

and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.

• Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh

Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh's shadow theatre has the richest and strongest tradition. The puppets

are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees. They are coloured on both sides.

Hence, these puppets throw coloured shadows on the screen. The music is dominantly influenced by the

classical music of the region and the theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana,

Mahabharata and Puranas.

• Ravanachhaya, Orissa

The most theatrically exciting is the Ravanachhaya of Orissa. The puppets are in one piece and have no

joints. They are not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen. The manipulation requires

great dexterity, since there are no joints. The puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold

dramatic poses. Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains, chariots,

etc. are also used. Although, Ravanachhaya puppets are smaller in size-the largest not more than two feet

have no jointed limbs, they create very sensitive and lyrical shadows.

• Rod Puppets

Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by

rods from below. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.

• Putul Nautch, West Bengal

The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as Putul Nautch. They are carved from wood

and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. In Nadia district of West Bengal, rod-puppets

used to be of human size like the Bunraku puppets of Japan. This form is now almost extinct. The Bengal

rod-puppets, which survive are about 3 to 4 feet in height and are costumed like the actors of Jatra, a

traditional theatre form prevalent in the State. These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads,

supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are joined at the

shoulders.

The technique of manipulation is interesting and highly theatrical. A bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to

the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod holding the puppet is placed. The puppeteers each holding

one puppet, stand behind a head-high curtain and while manipulating the rods also move and dance

imparting corresponding movements to the puppets. While the puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the

stylized prose dialogues, a group of musicians, usually three to four in numbers, sitting at the side of the

stage provide the accompanying music with a drum, harmonium and cymbals. The music and verbal text

have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.

The Orissa Rod puppets are much smaller in size, usually about twelve to eighteen inches. They also have

mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods. Thus elements of rod and string

puppets are combined in this form of puppetry. The technique of manipulation is somewhat different. The

Orissa rod-puppeteers squat on the ground behind a screen and manipulate. Again it is more operatic in its

verbal contents since impromptu prose dialogues are infrequently used. Most of the dialogues are sung.

The music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes. The music begins with a short piece of ritual

orchestral preliminary called Stuti and is followed by the play.

The puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of

Orissa are more operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.

• Yampuri, Bihar

The traditional Rod puppet of Bihar is known as Yampuri. These puppets are made of wood. Unlike the

traditional Rod puppets of West Bengal and Orissa, these puppets are in one piece and have no joints. As

these puppets have no joints, the manipulation is different from other Rod puppets and requires greater

dexterity.

• Glove Puppets

Glove puppets, are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of either papier mache,

cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a

long flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls, but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of

producing a wide range of movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are

controlled by the human hand the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb are

the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive.

The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In

Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based

on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and

manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the

beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere.

• Pavakoothu, Kerala

In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called Pavakoothu. It came into existence during the 18th

century due to the influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet

performances. In Pavakoothu, the height of a puppet varies from one foot to two feet. The head and the

arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick cloth, cut and stitched into a small bag.

The face of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the

peacock, etc. The manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet.

The musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa, Ilathalam andShankhathe

conch. The theme for Glove puppet plays in Kerala is based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or

the Mahabharata.