!!!

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PERFORMANCE!OF!MORTARS!INCORPORATING!FINE!

AGGREGATES!FROM!SELECTED!PLASTIC!RESIDUES!!

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!

Alexandra!Constâncio!Velez!Marques!da!Silva!

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Extended!abstract!!

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Supervisors:!

Supervisor:!Prof.!Doctor!Jorge!Manuel!Caliço!Lopes!de!Brito!

Co@supervisor:!Doctor!Maria!do!Rosário!da!Silva!Veiga!

!!

Jury!

President:!Prof.!Dra.!Ana!Paula!Patrício!Teixeira!Ferreira!Pinto!França!de!Santana!

Supervisor:!Doctor!Maria!do!Rosário!da!Silva!Veiga!

Member: Prof.!Dra.!Inês!dos!Santos!Flores!Barbosa!Colen!

July!2014!

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1

1. INTRODUCTION

Plastic is a rather inexpensive, durable and versatile material. These properties allow the manufacture of thousands

of products, which improve the quality of life, employment and economic activity. This has led to a constant

reliability on this material and consequently to an increasing growth of its production. However, plastic also has

negative consequences, such as emissions of greenhouse gases and ecological damage. In general, plastic products

are not biodegradable and therefore its waste lasts for long periods of time before it degrades, representing a risk to

human health and/or the environment. Europe is currently leading the market in terms of recycling and sustainable

development through European legislation, with the aim of protecting the environment [1] [2].

The construction industry is an example of a potentially promising market for recycled plastic products.

Consequently there has been an increase in studies seeking to contribute to the reduction of plastic waste, for

example by using recycled plastic aggregates in civil engineering works. In this context, this study aims to

investigate an alternative solution to plastic waste without damaging the environment and thus contributing to

environmental protection.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

2.1. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

This study was conducted with the purpose of finding a feasible alternative to plastic waste deposition by

evaluating the characteristics of rendering / plastering cement mortars with incorporation of plastic aggregates,

instead of the current natural ones. In order to do so, a set of tests was performed to choose the replacement ratio

(5%, 10% and 15% of the total volume of aggregates) of natural aggregates for plastic aggregates that could be

more interesting for future application of these modified coating mortars. These substitutions were carried out only

in the 1 to 2 mm fraction keeping the same grading curve of the sand. The viability level was set in comparison

with the performance of a control mortar, consisting of 100% sand aggregates, water and cement, at a volumetric

ratio of 1:4.

The campaign was planned in three phases. The purpose of the first phase was to test the mortars’ components

and examine its properties. The second stage consisted of a series of tests performed in order to evaluate the

essential characteristics of the mortars and to identify the substitution ratio with the most satisfactory results.

Finally, in the last stage, another set of tests was carried out on the previously selected mortar, in order to obtain

a more detailed characterization of its behaviour.

Table 1 lists the tests performed within the experimental campaign as well as its specifications.

2.2. MATERIALS

The mortars were made with: Portland cement (CEM II/B-L 32.5N); siliceous sand from Tagus river; and two types

2

of granulated plastic waste, PP and PF aggregates which stand for plastic pellets and plastic flakes. Table 2 shows the

values of their bulk densities. Figure 1 illustrates the grading curves of the natural and both plastic aggregates.

Table 1 - Description of performed tests and its specifications Phase Test Type of test Type of material Specification

1ª Sieve analysis Identification Aggregates EN 1015-1 (1998)

Bulk density Identification Aggregates and cement Cahier CSTB 2669-4 (1993)

2ª

Consistency of fresh mortar Characterisation Fresh mortar EN 1015-3 (1999) Bulk density of fresh mortar Characterisation Fresh mortar EN 1015-6 (1998)

Homogeneity Characterisation Hardened mortar No standard was used Bulk density of hardened mortar Characterisation Hardened mortar EN 1015-10 (1999) Dynamic modulus of elasticity Behaviour Hardened mortar Cahier CSTB 2669-4 (1993) Compressive a flexural strength Behaviour Hardened mortar EN 1015-11 (1999)

Water absorption due to capillary action Behaviour Hardened mortar EN 1015-18 (2002) Drying Behaviour Hardened mortar No standard was used

Shock resistance to impact Behaviour Hardened mortar EN 477 (1995) Susceptibility to cracking Behaviour Hardened mortar No standard was used

3ª

Dimensional stability (shrinkage) Behaviour Hardened mortar Cahier CSTB 2669-4 (1993) Adhesive strength Behaviour Hardened mortar EN 1015-12 (2000)

Water vapour permeability Behaviour Hardened mortar EN 1015-19 (1998) Permeability to liquid water Behaviour Hardened mortar FE Pa 39 (2002)

Accelerated aging test Behaviour Hardened mortar prEN 1015-21 (2002) Water retention Behaviour Fresh mortar prEN 1015-8 (1999)

Table 2 - Bulk densities of the aggregates and cement Material Bulk density [kg/m3]

River sand 1471

Cement 959

PF Aggregates 474

PP Aggregates 730

Figure 1 - Sieve analysis of the aggregates

2.3. MIX PROPORTION

In this experimental program, besides the control mortar, three other types of mortar were analysed for each type of

plastic aggregate, whose composition is presented in Table 3. All the mortars were produced at the volumetric ratio of

1:4, cement to aggregate, and according to the mixing procedure defined in the European standard EN 1015-2.

Table 3 - Composition of the mortar mixes [kg/m3]

Mortar Water Cement River sand

Plastic aggregate

PF PP

0% 260 191.8 1176.6 - - 5% 260 191.8 1115.8 19.7 30.2

10% 260 191.8 1055.0 39.3 60.3 15% 260 191.8 994,2 59.0 90.5

The amount of water was decided based on European Norm EN 1015-3 (1999). A stricter slump flow range was

0"20"40"60"80"100"

0,01" 0,1" 1" 10"

Passing'percentege'

'[%]'

Sieve'opening'[mm]'PP" River"sand" PF"

3

adopted, even though within the proposed range of the norm (170 ± 3 mm versus 175 ± 10 mm proposed by the

norm), with the objective of more accurately control the effect of water.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. FIRST PHASE

This phase was meant to analyse the grading curve and the bulk density of the mortars components. From the

analysis of the grading curves of both plastics and the river sand, presented in Figure 1, it can be perceived why

the replacement of the aggregates was only performed in the 1-2 mm fraction and not a continuously. Since the

plastic waste aggregates mainly consisted of this and higher fractions, it was not possible to obtain enough

material to perform the substitutions in the lower fractions.

3.2. SECOND PHASE

In the second phase of the experimental program, a first assessment of the properties of mortars was carried out.

This phase aimed at selecting the mortar that best fulfilled the requirements.

3.2.1. Consistency of fresh mortar

The results presented in Table 4 show that it was possible to maintain the same amount of water in all mixes.

Although the slump flow values are similar, meaning that the workability and the consistence are not influenced by

replacements up to 15%, there is a slight increase in diameter as the plastics aggregates incorporation increases.

Table 4 - Slump flow values Mortar Mixing water [ml/dm3] Consistency [mm]

0% 260 174

PF 5% 260 174 PF 10% 260 176 PF 15% 260 176

PP 5% 260 176 PP 10% 260 176 PP 15% 260 178

Penacho [3] considers that the water requirement is proportional to the water absorption and the specific area of the

aggregate. As the substitution was only made in the 1-2 mm fraction, the total specific surface of the replaced

aggregates is lower than the one expected if a continuous replacement was made and, therefore, could not

compensate the non-absorbent characteristics of plastic, causing this minor increase of free water and workability.

Consequently, the fact that PP aggregates have a lower specific surface than the PF aggregates translates into a

slightly higher increase of workability in mortars with PP aggregates in comparison to those with PF aggregates.

3.2.2. Bulk density of fresh mortar

4

According to the results, presented in Table 5 and Figure 2, the bulk density has a linear decrease, probably due

to the lower density of the plastic waste aggregates compared with the river sand. This may explain the greater

drop in mortars containing PF aggregates, as this type of aggregate has a bulk density of 476 kg/m3 compared to

729 kg/m3 of the PP aggregates.

Table 5 - Bulk density of fresh mortars Mortar Bulk density of fresh mortar [kg/m3]

0% 1910

PF 5% 1878 PF 10% 1828 PF 15% 1795

PP 5% 1885 PP 10% 1853 PP 15% 1846

Figure 2 - Bulk density of fresh mortars

3.2.3. Dry bulk density

The results presented in Table 6 and Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate a linear decrease of dry bulk density. These

values are coherent with those observed for the apparent bulk density of the aggregates and for the bulk density

of the fresh mortars. In light of the results, there is no significant variation between the densities in the hardened

state tested at 28 days and the densities in the hardened state tested at 90 days.

Table 6 - Dry bulk density

Mortar Dry bulk

density - 28 days [kg/m3]

Dry bulk density - 90 days [kg/m3]

0% 1742 1742

PF 5% 1642 1640 PF 10% 1617 1601 PF 15% 1579 1572

PP 5% 1667 1691 PP 10% 1645 1619 PP 15% 1608 1584

Figure 3 - Dry bulk density - 28 days

Figure 4 - Dry bulk density - 90 days

3.2.4. Homogeneity of the mix

The density of some materials may lead to the selective migration of one of the materials in the mix. As this

phenomenon can compromise the results, it is highly important to identify whether it happens or not. For this

purpose, selected prismatic samples were divided and then subdivided into three parts as shown in Figure 5. The

average results of the amount of plastic aggregate elements in each part of the section are presented in Table 7.

Although the results demonstrate that the average plastic aggregate number in each section (S, C and I) is

similar, thus representing a homogeneous mortar, the high coefficient of variance show that there was great

variability associated with these results. Moreover, it appears that for the same ratio of substitution of plastics

1750"

1800"

1850"

1900"

1950"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

[kg/m

3 ]'

Replacement'ratio'

PF" PP"

1560"1590"1620"1650"1680"1710"1740"1770"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

'[kg/m

3 ]'

Replacement'ratio'PF" PP"

1560"1590"1620"1650"1680"1710"1740"1770"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

'[kg/m

3 ]'

Replacement'ratio'PF" PP"

5

aggregates there is a difference between the number of aggregate particles present in the mortar. The mortars

incorporating PF aggregates contain approximately twice the recycled plastic particles, compared to the mortar

incorporating PP aggregates. This is probably related with the aggregates shape.

Upper - S

Middle - M

Lower - I

Figure 5 - Schematic representation of the section’s sample, divided into three parts

Table 7 - Results of the homogeneity of the mix

Mortar Part of the section

Average number of plastic particles

Average plastic particles [%]

Coefficient of variation [%]

15% PF S 13 31 15.3 C 11 37 32.9 I 15 32 16.1

15% PP

S 7 31 17.5

C 8 33 34.1 I 8 35 13.0

3.2.5. Dynamic modulus of elasticity

The results obtained with the dynamic modulus of elasticity test presented in Table 8, Figures 6 and 7 show that there

was a decrease in the modulus of elasticity when the ratio of plastics aggregates increases. The modified mortar’s

stiffness reduction is probably due to the higher deformability of the aggregates and the weak adherence between the

plastic aggregates and the matrix when compared to the one between the matrix and conventional sand, given their

smooth and less porous surface. Therefore, the mix is less compact and more able to present deformations.

Table 8 - Dynamic modulus of elasticity

Mortar

Dynamic modulus of

elasticity - 28 days [GPa]

Dynamic modulus of

elasticity - 90 days [GPa]

0% 6.60 6.34

PF 5% 6.26 5.84

PF 10% 5.23 4.30

PF 15% 4.50 4.07

PP 5% 5.72 5.29

PP 10% 5.44 4.66

PP 15% 5.04 4.57

Figure 6 - Dynamic modulus of

elasticity - 28 days

Figure 7 - Dynamic modulus of

elasticity - 90 days

3.2.6. Flexural and compressive strength

The flexural and compressive strength tests of hardened mortar were done at the age of 28 and 90 days in

accordance to EN 1015-11 (1999). The results displayed in Tables 9 and 10 and Figures from 8 to 11 show that

0,0"1,0"2,0"3,0"4,0"5,0"6,0"7,0"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

'[GPa]'

Replacement'racio'PF" PP"

0,0"1,0"2,0"3,0"4,0"5,0"6,0"7,0"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

[GPa]'

Taxa'de'substituição'

PF" PP"

6

the flexural and compressive strength decrease with the substitution of natural aggregates by plastic aggregates.

This trend may be related to the fact that the plastic aggregates, unlike the natural aggregates, present a smooth

surface, are impermeable and less resistant, consequently jeopardizing the connection matrix/aggregate.

When comparing the two types of modified mortars, there is a clear difference between the results of mortars

containing PF and PP. This is probably due to differences in the physical shape between these types of

aggregate. The PF aggregates are very thin and flexible flakes therefore causing the decrease of strength of these

aggregates, when compared to PP. Another aspect that can be relevant is the fact that, for an equivalent

substitution ratio, there are nearly twice as much plastic aggregate particles in the mortar containing PF than the

one with PP, implying more points of weakness due to the weak link between the paste and the aggregates.

Regarding the evolution of compressive and flexural strength with age, the results obtained after 28 and 90 days

are very similar. This can be explained by the fact that most of the cements hydration occurs in the first 28 days.

Table 9 - Compressive strength

Mortar Compressive strength - 28 days [MPa]

Compressive strength - 90 days [MPa]

0% 3.70 3.80

PF 5% 3.58 3.31

PF 10% 1.91 1.94

PF 15% 1.84 1.89

PP 5% 3.31 3.11

PP 10% 3.30 3.12

PP 15% 2.96 2.91

Figure 8 - Compressive strength - 28

days

Figure 9 - Compressive strength - 90

days

Table 10 - Flexural strength

Mortar Flexural

strength - 28 days [MPa]

Flexural strength - 90 days [MPa]

0% 1.37 1.40

PF 5% 1.29 1.31

PF 10% 0.85 0.73

PF 15% 0.73 0.76

PP 5% 1.29 1.26

PP 10% 1.22 1.24

PP 15% 1.21 1.19

Figure 10 - Flexural strength - 28 days

Figure 11 - Flexural strength - 90 days

3.2.7. Sorptivity due to capillary action and drying test

Table 11 shows that the water absorption coefficient increases with the incorporation of recycled plastic

aggregates. This is probably related with the weak connection matrix/plastic aggregate, which has more pores

liable to be filled with water. The fact that the recycled aggregates are not absorbent may be another constraint

factor because they generate a greater amount of free water in the mortar, leading to a higher porosity due to its

evaporation.

0,0"0,5"1,0"1,5"2,0"2,5"3,0"3,5"4,0"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

'[MPa]'

Replacement'racio'PF" PP"

0,0"0,5"1,0"1,5"2,0"2,5"3,0"3,5"4,0"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

[MPa]'

Replacement'racio'PF" PP"

0,00"0,25"0,50"0,75"1,00"1,25"1,50"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

[MPa]'

Replacement'racio'

PF" PP"

0,00"0,25"0,50"0,75"1,00"1,25"1,50"

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

[MPa]'

Replacement'racio'

PF" PP"

7

Table 11 – Water absorption coefficient due to capillary action

Mortar Water absorption coefficient [kg/m2 mm1/2]

0% 1.34

PF 5% 1.36

PF 10% 1.55

PF 15% 1.48

PP 5% 1.35

PP 10% 1.45

PP 15% 1.52

Regarding the drying capacity, it was perceived that, despite showing a similar trend, there was a slight decrease

in the drying capacity of the modified mortar.

3.2.8. Susceptibility to cracking

This characteristic was qualitatively evaluated through an empirical method used at the National Laboratory of

Civil Engineering (LNEC) based on the observation of a render coat applied on a brick. After a 5 months’

observation, no signs of cracking were detected which leads to the conclusion that none of the modified mortars

are very susceptible to cracking.

3.2.9. Shock resistance to impact with a given energy

The results obtained in the shock resistance test are presented in Figures 16 and 17. They show an increase in

resistance to the occurrence of the first crack, as well as an increase in the resistance of rupture of the samples,

as the replacement ratio rises.

When comparing the two types of modified mortars, it appears that mortars with PP aggregates have a very irregular

behaviour compared with mortars containing PF aggregates. This irregular behaviour occurs not only between

percentages of substitution, but also between individual results with the same substitution ratio. This behaviour may

be explained by the fact that, despite the same volume of substitution, there is a significantly lower amount of plastic

particles present in the PP mortars compared with the PF mortars, causing a more dispersed distribution and affecting

the homogeneity of the paste. This may also explain the smaller increase shock resistance of these mortars.

Figure 12 - Control mortar

Figure 15 - Falling height relative to the first crack

and fracture of the sample of PF mortars

0,00"0,50"1,00"1,50"2,00"

First"crack"occurs" Fracture"of"the"sample"

Hight'[m

]'

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

8

Figure 13 - 15% PF mortar

Figure 14 - 15% PP mortar

Figure 16 - Falling height relative to the first crack

and fracture of the sample of PP mortars

From a visual analysis of the samples shown in Figures 12 to 14, it is perceptible that the width of the cracks

caused by the fall of the 1 kg mass tends to be smaller with the increase of the replacement ratio.

This increased shock resistance in modified mortars was expected due to the lower modulus of elasticity and

greater capacity to absorb energy that these plastic aggregates provide.

3.3. THIRD PHASE

The selection of the substitution ratio was based on the evaluation of the properties studied in the previous phase

and also aiming to use the highest possible incorporation ratio of plastic aggregate in the mortar, to take into

account environmental issues, which is one of the main objectives of the dissertation. For this matter, it was

decided to continue the study of mortars with a 15% ratio of plastic aggregates.

3.3.1. Water retention

Table 12 shows a slight decrease of this property with the incorporation of recycled plastic as aggregate. The

increase of free water in the modified mortars due to the substitution in the 1 to 2 mm fraction instead of a

continuous substitution, reported in §3.2.1, may be the cause of this reduction.

Table 12 - Water retention Mortar Water retention [%]

0% 74.9 PF 15% 73.7 PP 15% 73.1

0,00"

0,50"

1,00"

1,50"

2,00"

First"crack"occurs" Fracture"of"the"sample"

Hight'[m

]'

0%" 5%" 10%" 15%"

9

3.3.2. Dimensional stability

From Figure 17, which shows the results of the dimensional stability test, it can be concluded that there is a

decrease in shrinkage with the incorporation of recycled plastic aggregates. This decrease may be associated to

the slight decrease of the drying capacity. As the water evaporation from the capillaries leads to shrinkage, a

slower evaporation leads to slower shrinkage, corresponding also to lower shrinkage, due to the gain in rigidity

with hydration time.

3.3.3. Adhesive strength

The results in Table 13 reveal a decrease of adhesion to the substrate. It may be due to the microstructural

heterogeneities in the mortars with plastic aggregates, especially in the interfacial transition zone caused by poor

connection between the matrix and plastic aggregates.

Comparing the two modified mortars, the mortar containing PF aggregates shows a greater loss in adherence.

The number of particles present in the modified mortars may cause this difference. For the same volume of

substitution, PF mortars contain twice as much aggregate particles than PP mortars, therefore creating more

fragile points due to the poor link between the matrix and the aggregate making them less adhesive.

Table 13 - Adhesive strength Mortar Adhesive strength [MPa]

0% 0.33 PF15% 0.21 PP15% 0.26

3.3.4. Water vapour permeability

Table 14 and Figure 18 show an increase in water vapour permeability with the incorporation of plastic

aggregates in the mortars probably related to the increase of internal porosity due to weak connection of the

matrix and the aggregate. This shows a better performance when it comes to this property, as the mortar gains a

better capacity to expel, by drying, for example water resulting from leakage.

Figure 17 - Dimensional stability (shrinkage)

C0,07"C0,06"C0,05"C0,04"C0,03"C0,02"C0,01"0,00"

0" 15" 30" 45" 60" 75" 90"

[%]'

Age'[days]'

0%" PF"15%" PP"15%"

10

Table 14 - Water vapour permeability Mortar Permeability [ng/m.s.Pa]

0% 21.38

PF 15% 23.91

PP 15% 23.35

Figure 18 - Water vapour permeability

3.3.5. Permeability to liquid water

The results presented in Table 15 show that the incorporation of PET waste leads to a higher absorption

coefficient when compared to the control mortar. This increase is probably related to the increase of internal

porosity due to weak connection of the matrix and the aggregate. The difference between the number of

particles present in the mortar containing PP and PF aggregates probably explains the fact that there was a lower

increase in the mortar containing PP aggregates.

Table 15 - Coefficient of sorptivity Mortar Coefficient of sorptivity [kg/m2/√min]

0% 1.36

PF 15% 1.71

!PP 15% 1.46

3.3.7. Accelerated ageing test

The accelerated ageing test that was conducted was an adaptation (with adjustments of the number of cycles and

the exposure time of the samples to normalized conditions) of the norm EN 1015-21 (2002). The samples were

submitted to 8 heating-freezing cycles and 8 humidification-freezing cycles.

3.3.7.1. Visual effects

A visual examination of the samples after being exposed to accelerated ageing conditions reveals that there was a

slight leaching in the upper layer of mortar. Figures 19 and Figure 20 show that the PP plastic aggregates are much

more visible after the ageing process, therefore proving a slightly degradation of the surface layer. The same occurs in

the mortar with PF aggregates, although it does not come out in the picture due to the pale colour of these aggregates.

0,00"

1,00"

2,00"

3,00"

4,00"

0" 1" 2" 3" 4" 5" 6" 7"

[ng/m.s.Pa]'

Time'[days]'0%" PF"15%" PP"15%"

11

Figure 19 - Sample of mortar containing PP

aggregates, before the accelerated ageing test

Figure 20 - Sample of mortar containing PP aggregates, after the accelerated ageing test

3.3.7.2. Adhesive strength

From Table 16 and Figure 21, which shows a comparison between the values of adhesive strength obtained

before and after accelerated ageing conditions, it is noticeable that, although the trend was maintained, this

parameter decreases after the ageing cycles. The cause of this decrease may be associated to the internal damage

caused by the climatic cycles. When exposed to extreme heat conditions and cyclic ice, the mortar expands and

retracts constantly at a microscopic level, due to temperature changes, thereby causing a possible increase in

cracking. Regarding the ice-rain cycles, the water filling the pores expands due to the water’s increased volume

when frozen, also causing an increase in cracking. This cracking intensification weakens the mortars structure

and therefore the adhesion to the substrate. Moreover, the different dimensional variations between the bricks

substrate and the mortar may cause tensions in the interface, thereby weakening the bond.

Table 16 - Adhesive strength after accelerated ageing test

Mortar Adhesive strength after accelerated ageing [MPa]

0% 0.29

P 15% 0.14 PP15% 0.23

Figure 21 - Comparison of adhesive strength before and

after the accelerated ageing test

3.3.7.3. Permeability do liquid water

The results shown in Table 17 and Figure 22 show a rise of permeability, which is probably caused by the same

factors explained in §3.3.7.2. The extreme temperature conditions to which the samples are exposed to cause a

cracking increase which results in a greater capacity to absorb.

0,00"

0,10"

0,20"

0,30"

0,40"

0%" PF"15%" PP"15%"

[MPa]'

Before"aging" After"aging"

12

Table 17 - Coefficient of sorptivity after accelerated ageing test

Mortar Coefficient of sorptivity [kg/m2√min]

0% !1.69

PF 15% 2.03

!P 15% 1.72

Figure 22 - Comparison of the coefficient of sorptivity

before and after the accelerated ageing test

4. CONCLUSIONS

Results from the tests performed in this experimental program have allowed a better characterization of mortars

with incorporation of fine materials from recycled PET.

Although the incorporation of plastics aggregates has proven to be unfavorable for some properties, such as

mechanical and adhesive strength or water absorption, other properties have obtained a considerable

improvement in what regards the mortars performance. The gain in permeability to water vapour, which is the

property that allows mortars to expel, by drying, water resulting from infiltrations, allows preventing

condensations inside buildings. The decrease in the modulus of elasticity and increase in resistance to shock lead

to a more deformable mortar and with a greater capacity to absorb shock energy. Finally, lower shrinking results

enable a reduction of cracking associated with dimensional variations.

5. REFERENCES

[1] Pilz, H.; Brandt, B.; Fehringer, R.; “The impact of plastics on life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse

gas emissions in Europe”, Summary Report, Denkstatt, 2010.

[2] PlasticsEurope; Plastic Recyclers Europe, EPRO; PEMRG; “Plastic - the facts 2013 - An analysis of

European latest plastic production, demand and waste data” Summary Report, 2013

[3] Penacho, Paulo; “Desempenho de argamassas com incorporação de resíduos finos de vidro- reciclagem de

agregados (RCD) e reacção álcalis-sílica (RAS)”, Dissertação de Mestrado em Engenharia Civil, Instituto

Superior Técnico, Lisboa, 2012.

0"

0,5"

1"

1,5"

2"

2,5"

0%" PF"15%" PP"15%"

[kg/m

2 √min]''

Before"aging" After"aging"