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PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
ALUMINIUM OXIDE/POLYALKYLENE
GLYCOL NANOLUBRICANT IN
AUTOMOTIVE AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
MOHAMAD REDHWAN BIN ABD AZIZ
Doctor of Philosophy
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that I have checked this thesis and in my opinion, this thesis is adequate
in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
_______________________________
(Supervisor’s Signature)
Full Name : DR. WAN AZMI BIN WAN HAMZAH
Position : ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
Date :
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is based on my original work except for
quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has
not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at Universiti Malaysia
Pahang or any other institutions.
_______________________________
(Student’s Signature)
Full Name : MOHAMAD REDHWAN BIN ABD AZIZ
ID Number : PMM 15007
Date :
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF ALUMINIMUM OXIDE/POLYALKYLENE
GLYCOL NANOLUBRICANT IN AUTOMOTIVE AIR CONDITIONING
SYSTEM
MOHAMAD REDHWAN BIN ABD AZIZ
Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
JULY 2018
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of ALLAH swt, the Most Merciful and Most Beneficial. First and foremost,
many praises to ALLAH and whole-hearted gratefulness to the Great Creator as I
completed my PHD work.
My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Wan Azmi bin Wan
Hamzah. I am grateful to have such an outstanding, supportive and understanding
supervisor who guided and motivated me throughout this PHD journey.
I would also like to express my appreciation to my fellow researchers namely Sharif
Mohd Zaki, Nurul Nadia Mohd Zawawi, Khamisah Abdul Hamid, Muhammad Nabil
Fikri bin Mohamad and all undergraduate students for their help in this research work.
Not to forget my thankfulness to Prof Dr. Rizalman bin Mamat, Mr Yusof Taib, Mr.
Nizam Abdullah and all FKM and UMP staff for their support.
My thankfulness also goes to TATI University College as my employer for the financial
support under further study grant.
My sincere gratefulness goes to my beloved parents, family members and all people who
contributed to this work. I would like to acknowledge their suggestions and comments,
which are crucial for the successful completion of this work.
Finally, to my lovely wife, Wan Nabihah Adilah Wan Mohamad, your sacrifies is much
appreciated and cherished. Thank you my dear for enduring the life of these years.
iii
ABSTRAK
Penjimatan tenaga dan peningkatan kecekapan bahan api akan mengurangkan
kebergantungan kepada bahan api fosil. Salah satu pendekatan untuk mempertingkatkan
kecekapan bahan api dan seterusnya penjimatan tenaga adalah dengan meningkatkan
prestasi sistem pendingin hawa otomotif (AAC). Sistem AAC adalah satu beban
tambahan terbesar pada kenderaan; melalui peningkatan beban tambahan oleh sistem
AAC akan menurunkan kecekapan, meningkatkan penggunaan bahan api dan
meningkatkan pengeluaran gas rumah hijau. Persekitaran dunia yang semakin panas dan
kesan El-Nino akan meningkatkan penggunaan AAC. Salah satu pendekatan terbaru yang
dapat meningkatkan kecekapan AAC adalah melalui penggunaan partikel bersaiz nano
ke dalam sistem penyejukan. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai dan
mengoptimumkan prestasi sistem AAC dengan menggunakan nano pelincir Aluminium
Oksida/Polialkalina Glikol (Al2O3/PAG). Ini boleh dicapai dengan menstabilkan dan
mencirikan nano pelincir Al2O3/PAG, menyiasat prestasi serta penggunaan tenaga relatif
dan; akhirnya mengoptimumkan parameter operasi sistem AAC. Nano pelincir
Al2O3/PAG disediakan melalui kaedah dua-langkah dan kestabilan partikel nano dinilai
menggunakan beberapa kaedah analisis. Seterusnya, sifat-sifat terma fizikal nano pelincir
Al2O3/PAG disiasat untuk kepekatan sehingga 1.0% dan suhu kerja bermula daripada 30
hingga 80 °C. Sifat-sifat tribologikal nano pelincir Al2O3/PAG sehingga 0.3% kepekatan
juga dinilai. Prestasi dan penjimatan tenaga AAC dinilai dengan kelajuan pemampat
dalam julat 900–2100 rpm, caj awal bahan pendingin antara 90 ke 170 g dan dengan
kepekatan bermula 0.006 hingga 0.014% nano pelincir Al2O3/PAG. Prestasi AAC dinilai
dengan menentukan keupayaan penyejukan, kerja pemampat, dan pekali prestasi (COP).
Sementara itu, penjimatan tenaga adalah diukur dari penggunaan kuasa. Pengoptimuman
parameter AAC adalah dilakukan dengan bantuan perisian statistik melalui analisis
ANOVA bagi menentukan kepentingan dan mengaitkan hubungan antara faktor-faktor
yang dikaji. Pendekatan “desirability” telah digunakan dalam menentukan keadaan
optimum faktor-faktor dan tindakbalas. Kekonduksian terma dan kelikatan adalah
meningkat dengan peningkatan kepekatan tetapi menurun dengan suhu. Penilaian
tribologi mendapati bahawa pelincir nano Al2O3/PAG dengan kepekatan 0.010%
mencapai keadaan optimum melalui pekali geseran (COF) dan kadar haus terendah.
Daripada sifat terma fizikal dan tribologikal, penilaian prestasi AAC dan penjimatan
tenaga dilakukan sehingga kepada kepekatan 0.014% sahaja. Keputusan akhir
menunjukkan bahawa peningkatan COP tertinggi adalah 31.46% dengan nilai purata
17.42% dicapai. Manakala penjimatan tenaga tertinggi adalah 23.89% dengan nilai purata
11.38%. Nilai COP dan penjimatan tenaga adalah tertinggi apabila kepekatan 0.010%
digunakan. Pengoptimuman parameter seperti pemampat kelajuan (1167 rpm), caj
permulaan (170 g) dan kepekatan (0.011%) telah menghasilkan tindakbalas yang
optimum dengan kapasiti penyejukan (1.303 kW), kerja pemampat (14.70 kJ/kg) dan
suhu keluar injap pengembangan (4.06 °C) dan penjimatan tenaga (7.12%) dengan nilai
“desirability” tertinggi sebanyak 0.819. Oleh itu, dapat disimpulkan bahawa nano pelincir
Al2O3/PAG berkepekatan 0.011% adalah yang paling optimum dan ianya disyorkan
untuk digunakan kepada sistem AAC untuk prestasi terbaik. Sistem operasi AAC juga
berjalan seperti biasa tanpa ada sebarang masalah semasa kerja-kerja eksperimen
dijalankan. Walau bagaimanapun, ujian ketahanan penuh sistem AAC adalah disyorkan
untuk kajian seterusnya di mana ianya tidak termasuk dalam skop kajian ini. Generasi
baru sistem AAC-teknologi pelincir nano dengan komponen yang lebih kecil dan
kecekapan yang lebih tinggi dijangka dihasilkan dalam masa terdekat
iv
ABSTRACT
Energy saving and fuel efficiency enhancement approach will lessen the reliance on fossil
fuel. One of the superlative approaches to enhance the fuel efficiency and eventually
saving the energy is by improving the performance of the automotive air conditioning
(AAC) system. The AAC system is the biggest supplementary load on a vehicle; extra
load employed by the AAC system signifies a decrease in efficiency, increase in fuel
consumption and escalates the greenhouse gas discharges. The current hot world
weathers and El-Nino affects escalate the use of AAC considerably. One of the novel
approaches in increasing AAC’s efficiency is by introducing nanoparticles into the
refrigeration system. The aim of the present study is to evaluate and optimize the AAC
performance and power saving using Aluminium Oxide/Polyalkylene Glycol
(Al2O3/PAG) nanolubricants. This can be achieved by stabilizing and characterizing the
Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant, investigating the performance and relative power
consumption and; finally optimizing the operating parameters of the AAC system. The
Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant is prepared by using the two-step method and colloidal
stability is evaluated and established by several methods of analyses. Next, the
thermophysical properties of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant up to 1.0% volume
concentrations and 30 to 80 °C working temperatures were investigated. Adding to that,
the tribological properties of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant up to 0.3% volume
concentrations was also evaluated. The AAC performances and power saving were
evaluated in the range of 900 to 2100 rpm compressor speed, 90 to 170 g initial refrigerant
charge and 0.006 to 0.014% Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant volume concentrations. The
performance of AAC was evaluated by determining the cooling capacity, compressor
work, and coefficient of performance (COP). Meanwhile, power saving was evaluated by
determining the relative power consumption. The optimization of the AAC parameter
was done by the help of statistical tool software employing ANOVA analysis for
determining the significant factors and established the relation between the factors. The
desirability approach was used in determining the optimal conditions of factors and its
responses. The thermal conductivity and viscosity increased with the increase in volume
concentrations but decreased with temperature. The tribological properties evaluations
found that 0.010% Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant showed optimal conditions with lowest
coefficient of friction (COF) and wear rates were achieved. From the outcome of
thermophysical and tribological evaluation, the investigation of AAC performances and
power saving are evaluated for up to 0.014% volume concentrations only. The results
found that the maximum and average COP enhancements are 31.46 and 17.42%,
respectively while the highest and average of power saving attained are 23.89 and
11.38%, respectively. Both COP and power saving was highest when 0.010% volume
concentration is used. Consequently, the optimization of the parameter namely,
compressor speed, initial refrigerant charge and volume concentrations of 1167 rpm,
170 g and 0.011% respectively yield the optimum responses of cooling capacity,
compressor work, expansion valve discharge temperature and power saving of 1.303 kW,
14.70 kJ/kg, 4.06 °C and 7.12% respectively with the highest desirability value of 0.819.
Finally, it can be concluded that 0.011% volume concentration is the optimum volume
concentration. Hence, it is recommended to use 0.011% Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant on to
the AAC system for the best performance. Nevertheless, full-blown durability run of
AAC system is recommended for future work which is not included in the scope of the
present study. New generation of nanolubricant technology AAC system with smaller
components and higher efficiency is anticipated in the near future.
v
TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION
TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
ABSTRAK iii
ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENT v
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Significance of Study 6
1.4 Objectives 7
1.5 Scope of Study 7
1.6 Thesis Overview 8
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Sustainable Energy and Energy Saving 9
2.3 Energy Efficient AAC 11
vi
2.3.1 Alternative Refrigerants 12
2.3.2 Nanoparticle Dispersion in Lubricant 14
2.4 Nanofluid and nanoparticle dispersion 15
2.4.1 Preparation of Nanolubricants 18
2.4.2 Stability Techniques 19
2.4.3 Characterization and Properties Evaluation 22
2.4.4 Tribology Evaluation 25
2.5 Refrigerants and Nanolubricants 25
2.5.1 Classification of refrigerants 26
2.5.2 Classification of Nanolubricants 28
2.6 Studies related to R134a refrigerant-nanolubricant 29
2.6.1 Al2O3/R134a refrigerant-nanolubricant 29
2.6.2 Other Types of Nanoparticles/R134a refrigerant-nanolubricant 31
2.7 Evolution in AAC System 34
2.8 Principal Operation of AAC System 36
2.9 AAC Components 39
2.9.1 Compressor 39
2.9.2 Condenser 41
2.9.3 Evaporator 42
2.9.4 Expansion Device 43
2.9.5 Receiver Drier (RD) 44
2.10 Performance and Energy Saving of Refrigeration using Nanolubricants 45
2.11 Response Surface Method (RSM) 49
2.11.1 Central Composite Designs 50
2.11.2 Desirability Approach for Optimization 50
2.12 Summary 51
vii
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Research Process Flow Chart 53
3.3 Preparation of Nanolubricant 56
3.3.1 Nanoparticle and Base Lubricant Properties 56
3.3.2 Nanolubricant Preparation 57
3.4 Stability of Nanolubricant 59
3.4.1 UV-Vis Spectrophotometer 60
3.4.2 Sedimentation Photographing Method 61
3.4.3 Micrographs for FESEM and TEM 61
3.4.4 Zeta Potential 62
3.5 Thermophysical Properties Measurements 62
3.5.1 Base Fluid Properties 63
3.5.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement 63
3.5.3 Dynamic Viscosity Measurement 64
3.6 Tribological Properties Measurements 65
3.6.1 Investigation of the AAC Compressor 66
3.6.2 Sample Plate Preparation 67
3.6.3 Investigations of COF and Specific Wear Rate 67
3.7 AAC Experimental Setup 69
3.7.1 Instrumentation and Sensors 71
3.7.2 Sensor Calibrations 73
3.8 AAC Experimental Procedures 74
3.9 Experimental Data Analysis 76
3.9.1 Cooling Capacity 77
3.9.2 Compressor Work 78
viii
3.9.3 Coefficient of Performance 78
3.9.4 Power Saving 79
3.10 Consistency Analysis 80
3.11 Optimization by using RSM 81
3.11.1 Designing the Experiment 82
3.11.2 Data analyzing 83
3.11.3 Response Optimization 84
3.12 Conclusions 85
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 88
4.1 Introduction 88
4.2 Stability Analysis 89
4.2.1 UV-Vis Spectrophotometer Investigation 90
4.2.2 Sedimentation Photographing Observation 93
4.2.3 Micrograph Evaluation 94
4.2.4 Zeta Potential Evaluation 96
4.3 Thermophysical Properties 97
4.3.1 Thermal Conductivity of Nanolubricant 98
4.3.2 Relative Viscosity of Nanolubricant 100
4.3.3 Regression Equations 103
4.4 Tribological Evaluation 106
4.4.1 Coefficient of Friction (COF) Evaluation 106
4.4.2 Specific Wear Rate Evaluation 109
4.4.3 Topographic and Element Evaluation 111
4.5 Summary of Nanolubricant Characterization 114
4.6 Performance of AAC using Pure PAG Lubricant 115
ix
4.7 Nanolubricant with Refrigerant Charge 121
4.7.1 Cooling Capacity Evaluation 122
4.7.2 Compressor Work Evaluation 123
4.7.3 COP Evaluation 124
4.8 Nanolubricant with Compressor Speed 126
4.8.1 Cooling Capacity Evaluation 126
4.8.2 Compressor Work Evaluation 127
4.8.3 COP Evaluation 128
4.9 AAC Performance with Nanolubricant 129
4.9.1 Effect on Cooling Capacity 129
4.9.2 Effect on Compressor Work 130
4.9.3 Effect on COP 131
4.9.4 Summary of AAC Performance 133
4.10 Power Saving with Nanolubricant 135
4.10.1 Power Saving with Refrigerant Charge 135
4.10.2 Power Saving with Compressor Speed 136
4.10.3 Relationship between Power Consumption and Pressure 137
4.10.4 Summary of Power Saving 141
4.11 RSM Analysis on AAC Parameter 142
4.11.1 ANOVA Analysis on Cooling Capacity 146
4.11.2 ANOVA Analysis on Compressor Work 149
4.11.3 ANOVA Analysis on Expansion Valve Discharge Temperature 152
4.11.4 ANOVA Analysis on Power Saving 153
4.12 Optimization Evaluation of AAC System 155
4.12.1 Desirability Analysis 156
4.12.2 Experimental Validation 157
x
4.13 Effects of Nanolubricant on AAC Components 158
4.13.1 Effects on Cooling Coil 158
4.13.2 Effects on Thermal Expansion Valve 160
4.13.3 Effects on Compressor 161
4.14 Nanolubricant Impacts on Cost and Environment 162
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS 164
5.1 Introduction 164
5.2 Conclusions 164
5.3 Recommendations for Future Research 166
REFERENCES 168
APPENDIX A1 Thermocouple Calibration Analysis 183
APPENDIX A2 Pressure Sensor Calibration Analysis 184
APPENDIX A3 Flow Rate Sensor & Calibration Analysis 185
APPENDIX B Steady State Condition for AAC Experimental Analysis 186
APPENDIX C Zeta Potential Result 187
APPENDIX D Energy Dispersive Element (EDX) Analysis 188
APPENDIX E List of Publication 191
APPENDIX F1 Gold Award for MTE 2017 Certificate 195
APPENDIX F2 Winner of PIN 2017 Certificate 196
APPENDIX F3 Awards 197
APPENDIX G Patent Pending (UI 2017702161) 198
xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Summary of alternative refrigerants 13
Table 2.2 Colloidal condition based on zeta potential value 22
Table 2.3 Comparison properties of lubricant used in refrigeration systems 28
Table 2.4 Development and evolution of AAC system 35
Table 2.5 Summary of the refrigeration performance achieved by
researches 48
Table 3.1 Properties of Al2O3 nanoparticles 57
Table 3.2 Properties of Polyalkylene glycol (PAG 46) lubricant 57
Table 3.3 Properties of AAC compressor cylinder wall 67
Table 3.4 Decription of AAC test rig components 73
Table 3.5 Experimental parameters for the AAC system 75
Table 3.6 The uncertainties values of experimental sensors and measuring
equipment 80
Table 3.7 The consistency values of the experimental data 81
Table 3.8 The AAC system design parameter 82
Table 3.9 The experimental design in coded form with AAC system
responses 83
Table 3.10 Target for optimization of AAC parameters and responses 84
Table 3.11 The matrix testing for stability evaluation 86
Table 3.12 The matrix testing for properties measurements, AAC
performance analysis and AAC parameter optimization 87
Table 4.1 Percentage enhancement of cooling capacity for Al2O3/PAG
nanolubricants 133
Table 4.2 Percentage reduction of compressor work for Al2O3/PAG
nanolubricants 133
Table 4.3 Percentage enhancement of coefficient of performance (COP)
for Al2O3/PAG nanolubricants 133
Table 4.4 Percentage of power saving for Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant 141
Table 4.5 The AAC system design parameter and its level for central
composite design 143
Table 4.6 The un-coded experimental design and result of experiment 143
Table 4.7 Model summary for AAC system response surface model 146
Table 4.8 ANOVA analysis for cooling capacity response surface
quadratic model 147
Table 4.9 ANOVA analysis for compressor work response surface
quadratic model 150
xii
Table 4.10 ANOVA analysis for expansion valve discharge temperature
response surface quadratic model 152
Table 4.11 ANOVA analysis for power saving response surface linear
model 154
Table 4.12 Target value and limit for optimization of AAC performance 156
Table 4.13 Optimum response target value and limit for optimization of
AAC performances 157
Table 4.14 The predicted result versus the validation result through
experiment 158
Table 4.15 Fuel consumption and CO2 emission per vehicle 162
Table 4.16 Cost analysis for Al2O3 nanoparticle per sample 162
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Energy efficiency in AAC. 12
Figure 2.2 Nanoparticle applications in industries 15
Figure 2.3 Preparation of nanolubricant via two-step method 19
Figure 2.4 Nanofluid stabilization via surfactant 20
Figure 2.5 Nanorefrigerant classification according to refrigerant base 27
Figure 2.6 The evolution of the AAC system 36
Figure 2.7 The basic principle of the refrigeration system 37
Figure 2.8 Thermal Expansion Valve-Receiver Drier (TXV-RD) AAC
system 38
Figure 2.9 The fixed-displacement compressor 40
Figure 2.10 Serpentine condenser for a compact car 41
Figure 2.11 Serpentine evaporator 43
Figure 2.12 Thermal expansion valve (TXV) as expansion device 44
Figure 2.13 Receiver drier (RD) used in the AAC system 45
Figure 3.1 Research process flowchart 55
Figure 3.2 Packaging of (a) Al2O3 nanoparticle in 100 grams (b)
Polyalkylene gycol (PAG 46) in 1liter 57
Figure 3.3 Preparation process of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant via the two-
step method 58
Figure 3.4 Apparatus used in preparation of nanolubricant 59
Figure 3.5 UV-Vis spectrophotometer 60
Figure 3.6 Malvern Zetasizer ZS 62
Figure 3.7 Thermal conductivity apparatus using thermal constant analyzer
technique. 64
Figure 3.8 Brookfield LVDV-III Ultra Rheometer 65
Figure 3.9 AAC compressor (a) before and (b) after disassembly 66
Figure 3.10 Dimension of sample plate 67
Figure 3.11 Tribology test rig 68
Figure 3.12 AAC system test rig 70
Figure 3.13 Water bath system 71
Figure 3.14 Schematic diagram of the AAC system 72
Figure 3.15 Schematic diagram of the experimental control room 72
Figure 3.16 T-s diagram of R134a vapour compression refrigeration cycle 77
Figure 3.17 DW 6092 Lutron power analyzer 80
xiv
Figure 3.18 RSM optimization flow chart 82
Figure 3.19 Response analysis process 84
Figure 4.1 Absorbance value against the wavelength for 0.2% Al2O3/PAG
nanolubricant 91
Figure 4.2 Maximum absorbance value against the volume concentration
for Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant 91
Figure 4.3 Concentration ratio against the sedimentation time for various
sonication time 92
Figure 4.4 Concentration ratio against the sedimentation time for various
concentration of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant 92
Figure 4.5 Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant sedimentation photograph 94
Figure 4.6 FESEM image of dry Al2O3 nanoparticle at X 300,000
magnifications 95
Figure 4.7 TEM image of Al2O3 nanoparticle suspended in PAG lubricant
at X 80,000 magnifications 95
Figure 4.8 Stability of the Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant against the
classification of nanofluid based on zeta potential absolute value 97
Figure 4.9 Variation of thermal conductivity ratio as the function of
particle volume concentration at 30 °C 98
Figure 4.10 Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature for different
Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant volume concentrations 99
Figure 4.11 Variation of dynamic viscosity ratio as the function of volume
concentration at 40 °C 100
Figure 4.12 Comparison of experimental values of viscosity at various
temperatures 101
Figure 4.13 Viscosity against shear strain rate for volume concentration at
30 °C 102
Figure 4.14 Comparison of experimental value of low viscosity at various
temperatures 103
Figure 4.15 Comparison of nanolubricant thermal conductivity values
between present data and proposed equation 104
Figure 4.16 Comparison of nanolubricant viscosity values between present
data and Kedzierski (2013) model 104
Figure 4.17 Comparison of nanolubricant dynamic viscosity values between
present data and proposed equation 105
Figure 4.18 The effects of weight on the average of coeficient of friction
(COF) 107
Figure 4.19 The effects of volume concentration on the coeficient of friction 107
Figure 4.20 The effects of volume concentration on the reduction of
coeficient of friction (COF) 108
xv
Figure 4.21 The effects of weight on the specific wear rate 109
Figure 4.22 The effects of volume concentration on the Specific wear rate 109
Figure 4.23 The effects of volume concentration on the reduction of specific
wear rate 110
Figure 4.24 FESEM observation on five plates with different volume
concentrations 112
Figure 4.25 EDX analysis on three plates with different volume
concentrations 113
Figure 4.26 Summary process in deciding the volume concentration 115
Figure 4.27 Cooling capacity of PAG lubricant as a function of initial
refrigerant charge 116
Figure 4.28 Heat absorb per unit mass of PAG lubricant as a function of
initial refrigerant charge 117
Figure 4.29 Compressor work per unit mass of PAG lubricant as a function
of initial refrigerant charge 118
Figure 4.30 COP of PAG lubricant as a function of refrigerant charge 119
Figure 4.31 Thermal expansion valve discharge temperature of PAG
lubricant as a function of initial refrigerant charge 120
Figure 4.32 Power consumption of PAG lubricants as a function of initial
refrigerant charge 121
Figure 4.33 Cooling capacity as a function of initial refrigerant charge 122
Figure 4.34 Compressor work as a function of initial refrigerant charge 123
Figure 4.35 Coefficient of performance as a function of initial refrigerant
charge 124
Figure 4.36 Expansion valve discharge temperature as a function of initial
refrigerant charge 125
Figure 4.37 Cooling capacity as a function of compressor speed 126
Figure 4.38 Compressor work as a function of compressor speed 127
Figure 4.39 Coefficient performance (COP) as a function of compressor
speed 128
Figure 4.40 Cooling capacity of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant as a function of
volume concentrations 129
Figure 4.41 Compressor work of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant as a function of
volume concentrations 130
Figure 4.42 Coeficient of performance (COP) of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant
as a function of volume concentrations 132
Figure 4.43 COP enhancement of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant as a function of
volume concentrations 134
Figure 4.44 Power consumption as a function of initial refrigerant charge 135
Figure 4.45 Power consumption as a function of compressor speed 136
xvi
Figure 4.46 Evaporator pressure as a function of initial refrigerant charge 138
Figure 4.47 Condenser pressure as a function of initial refrigerant charge 138
Figure 4.48 Comparison of power consumption from experimental data and
regression estimation related to condenser pressure 140
Figure 4.49 Comparison of power consumption from experimental data and
regression estimations related to evaporator pressure 140
Figure 4.50 Power saving of Al2O3/PAG nanolubricant as a function of
volume concentrations 142
Figure 4.51 Box-cox plot power transformation for various responses 144
Figure 4.52 Normal probability plot for various responses 145
Figure 4.53 Interaction of AAC parameter between refrigerant charge and
volume concentration on Cooling capacity (Speed = 1500 rpm) 148
Figure 4.54 Cooling capacity as the function of refrigerant charge and
concentration 149
Figure 4.55 Interaction of the AAC parameter between speed and volume
concentration on Compressor work (Refrigerant charge = 130 g) 150
Figure 4.56 Compressor work as a function of speed and concentration 151
Figure 4.57 Thermal expansion valve discharge temperature as a function of
speed and initial refrigerant charge 153
Figure 4.58 Power saving as a function of speed and initial refrigerant
charge 155
Figure 4.59 Desirability value as a function of speed and concentration 157
Figure 4.60 Cross section view of the cooling coil (evaporator) after the
experiment 159
Figure 4.61 Cross section view of thermal expansion valve after the
experiment 160
Figure 4.62 Cross section view of compressor body after the experiment 161
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Absorbance,
b Path length, m
Ratio of the nanolayer thickness to the original particle radius
c Molar concentration coefficient
Molar absorptivity
g Gravity acceleration, m/s2
h Enthalpy, kJ/kg
k Thermal conductivity, W/m.K
kr Thermal conductivity ratio kNL/kL
mRC Initial refrigerant charge, g
i Isentropic efficiency
v Volumetric efficiency
�̇�𝐿 Cooling capacity, kW
Volume concentration, %
𝜙𝜊 Initial volume concentration, %
𝜙𝑟 Volume concentration ratio, 𝜙 𝜙𝜊⁄
Volume concentration in fraction
𝑞𝐿 Heat Absorb, kW/kJ
Density, kg/m3
R Radius of the particle, nm
T Temperature, °C
µ Dynamic viscosity, mPa.s
𝜇𝑟 Viscosity ratio, 𝜇𝑁𝐿 𝜇𝐿⁄
Kinematic viscosity, cSt
V Sedimentation speed, m/s
𝑤𝑖𝑛 Compressor work, kJ/kg
Zeta potential value, mV
xviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAC Automotive air conditioning
AD Average deviation
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers
ANOVA Analysis of variance
ANSI American National Standard Institute
Bf Base fluid
CCD Center composite design
CFC Chloroflourocarbon
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamic
COF Coefficient of friction
COP Coefficient of performance
DOE Design of experiment
EC Electrical conductivity
EDM Electrical discharge machine
EDX Energy dispersive X-ray
EER Energy efficiency ratio
Eff Effective
Eq Equation
Exp Experiment
f Fluid
FCD Faced Centered design
FDC Fixed-displacement compressor
FESEM Field emission scanning electron microscopy
GWP Global warming potential
HC Hydrocarbons
HCFC Hydroclorofluorcarbon
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
HNBR Hydrogenated nitrile butadiene rubber
HVAC Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
L Lubricant
xix
l liquid
LPM Liter per minute
MO Mineral oil
NL Nanolubricant
OD Outer diameter
ODP Ozone depletion potential
OT Orifice tube
OT-AD Orifice tube-accumulator drier
P Nanoparticle
PAG Polyalkylene Glycol
PMI Positive material identification
POE Polyolester
r Ratio
RBR Pure rubber
rpm Revolution per minute
RSE Relative standard error
RSM Response surface methodology
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SEM Scanning electron microscope
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
TXV Thermal expansion valve
TXV-RD Thermal expansion valve-receiver drier
UMP University Malaysia Pahang
VCRS Vapor compression refrigeration system
VDC Variable-displacement compressor
XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
168
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