1

Black pepper

Black pepper (Piper nigrum) (Family: Piperaceae) is a perennialclimbing vine grown for its berries extensively used as spice andin medicine. India is a leading pr oducer, consumer and exporterof black pepper in the world. During 2005-06, 16,700 tonnes ofblack pepper products worth Rs. 14,050 lakhs wer e exported tovarious countries accounting for 6.0 % of export earnings amongspices. Black pepper is cultivated to a lar ge extent in Kerala andKarnataka and to a limited extent in Tamil Nadu and other states.The crop is grown in about 2,46,000 hectares with a production of69,000 tonnes annually. Kerala and Karnataka account for a majorportion (92 %) of production of black pepper in the country .

Climate and soil

Black pepper is a plant of humid tropics r equiring adequaterainfall and humidity. The hot and humid climate of submountainous tracts of Western Ghats is ideal for its cultivation. Itgrows successfully between 20° North and South latitude, andfrom sea level up to 1500 m above sea level. The crop toleratestemperatures between 10 o and 40° C. A well distributed annualrainfall of 125-200 cm is consider ed ideal for black pepper. Blackpepper can be grown in a wide range of soils with a pH of 4.5 to6.5, though in its natural habitat it thrives well in red laterite soils.

The black pepper gr owing areas in the W est Coast of Indiainclude (i) coastal areas wher e black pepper is gr own inhomesteads (ii) midlands and where black pepper is extensivelycultivated on a plantation scale and (iii) hills at an elevation of800-1500 m above sea level, wher e the crop is mostly gr own onshade trees in coffee, cardamom and tea plantations.

Varieties

A majority of the cultivated types ar e monoecious (male andfemale flowers found in the same spike) though variation in sexexpression ranging from complete male to complete female isfound. Over 75 cultivars of black pepper ar e being cultivated inIndia. Karimunda is the most popular of all cultivars in Kerala.The other important cultivars ar e Kottanadan (South Kerala),Narayakodi (Central Kerala), Aimpiriyan (Wynad), Neelamundi(Idukki), Kuthiravally (Kozhikode and Idukki), Balancotta,

2

Black pepper

Kalluvally (North Kerala), Malligesara and Uddagare (Karnataka).Kuthiravally and Balancotta exhibit alternate bearing habit. A fewimportant cultivars and their salient features are given in Table 1.In terms of quality, Kottanadan has the highest oleoresin (17.8%)content followed by Aimpiriyan (15.7%).

Sixteen improved varieties of black pepper have been releasedfor cultivation (Table 2). Panniyur -1 and Panniyur-3 are hybridsevolved at the Pepper Research Station, Panniyur (Kerala) and haveUthirankotta and Cheriyakaniakadan as their female and maleparents, respectively. IISR Girimunda and IISR Malabar Excel are thetwo hybrids released from Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut.

Table1. Important cultivars of black pepper and their characteristic features

Cultivar Fresh Quality attributes Featuresmean Oleoresin Piperine Essential Dryyield (%) (%) oil (%) recovery

(kg/vine) (%)

Aimpirian 4-5 15.0 4.7 2.6 34 Good for higherelevations, good inquality, latematuring

Arakulamunda 2 9.8 4.4 4.7 33 Moderate andregular bearer

Balankotta 1-2 9.3 4.2 5.1 35 Moderate andirregular bearing

Karimunda 2-3 11.0 4.4 4.0 35 Suitable for allpepper growingareas, high yielder,shade tolerant.

Kalluvally 1-2 8.4-11.8 2.5-5.4 3.0 35-38 Good yielder withhigh dry recovery,drought tolerant

Kottanadan 5 17.8 6.6 2.5 34-35 High yielding,drought tolerant

Kuthiravally 3 15.0 6.0 4.5 35 High yield, goodquality

Narayakodi 1-2 11.0 5.4 4.0 36 Moderate yielderwith mediumquality

Neelamundi 2 13.9 4.6 3.3 33-34 Good yielder,Tolerant toPhytophthorainfection

Vadakkan 3 10.8 4.2 3.2 - Medium qualityand yield

3

Black pepper

Tab

le 2

. Im

pro

ved

var

ieti

es o

f b

lack

pep

per

an

d t

hei

r ch

arac

teri

stic

fea

ture

s

Var

iety

Ped

igre

eM

ean

Dry

Qu

alit

y at

trib

ute

sFe

atu

res

yiel

dre

cove

ryP

iper

ine

Ole

ores

inE

ssen

tial

(dry

)(%

)(%

) (

%)

oil

(%)

(kg/

ha)

Pann

iyur

-1(

KA

U)

Hyb

rid

betw

een

Uth

iran

kott

a x

1242

35.3

5.3

11.8

3.5

Not

sui

ted

Che

riya

kani

akad

anto

hea

vily

shad

ed a

reas

Pann

iyur

-2

(KA

U)

Sele

ctio

n (C

ul. 1

41) f

rom

cv.

2570

35.7

6.6

10.9

-Sh

ade

tole

rant

Bala

ncot

taPa

nniy

ur -

3 (K

AU

)H

ybri

d (C

ul. 3

31)

Uth

iran

kott

a x

Che

riya

kani

akad

an19

5327

.85.

212

.7-

Late

mat

urin

gPa

nniy

ur -

4 (K

AU

)Se

lect

ion

from

Kut

hira

vally

Typ

e12

7734

.7-

9.2

-St

able

yie

lder

Pann

iyur

-5

(KA

U)

Ope

n po

llina

ted

prog

eny

1098

-5.

512

.33.

8To

lera

nt t

ose

lect

ion

from

Per

umko

dish

ade

Pann

iyur

-6

(KA

U)

Clo

nal s

elec

tion

from

Kar

imun

da21

2732

.94.

98.

31.

3Su

ited

to a

llbl

ack

pepp

ertr

acts

Pann

iyur

-7

(KA

U)

Ope

n po

llina

ted

prog

eny

sele

ctio

n14

1033

.65.

610

.61.

5Su

ited

to a

llfr

om K

uthi

rava

llybl

ack

pepp

ertr

acts

Subh

akar

a (I

ISR

)Se

lect

ion

from

Kar

imun

da (K

S-27

)23

5235

.53.

412

.46.

0Su

ited

to a

llbl

ack

pepp

ertr

acts

Sree

kara

(II

SR)

Sele

ctio

n fr

om K

arim

unda

(KS-

14)

2677

35.0

5.3

13.0

7.0

Suite

d to

all

blac

k pe

pper

trac

ts

4

Black pepper

Panc

ham

i (II

SR)

Sele

ctio

n fr

om A

impi

riya

n (C

oll.

856)

2828

34.0

4.7

12.5

3.4

Late

mat

urin

gPo

urna

mi (

IISR

)Se

lect

ion

from

Ott

apla

ckal

(Col

l. 81

2)23

3331

.04.

113

.83.

4To

lera

nt to

roo

tkn

ot n

emat

ode

PLD

-2 (I

ISR

,C

lona

l sel

ectio

n fr

om K

otta

nada

n24

75-

3.3

15.5

3.5

Suite

d to

CPC

RI,

Palo

de)

Thiru

vana

ntha

pura

man

d K

olla

mdi

stri

cts

ofK

eral

aII

SR S

hakt

hiO

pen

polli

nate

d pr

ogen

y of

2253

43.0

3.3

10.2

3.7

Tole

rant

to

Pera

mbr

amun

diP

hyto

phth

ora

foot

rot

.II

SR T

heva

mC

lona

l sel

ectio

n of

The

vam

undi

2481

32.0

1.65

8.15

3.1

Tole

rant

to

Phy

toph

thor

a fo

otro

t; Su

ited

tohi

gh a

ltitu

dean

d pl

ains

IISR

Gir

imun

daH

ybri

d be

twee

n N

aray

akod

i x28

8032

.02.

29.

653.

4Su

ited

to h

igh

Nee

lam

und

ial

titu

deII

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alab

ar E

xcel

Hyb

rid

betw

een

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lam

undi

x14

4032

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1Su

ited

to h

igh

Pann

iyur

-1al

titud

e; R

ich

inol

eore

sin

5

Black pepper

Propagation

Black pepper vines develop three types of aerial shoots, namely(a) primary stem with long internodes, with adventitious r ootswhich cling to the standar ds (b) runner shoots which originatefrom the base of the vine and have long internodes which strikeroots at each node and (c) fruit bearing lateral branches.

Cuttings are raised mainly from runner shoots, though terminalshoots can also be used. Cuttings from lateral branches are seldomused since they develop a bushy habit. However , rooted lateralbranches are useful for raising bush pepper .

Production of rooted cuttings

Traditional method

Runner shoots from high yielding and healthy vines ar e keptcoiled on wooden pegs fixed at the base of the vine to prevent theshoots from coming in contact with soil and striking r oots. Therunner shoots are separated from the vine during February-March,and after trimming the leaves, cuttings of 2-3 nodes each ar eplanted either in nursery beds or in polythene bags filled withfertile soil. Adequate shade has to be provided and the polythenebags are to be irrigated frequently. The cuttings become ready forplanting during May-June.

Rapid multiplication method

An efficient propagation technique developed at Sri Lanka hasbeen modified for adoption in India for quick and easymultiplication of black pepper vines. In this method, a trench of45 cm depth, 30 cm width and convenient length is made. Thetrench is filled with r ooting medium comprising of for est soil,sand and farm yard manure in 1:1:1 ratio. Split halves of bamboowith septa or split halves of PVC pipes of 1.25-1.50 m length and8-10 cm diameter provided with plastic septa at 30 cm intervalsare fixed at 45° angle on a str ong support. Rooted cuttings ar eplanted in the tr ench at the rate of one cutting for each bamboosplit. The lower portions of the bamboo splits ar e filled withrooting medium (preferably weather ed coir dust-farm yar dmanure mixture in 1:1 ratio) and the gr owing vine is tied to the

6

Black pepper

bamboo split in such a way so as to keep the nodes pressed to therooting medium. The tying can be done with dried banana leafsheath fibers or coir rope. The cuttings are irrigated regularly. Asthe cuttings grow, the bamboo splits ar e filled with r ootingmedium and each node is pr essed down to the r ooting mediumand tied. For rapid growth, a nutrient solution of urea (1 kg), superphosphate (0.75 kg), muriate of potash (0.5 kg) and magnesiumsulphate (0.25 kg) in 250 litres of water is to be applied @ 0.25 litreper vine at monthly intervals.

When the vine reaches the top (3-4 months after planting ofthe cutting) the terminal bud is nipped off and the vine is crushedat about three nodes above the base, in order to activate the axillarybuds. After about 10 days, the vine is cut at the crushed point andremoved from the rooting medium and cut between each node.Each cutting with the bunch of roots intact is planted in polythenebags filled with fumigated potting mixtur e. Trichoderma @ 1gand VAM @ 100 cc/kg of soil can be added to the potting mixture.Care should be taken to keep the leaf axil above the soil. Thepolythene bags should be kept in a cool and humid place, orshould be covered with thin polythene (200 gauge) sheet to retainhumidity. The buds start developing in about 3 weeks and thepolybags can then be removed and kept in shade.

The advantages of this method of propagation ar e rapidmultiplication (1:40), well developed r oot system, higher fieldestablishment and vigorous growth as a r esult of better rootsystem.

Trench method

A simple, cheap and efficient technique for propagating blackpepper from single nodes of runner shoots taken from field grownvines has been developed at the institute. A pit of 2.0 m x 1.0 m x0.5 m size is dug under a cool and shaded area. Single nodes of 8-10 cm length and with their leaf intact, taken fr om runner shootsof field grown vines are planted in polythene bags (25 cm x 15cm, 200 gauge) filled at the lower half with a mixtur e of sand,soil, coir dust and cow dung in equal proportion. The single nodesare to be planted in the bags in such a way that their leaf axil is

7

Black pepper

above the potting mixture. The polythene bags with the plantedsingle nodes are arranged in the pit. After keeping the bags in thepit, the pit should be cover ed with a polythene sheet. This sheetmay be secured in position by placing weights on the corners.The cuttings should be water ed at least five times a day with arose can and the pit should be covered with the polythene sheetimmediately after watering. It is advisable to drench the cuttings2-3 times with copper oxychloride (2g/litre).

After 2-3 weeks of planting, the cuttings will start pr oducingroots which are visible through the polythene bags. After theinitiation of roots the frequency of watering may be reduced to 3-4 times a day . After about 1 month, new shoots start emer gingfrom the leaf axil. At this stage it is advisable to keep the pit openfor about 1 hour per day so that the cuttings would harden andwill not dry when they are taken out of the pit. The cuttings canbe taken out of the pit after 2 months of planting and kept in ashaded place and watered twice a day. These cuttings will be readyfor field planting after about 2 ½ months. By this method 80-85%success can be obtained. Foliar application of nutrient solutionwill also enhance the growth of the cuttings.

Serpentine method

Cheaper propagation technique for pr oduction of r ootedcuttings of black pepper is serpentine layering. In a nursery shedwith roofing sheet or shade net, rooted black pepper cuttings areplanted in polythene bags holding about 500 g potting mixture,which will serve as mother plants. As the plant gr ows andproduces few nodes small polythene bags (20x10 cm) filled withpotting mixture may be kept under each node. The node may bekept gently pressed in to the mixtur e assuring contact with thepotting mixture with the help of a flexible twig such as mid rib ofa coconut leaflet to enable r ooting at that junction. Roots startgrowing from the nodes and the cuttings keep on growing further.The process of keeping potting mixtur e filled polythene bags atevery node to induce rooting at each node is repeated. In 3 monthsthe first 10 nodes (fr om the mother plants) would have r ootedprofusely and will be r eady for harvest. Each node with theploythene bag is cut just below the rooted node and the cut end is

8

Black pepper

also buried into the mixture to induce more roots. Polythene bagsfilled with solarized potting mixture or soil, granite powder andfarmyard manure in 2:1:1 pr oportion is r ecommended forproducing disease free rooted cuttings. The r ooted nodes willproduce new sprouts in a week time and will be r eady for fieldplanting in 2-3 months time. Daily irrigation can be given with arose can. On an average, 60 cuttings can be harvested per motherplant in a year by this method.

Nursery diseases

Phytophthora infections

Phytophthora infections are noticed on leaves, stems and rootsof cuttings in the nursery . Dark spots with fimbriate mar ginsappear on the leaves, which spread rapidly resulting in defoliation.The infections on the stem ar e seen as black lesions which resultin blight. The symptoms on the roots appear as rotting of the entireroot system.

Spraying Bordeaux mixture 1% and drenching with copperoxychloride 0.2 % at monthly intervals pr events the disease.Alternatively, metalaxyl 0.01% (1.25 g/litre water) or potassiumphosphonate 0.3% could also be used. The potting mixtur e maybe sterilized through solarization. To the sterilized mixtur e,biocontrol agents such as V AM @ 100 cc/kg of mixtur e andTrichoderma @ 1g/kg of soil (Trichoderma population @ 1010 cfu/g)may be added at the time of filling of nursery mixture in polythenebags and at regular intervals. Pseudomonas fluorescens (IISR-6) maybe added to the potting mixtur e @ 1 g of product containing 10 10

cfu/g to enhance gr owth and to suppr ess root pathogens.Application of Trichoderma and IISR-6 in the potting mixtur e atthe time of planting and dr enching IISR-6 at 1 st and 2 nd monthsafter planting is recommended for producing disease free cuttings.Since the biocontrol agents mainly pr otect the root system, theaerial portion may be pr otected with chemicals. If Bor deauxmixture is used care must be taken to prevent dripping of fungicideto the soil. Alternatively, systemic fungicides such as metalaxyl(1.25 g/L) and potassium phosphonate (3 ml/L) which ar ecompatible with Trichoderma may be used.

9

Black pepper

Anthracnose

The disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Thefungus infects the leaves causing yellowish brown to dark brownirregular leaf spots with a chlor otic halo. Spraying Bor deauxmixture 1% alternating with carbendazim 0.1% is effective againstthe disease.

Leaf rot and blight

The disease is caused by Rhizoctonia solani and is often seriousin nurseries during April-May when warm humid conditionsprevail. The fungus infects both leaves and stems. Gr ey sunkenspots and mycelia threads appear on the leaves and the infectedleaves are attached to one another with the mycelia thr eads. Onstems, the infection occurs as dark br own lesions which spreadboth upwards and downwards. The new flushes subtending thepoints of infection gradually droop and dry up. Leaf spots causedby Colletotrichum sp. are characterized by yellow halo surroundingthe necrotic spots. A prophylactic spray with Bordeaux mixtur e1% prevents both the diseases.

Basal wilt

The disease is mainly noticed in nurseries during June-September and is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. Grey lesions appearon stems and leaves. On the leaves white mycelium ar e seen atthe advancing edges of the lesions. The mycelia threads later girdlethe stem resulting in drooping of leaves beyond the point ofinfection and in advanced stages the rooted cuttings dry up. Smallwhitish to cream coloured grain like scler otia bodies appear onthe mature lesions. The disease can be controlled, if noticed early,by adopting phytosanitary measures. The affected cuttings alongwith defoliated leaves should be r emoved and destroyed. Laterall the cuttings should be sprayed with carbendazim 0.2% orBordeaux mixture 1%.

Viral infections

Vein clearing, mosaic, yellow specks, mottling and small leafare the most obvious symptoms for identifying viral infections inthe nursery. As viruses are systematic in nature, primary spread

10

Black pepper

occurs through planting material since black pepper is vegetativelypropagated. When infected plants are used as source of plantingmaterial, the cuttings will also be infected. Hence selection ofvirus free healthy mother plants is very important. Secondaryspread of the disease occurs thr ough insects such as aphids andmealybugs. Because of closed placing of seedlings in the nursery,chances of spread through these insects are more. Hence regularmonitoring of the nursery for insects and spraying with insecticidelike dimethoate 0.05% should be r esorted to whenever they ar eseen. Besides, regular inspection and removal of infected plantsshould also be done.

Nematode infestation

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) and the burrowingnematode, Radopholus similis are the two important nematodespecies infesting rooted cuttings in the nursery . The damagecaused to roots by nematode infestations result in poor growth,foliar yellowing and some times interveinal chlor osis of leaves.The establishment of nematode infected cuttings will be poorwhen planted in the field and such cuttings develop slow declinesymptoms at a later date. Nematode infestations tend to be mor ein rapid multiplication nurseries.

Soil solarization can be done for sterilizing the nursery mixture.The solarized nursery mixtur e may be fortified with biocontr olagents such as Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum@ 1-2 g/kg of soil, the pr oduct containing 106 cfu fungus/gm ofsubstrate. Alternately, rhizobacteria like IISR 853 can be applied@ 1 g/bag (formulations containing 10 8 – 1010 cfu/g) at monthlyintervals. A prophylactic application of nematicide is alsonecessary to check the nematode infestation. For this, make threeequidistant holes of 2-3 cm depth in the bag ar ound the cuttingsand place phorate 10 G @ 1g/bag or carbofuran 3 G @ 3g/bag inthese holes and cover with soil. A light irrigation may also begiven to ensure adequate soil moistur e. In rapid multiplicationnurseries where the rooted cuttings are r etained for a longerduration nematicides may be applied at 45 days intervals asdescribed above.

11

Black pepper

Establishment of plantations

Selection of site

When black pepper is grown in slopes, the slopes facing southshould be avoided and the lower half of northern and north easternslopes preferred for planting so that the vines are not subjected tothe scorching effect of the southern sun during summer .

Preparation of land and planting standards

With the receipt of the first rain in May-June, primary stemcuttings of Erythina sp.(Murukku) or Garuga pinnata (kilinjil) orGrevillea robusta (silver oak) are planted in pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x50 cm size filled with cow dung and top soil, at a spacing of 3 m x3 m which would accommodate about 1110 standards per hectare.Seedlings of Alianthus malabarica (Matti) can also be planted andthe black pepper vines can be trailed on it after 3 years when theyattain sufficient height. Whenever E. indica is used as standard,application of phorate 10 G @ 30 g may be done twice a year (May/June and September/October) to control nematodes and stem androot borer. When E. indica and G. pinnata are used, the primarystems are cut in Mar ch/April and stacked in shade in gr oups.The stacked stems start sprouting in May. The stems are plantedin the edge of the pits dug for planting black pepper vines.

Planting

Pits of 50 cm3 at a distance of 30 cm away from the base, on thenorthern side of supporting tr ee are taken with the onset ofmonsoon. The pits are filled with a mixtur e of top soil, farmyardmanure @ 5 kg/pit and 150 g r ock phosphate. Neem cake @ 1 kgand Trichoderma harzianum @ 50 g also may be mixed with themixture at the time of planting. W ith the onset of monsoon, 2-3rooted cuttings of black pepper ar e planted individually in thepits on the northern side of each standard. At least one node ofthe cutting should be kept below the soil for better anchorage.

Cultural practices

As the cuttings gr ow, the shoots ar e tied to the standar ds asoften as required. The young vines should be pr otected from hotsun during summer by pr oviding artificial shade. Regulation of

12

Black pepper

shade by lopping the branches of standards is necessary not onlyfor providing optimum light to the vines but also for enabling thestandards to grow straight. Adequate mulch with green leaf ororganic matter should be applied towar ds the end of North Eastmonsoon. The base of the vines should not be disturbed so as toavoid root damage.

During the second year , the same cultural practices ar erepeated. However, lopping of standards should be done carefullyfrom the fourth year onwar ds, not only to r egulate height of thestandards, but also to shade the black pepper vines optimally .Lopping may be done twice (during June and September) in ayear. Excessive shading during flowering and fruiting encouragespest infestations.

From the fourth year , two diggings ar e usually given in theinter species one during May-June, and the other towards the endof south-west monsoon in October -November. Growing covercrops like Calapogonium mucunoides and Mimosa invisa are alsorecommended under West Coast conditions as an ef fective soilcover to prevent soil erosion during rainy season. Further , theydry during summer, leaving thick organic mulch.

Manuring and fertilizer application

Manuring and fertilizer application for pepper vines is to bedone for pr oper establishment and gr owth of plants.Recommended nutrient dosage for black pepper vines (3 yearsand above) are as follows.

NPK 50:50: 150 g/vine/year (General recommendation)

NPK 50:50: 200 g/vine/year (for Panniyur and similar ar eas)

NPK 140:55: 270 g/vine/year (for Kozhikode and similar areas)

Only one-third of this dosage should be applied during thefirst year which is increased to two-thirds in the second year. Thefull dose is given from the third year onwards. It is better to applythe fertilizers in two split doses, one in May-June and the other inAugust-September. The fertilizers ar e applied at a distance ofabout 30 cm all around the vine and covered with a thick layer ofsoil. Care should be taken to avoid dir ect contact of fertilizers

13

Black pepper

with roots of black pepper. Organic manures in the form of cattlemanure or compost can be given @ 10 kg/vine during May. Neemcake @ 1 kg/vine can also be applied. Application of lime @ 500g/vine in April-May during alternate years is also recommended.When biofertilizer like Azospirillum is applied @ 100 g/vine, therecommended nitrogen dose may be r educed by half to 70 g/vine. In soils that ar e deficient in zinc or magnesium, foliarapplication of 0.25% zinc sulphate twice a year (May-June andSeptember-October) and soil application of 150 g/vine magnesiumsulphate, respectively is recommended.

Plant protection

Diseases

Foot rot disease

Foot rot (quick wilt disease) caused by Phytophthora capsici isthe most destructive of all diseases and occurs mainly during thesouth west monsoon season. All parts of the vine ar e vulnerableto the disease and the expression of symptoms depend upon thesite or plant part infected and the extent of damage.

Symptoms

� One or more black spots appear on the leaves which have acharacteristic fine fibr e like pr ojections at the advancingmargins which rapidly enlarge and cause defoliation.

� The tender leaves and succulent shoot tips of freshly emergingrunner shoots trailing on the soil turn black when infected.The disease spreads to the entir e vine, from these infectedrunner shoots and leaves, during intermittent showers due torain splash.

� If the main stem at the ground level or the collar is damaged,the entire vine wilts followed by shedding of leaves and spikeswith or without black spots. The branches break up at nodesand the entire vine collapses within a month.

� If the damage is confined to the feeder roots, the expression ofsymptoms is delayed till the cessation of rain and the vine startsshowing declining symptoms such as yellowing, wilting,

14

Black pepper

defoliation and drying up of a part of the vine. This may occurduring October-November onwards. These vines may recoverafter the rains and survive for more than two seasons till theroot infection culminates in collar r ot and death of the vine.

Management

The disease can be controlled by adopting integrated diseasemanagement strategies.

Phytosanitation

� Removal and destruction of dead vines along with root systemfrom the garden is essential as this r educes the build up ofinoculum (fungal population).

� Planting material must be collected from disease free gar densand the nursery pr eferably raised in fumigated or solarizedsoil.

Cultural practices

� Adequate drainage should be provided to r educe waterstagnation.

� Injury to the r oot system due to cultural practices such asdigging should be avoided.

� The freshly emerging runner shoots should not be allowed totrail on the gr ound. They must either be tied back to thestandard or pruned off.

� The branches of support trees must be pruned at the onset ofmonsoon to avoid build up of humidity and for betterpenetration of sunlight. Reduced humidity and pr esence ofsunlight reduces the intensity of leaf infection.

Chemical control

Any of the following chemical contr ol measures can be adopted.

� After the receipt of a few monsoon showers (May-June), allthe vines are to be drenched at a radius of 45-50 cm with copperoxychloride 0.2% @ 5-10 litr es/vine. A foliar spray withBordeaux mixture 1% is also to be given. Dr enching andspraying are to be r epeated once again during August-

15

Black pepper

September. A third round of dr enching may be given duringOctober if the monsoon is prolonged.

� After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are tobe drenched with potassium phosphonate 0.3% @ 5-10 litr es/vine. A foliar spray with potassium phosphonate 0.3% is alsoto be given. A second drenching and spraying with potassiumphosphonate 0.3% is to be repeated during August-September.If the monsoon is pr olonged, a third round of dr enching maybe given during October.

� After the receipt of a few monsoon showers, all the vines are tobe drenched with 0.125% metalaxyl mancozeb @ 5-10 litr es/vine. A foliar spray with metalaxyl mancozeb 0.125% may alsobe given.

� At the onset of monsoon (May-June), apply Trichoderma aroundthe base of the vine @ 50 g/vine (this quantity is recommendedfor a substrate containing Trichoderma @ 1010 cfu). A foliar spraywith potassium phosphonate 0.3% or Bordeaux mixture 1% isalso to be given. A second application of Trichoderma and foliarspray of Bordeaux mixture 1% or potassium phosphonate 0.3%are to be given during August-September.

Pollu disease (Anthracnose)

This disease is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. It canbe distinguished from the pollu (hollow berry) caused by the beetleby the presence of characteristic cracks on the infected berries.The disease appears towards the end of the monsoon. The affectedberries show brown sunken patches during early stages and theirfurther development is affected. In later stages, the discolourationgradually increases and the berries show the characteristic cr osssplitting. Finally, the berries turn black and dry . The fungus alsocauses angular to irregular brownish lesions with a chlorotic haloon the leaves. The disease can be controlled by spraying Bordeauxmixture 1%.

Spike shedding

Spike shedding especially in varieties like Panniyur-1 at higherelevations like Kodagu and Idukki is one of the emerging diseases.

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It is seen in serious condition when the pre-monsoon showers aredelayed and flowering and spiking occur during June-July. Thesespikes predominantly produce female flowers instead of bisexualflowers. Heavy spike shedding may occur due to lack ofpollination. Irrigation of vines fr om second fortnight of Mar chcoupled with prophylactic spraying with Bor deaux mixture 1%or carbendazim 0.2% reduces the intensity of spike shedding.

Stunt disease

This disease which is caused by vir uses is noticed in parts ofKannur, Kasaragod, Kozhikode, Wayanad and Idukki Districts ofKerala and Kodagu, Hassan and Uthara Kannada districts ofKarnataka. The vines exhibit shortening of internodes to varyingdegrees. The leaves become small and narr ow with varyingdegrees of deformation and appear leathery , puckered andcrinkled. Chlorotic spots and str eaks also appear on the leavesoccasionally. The yield of the af fected vines decreases gradually.

Two viruses namely Cucumber mosaic virus and a Badnavirusare associated with the disease. The major means of spread of thevirus is through the use of infected stem cuttings. The diseasecan also be transmitted thr ough insects like aphids and mealybugs. The following strategies ar e recommended for themanagement of the disease.

� Use virus free healthy planting material

� Regular inspection and removal of infected plants; the removedplants may be burnt or buried deep in soil

� Insects such as aphids and mealy bugs on the plant or standardsshould be controlled with insecticide spray such as dimethoate @ 0.05%.

Phyllody disease

This disease which is caused by phytoplasma is noticed in partsof Waynad and Kozhikode districts of Kerala. The affected vinesexhibit varying stages of malformation of spikes. Some of the floralbuds are transformed into narr ow leaf like structur es. Suchmalformed spikes show leafy str uctures instead of floral buds,exhibiting phyllody symptoms. In advanced stages, the leaves

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become small and chlorotic, and the internodes are also shortened.The affected fruiting laterals give a witches br oom appearance.Severely affected vines become unproductive. In severely affectedvines the entire spike is converted into small branches whichappear chlorotic and the vines decline rapidly. The infected vinebecomes unproductive within 2 to 3 years. The infected vines areto be destroyed to prevent the further spr ead of the disease.

Slow decline (slow wilt)

Slow decline is a debilitating disease of black pepper . Foliaryellowing, defoliation and die-back ar e the aerial symptoms ofthis disease. The af fected vines exhibit varying degr ees of rootdegeneration due to infestation by plant parasitic nematodes. Thediseased vines exhibit foliar yellowing from October onwardscoinciding with depletion of soil moisture. With the onset of southwest monsoon during May/June, some of the affected vinesrecover and put forth fresh foliage. However , the symptomsreappear in subsequent seasons after the cessation of the monsoonand the diseased vines gradually lose their vigour andproductivity. The affected vines show varying degr ees of feederroot loss and the expression of symptoms on the aerial parts occurafter a considerable portion of the feeder r oots are lost. The rootsystem of diseased vines show varying degrees of necr osis andpresence of r oot galls due to infestation by plant parasiticnematodes such as Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognitaleading to rotting of feeder r oots. The damage to feeder roots iscaused by these nematodes and P. capsici either independently ortogether in combination. There is no spatial segr egation of plantparasitic nematodes and P. capsici in the soil under field conditions.Hence, it is necessary to adopt a combination of fungicide andnematicide application for the management of the disease.

� Severely affected vines which are beyond r ecovery should beremoved from the plantation and destr oyed.

�

� Nematode free rooted cuttings raised in fumigated or solarizednursery mixture should be used for planting in the field.

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�

In areas severely infested with root knot nematodes, cuttingsof the resistant variety ‘Pournami’ may be planted. Biocontr olagents like Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum canbe applied @ 50g/vine twice a year (during April-May andSeptember-October). The fungus load in the substrate should be108 cfu/g.

While applying nematicides, the soil should be raked in thebasin of the vine lightly without causing damage to the root systemand the nematicide should be spr ead uniformly in the basin andcovered with soil immediately. Sufficient soil moisture should beensured at the time of nematicide application. The contr olmeasures should be taken up during early stages of the disease.

Insect pests

Pollu beetle

The pollu beetle (Longitarsus nigripennis) is the most destructivepest of black pepper and is more serious in plains and at altitudesbelow 300 m. The adult is a small black beetle measuring about2.5 mm x 1.5 mm, the head and thorax being yellowish br ownand the fore wings (elytra) black. Fully-grown grubs are creamy-white and measure about 5 mm in length.

The adult beetles feed and damage tender leaves and spikes.The females lay eggs on tender spikes and berries. The grubs boreinto and feed on the internal tissues and the infested spikes turnblack and decay. The infested berries also turn black and crumblewhen pressed. The term pollu denotes the hollow nature of theinfested berries in Malayalam. The pest infestation is more seriousin shaded areas in the plantation. The pest population is higherduring September-October in the field.

Regulation of shade in the plantation reduces the populationof the pest in the field. Spraying quinalphos (0.05%) during June-

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July and September-October or quinalphos (0.05%) during Julyand Neemgold (0.6%) (neem-based insecticide) during August,September and October is ef fective for the management of thepest. The underside of leaves (where adults are generally seen)and spikes are to be sprayed thor oughly.

Top shoot borer

The top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa) is a serious pest in youngerplantations in all black pepper ar eas. The adult is a tiny mothwith a wing span of 10-15 mm with crimson and yellow fore wingsand grey hind wings. The larvae bore into tender terminal shootsand feed on internal tissues resulting in blackening and decayingof affected shoots. Fully-gr own larvae are grayish green andmeasure 12-15 mm in length. When successive new shoots ar eattacked, the growth of the vine is affected. The pest infestation ishigher during July to October when numerous succulent shootsare available in the vines. Spray quinalphos (0.05%) on tenderterminal shoots; repeat spraying at monthly intervals (during July-October) to protect emerging new shoots.

Leaf gall thrips

Infestation by leaf gall thrips ( Liothrips karnyi) is more seriousat higher altitudes especially in younger vines and also in nurseriesin the plains. The adults ar e black and measur e 2.5-3.0 mm inlength. The larvae and pupae are cr eamy white. The feedingactivity of thrips on leaves causes the leaf mar gins to curldownwards and inwards r esulting in the formation of mar ginalleaf galls. Later the infested leaves become crinkled andmalformed. In severe cases of infestation, the gr owth of youngervines and cuttings in the nursery is af fected. Spray dimethoate(0.05%) during emergence of new flushes in young vines in thefield and cuttings in the nursery.

Scale insects

Among the various scale insects r ecorded on black pepper ,mussel scale ( Lepidosaphes piperis) and coconut scale ( Aspidiotusdestructor) cause serious damage to black pepper vines at higheraltitudes and also to older cuttings in nurseries in the plains.Females of mussel scales are elongated (about 1 mm length) and

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Black pepper

dark brown and that of coconut scales cir cular (about 1 mm indiameter) and yellowish brown. Scale insects are sedentary, remainingpermanently fixed to plant parts and appear as encr ustations onstems, leaves and berries. They feed on plant sap and cause yellowingand wilting of infested portions; in sever e cases of infestation theaffected portions of vines dry up. The pest infestation is more sever eduring the post monsoon and summer periods .

Clip off and destroy sever ely infested branches. Spraydimethoate (0.1%) on affected vines; repeat spraying after 21 daysto control the infestation completely . Initiate control measuresduring early stages of pest infestation. In nurseries spraying neemoil 0.3% or Neemgold 0.3% or fish oil r osin 3% is also effective incontrolling the pest infestation.

Minor pests

Leaf feeding caterpillars, especially Synegia sp., damage leavesand spikes of younger vines and can be contr olled by sprayingquinalphos (0.05%). Mealybugs, gall midges and aphids infesttender shoots especially in nurseries. Spraying of dimethoate(0.05%) may be undertaken if infestations ar e severe. Mealybuginfestation on r oots can be contr olled by drenching withchlorphyriphos (0.075%) and undertaking contr ol measuresagainst Phytophthora and nematode infections.

Organic Production

Conversion plan

For certified organic pr oduction of black pepper , at least 18months the crop should be under or ganic management ie in thenew plantations the first crop of pepper can be sold as organic, asthe yielding starts fr om third year. To convert an existingplantation to organic, a conversion period of 36 months is set forthe perennial crops. The conversion period may be r elaxed if theorganic farm is being established on a land where chemicals werenot previously used, provided sufficient proof of history of thearea is available. It is desirable that organic method of productionis followed in the entir e farm; but in the case of lar ge extent ofarea, the transition can be done in a phased manner for which aconversion plan has to be pr epared.

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Black pepper

The entire pepper holding can be converted to or ganicproduction when pepper is grown as sole crop. When grown in amixed cultivation system, it is essential that all the crops in thefield are also subjected to or ganic methods of production. Blackpepper as a best component crop in agri-horti and silvi-hortisystems, recycling of farm waste can be ef fectively done whengrown with coconut, arecanut, coffee, rubber etc. As a mixed cropit can also be inter cropped with green manure/ legumes cropsenabling effective nutrient built up.

In order to avoid contamination of organically cultivated plotsfrom neighboring non-organic farms, a suitable buffer zone withdefinite border is to be maintained. In smallholder groups, wherethe pepper holdings ar e contiguous, the isolation belt is neededat the outer periphery of the entire gr oup of holdings. Peppergrown on this isolation belt cannot be treated as organic. In sloppylands adequate precaution should be taken to avoid the entry ofrun off water and chemical drift fr om the neighboring farms.

Management practices

For organic production, traditional varieties adapted to the localsoil and climatic conditions that are resistant or tolerant to diseases,pests and nematode infection should be used. All crop residuesand farm wastes like green loppings, crop residues, grasses, cowdung slurry, poultry droppings etc. available on the farm can berecycled through composting, including vermicomposting so thatsoil fertility is maintained at high level. No synthetic chemicalfertilizers, pesticides or fungicides ar e allowed under or ganicsystem. Farmyard manure may be applied @ 5-10 kg/vine alongwith vermi/ leaf compost @ 5-10 kg/vine based on the age of thevine. Based on soil test, application of lime/dolomite, r ockphosphate/ bone meal and wood ash may be done to get requiredquantity of phosphorus and potassium supplementation. Whenthe deficient conditions of trace elements become yield limiting,restricted use of mineral/chemical sources of micronutrients andmagnesium sulphate are allowed as per the limits of standar dsetting or certifying or ganizations. Further, supplementation ofoil cakes like neem cake (1 kg/vine), composted coir pith (2.5 kg/vine) or composted cof fee pulp rich in potassium and suitable

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microbial cultures of Azospirillum and phosphate solubilizingbacteria will improve the fertility.

Use of biopesticides, biocontrol agents, cultural andphytosanitary measures for the management of insect pests anddiseases forms the main strategy under or ganic system.Management of pollu beetle by Neemgold (0.6%) spray at 21 dayintervals during July-October, shade regulation and that of scaleinsects by removing severely infected branches and sprayingNeemgold (0.6%) or fish oil r osin (3%) are recommended.

Application of biocontr ol agents like Trichoderma orPseudomonas multiplied in suitable carrier media such as cof feehusk/ coir pith compost, well r otten cow dung or quality neemcake may be done regularly to keep the foot rot disease in check.To control fungal pollu and other foliar diseases spraying ofBordeaux mixture 1% may be done restricting the quantity to 8kg copper per hectar e per annum. Application of quality neemcake mentioned earlier along with the bioagents Pochoniachlamydosporia will be useful to check the nematode populationand thereby slow decline disease.

Certification

Certification and labeling is usually done by an independentbody to provide a guarantee that the pr oduction standards aremet. Govt. of India has taken steps to have indigenous certificationsystem to help small and mar ginal growers and to issue validorganic certificates through certifying agencies accr edited byAPEDA. The inspectors appointed by the certification agencieswill carry out inspection of the farm operations thr ough recordsmaintained and by periodic site inspections. The gr ower has todocument all the details with r espect to Field map, Field historysheet, Activity register, Input record, Output record, Harvestrecord, Storage record, Pest control records, Movement record,Equipments cleaning r ecord and Labelling r ecords etc.Documentation of farm activities is must for acquiring certificationespecially when both conventional and or ganic crops are raised.Group certification programmes are also available for or ganizedgroup of producers and processors with similar pr oductionsystems located in geographical pr oximity.

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Harvesting and processing

In Kerala, black pepper flowers during May-June. The cr op isready for harvest in 6-8 months from flowering. The harvest seasonextends from November to January in the plains and January toMarch in the hills. During harvesting the whole spike is handpicked when one or two berries in the spike turn bright orange.The berries are separated from the spikes and dried in the sun for7-10 days. The optimum moistur e content in dried pepper toprevent mould attack is 8-10%. The berries can be separatedmanually or mechanically using threshers. Threshers withcapacities varying between 0.5 to 1.5 tons per hour are available.This enhances speedy and hygienic separation of black pepperberries. When dried, the berries retain the characteristic wrinkledappearance of black pepper of commerce. The fresh berries ar edipped in hot water for a minute befor e drying in the sun whichresults in an attractive black colour and also reduces the dryingtime. The recommended drying surfaces ar e bamboo mat coatedwith fenugreek paste, cement floor and high density blackpolythene which gives better appearance and cleanliness to thedried product. Mechanical driers such as copra drier , convectiondrier and cascade type driers can also be employed for drying.The optimum temperature to be maintained in mechanical driersshould be around 60ºC.

The white pepper of commerce is prepared either from freshlyharvested berries or dried black pepper using special techniquessuch as retting, steaming and decortication. The recovery of whitepepper from ripe pepper berries is about 25%. W ater steeping isthe most popular technique for preparing white pepper in whichripe pepper berries are soaked in water for 8-10 days and the outerskin is removed, washed and sun dried. The berries of Panniyur-1 are ideal to prepare white pepper.

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Black pepper (Extension Pamphlet)

Contributors

Sasikumar, B, Thankamani, C. K, Srinivasan, V,Devasahayam, S, Santhosh J Eapen, Suseela Bhai, R.and John Zacharaiah, T.

Editors

Thankamani, C.K., Srinivasan V, Dinesh, R,Santhosh J Eapen, Rajeev, P

Publisher

V. A. Parthasarathy, Director, Indian Institute of Spices Resear ch

October 2008

Cover

A.Sudhakaran

Printed at

Niseema Printers & Publishers, Kochi - 18