1Water Resources Planning and ManagementNAME :BAGARAGAZA ROMUALD

UNIVERSITY :Hohai UniversitySTUDENT NUMBER :M2014028

PAPER:WATER PROBLEM IN RWANDACOLLEGE: WATER CONSERVANCY AND HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING

AbstractThis Work analyze the impact of the watercrisis in Rwanda, where the lack of access to safe waterincreases mortality rates, especially due to exposure towater-borne diseases. The multi-faceted nature of thewater crisis is discussed in relation to its impact on healthand development. The five major causes of the water crisiswill be evaluated, consisting of poor management of waterresources, population growth and urbanization, droughtsand floods that will become increasingly detrimental withfuture climate change, water contamination, and a lack ofeducation about safe water consumption. The impact ofthese major contributors will be discussed in detail afterthe presentation of a brief literature review and someempirical background of Rwanda. This work closes withsome solutions to reduce the short-term and long-termimpacts. .

keywords:Rwanda,EWSA; water crisis, runoff;delineatewatershed.

I. INTRODUCTION

Water is an abundant resource in Rwanda withvast potential for development. The water resourcesconstitute 101 lakes, hundereds of rivers, marshlandsand groundwater. Due to its relief and its location in theAfrican Great Lakes region, Rwanda has a very densehydrological network. This network is divided into twomain drainage basins; the Nile Basin to the east covering67 percent of the land area in Rwanda and delivering90 percent of Rwandas national water resource; and theCongo Basin to the west which covers 33 percent ofthe land area and contains the remaining 10 percent ofnational waters all of which drain into the Congo Basinsystem via Lake Kivu (figure 1). At present it is notclear what volume of water is pumped out of the riversand exploited for various needs.(Warnest June 2011)

Figure 1 :Water Basin in RwandaThe lack of access to clean water is one of themain perpetuators of poverty and inequality in manydeveloping countries due to the harmful, and often fatal,implications for health, as well as the highly restrictiveeffects on economic growth(Billman December 2014).Rwanda has a smaller population of 11.5 million, itfaces similar problems as 31 percent of their population,or 3.4 million, lack access to clean water and about3,000 children die each year from diarrhea caused by alack of access to safe water and an inadequate sanitation.Rain is not uncommon in Rwanda, so the main problemis not water supply, but the collection, storage, andcatchment systems to capitalize on Rwandas naturalsources of water.Decentralization is currently a main focus of theGovernment of Rwanda to delegate responsibilities tocommunities in an attempt to increase self-sufficiency.It has also been found that an increase in water ratescan be afforded by many urban payers, which couldthen finance measures to alleviate the lack of cleanwater access by poor communities(Billman December2014).

II. BRIEF LITERATURE REVIEW

Given the deep and long lasting water problemsin Rwanda, The following summaries cover someof the more scientific and analytical publications(MUNYANEZA November, 2013). The treatmentof water with sodium hypochlorite (chemical watertreatment), a safe storage of household water inimproved clay pots, and other behavioral changetechniques.About one third of the communities adopted chemicalwater treatment and 18.5 percent adopted the use ofthe newly innovated clay pots for a safer water storage.The chemical treatment solutions were sold at 0.33 USdollars and the modified clay pots were sold at 2.53 USdollars (the equivalent to about 3 to 4 days wage formost individuals).

A significant finding was the importance of marketingand promotional activities in encouraging the adoptionof these new techniques. Social marketing toolswere crucial such as posters, brochures, T-shirts,skits, dancing and visual art performances, athletictournaments, health promoters, educational quizzeswith prizes, and various other incentives to attractattention to the new implementations and their overallimportance(Kumar 2013). Sustainability would requirecontinual monitoring of the safe water and storagepractices as well as active promotion of the newinnovations, community mobilization, and constantaccess to the products.

The results of successful implementation techniques inthis project can be applied to other areas of safe wateraccess and implementation in the future.

(UN-Water/Africa March 2007) examine a school-based safe water intervention program that wasconducted in Nyanza Province in Western Rwandain 2006 to reduce the occurrence of diarrhea and toincrease knowledge about safe water and hygienepractices. Initial and final evaluations of almost 400students and their parents were collected and utilized fordetermining the effectiveness of school-based health andawareness programs on home practices. Improvementswere observed as there was an increase from 21 to 65percent of students who became more knowledgeableof correct water treatment procedures and knowingwhen to wash their hands as it is known as (Kandagiraukarabe).

The data gathered from the intervention program

supports the conclusion that school-based safe waterand hygiene programs are effective in improving schooland home environments, increasing awareness andknowledge of safe practices, changing behavior in thehome through knowledge transfer from teachers tostudents to parents, and reducing absenteeism(WaterAid2010).

Such programs could therefore improve safe wateraccess and practices in schools with few latrines,insufficient water supplies, poor quality of watersources, water storage containers that are susceptibleto contamination, and a lack of hand washing stations.The reduction of diarrheal diseases can increaseschool attendance and physical wellbeing, ultimatelyleading to cleaner, more educated, and more prosperouscommunities.

Sullivan et al. (2003) discuss the development andapplication of the Water Poverty Index (WPI) in relationto implications for local and national policymaking,interventions, and the prioritization of aid. Target 10of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is to halveby 2015 the proportion of people without sustainableaccess to safe drinking water, and the WPI is a meansof providing governments and agencies with accurateand transparent information regarding the progress andproblems of a country water needs. The WPI takesinto consideration resources (availability of water),access (distance to safe sources), capacity (effectivenessof water management), use (domestic, agricultural,and industrial uses), and environment (integrity andecosystem goods).

Reliance on the WPI can help to monitor progresstowards accomplishing the water target, and externaldonor assistance can be targeted towards countries andcommunities in which their contribution will have thegreatest impact.

As Falkenmark and Widstrand (1992) explain in aPopulation Bulletin, rapid population growth in poorcountries has a major impact on the water crisis in thosecountries. The climate, geography, soil type, latitude,and vegetation of different African countries affectwater availability and distribution as well as humanactivities such as deforestation, agricultural practices,air pollution, irrigation, and population growth.

Poor countries remain in a constant state of deprivationdue to inadequate water resource management, poorsanitation, scanty hygiene, and a lack of family planning;

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and all these problems tend to perpetuate poverty.

To improve access to safe water, there must be animplementation of better management to increasewater accessibility and efficient use in the long-term,the establishment of cooperation between local andinternational governments and industries, and policiesaimed towards reducing fertility rates to reduce thedemographic forces fueling the water crisis.The changesin water supplies from 1967 to 1997 in variousEast African urban communities were examined byThompson et al. (2000).

Both low and high-income communities (receivingboth piped and un-piped sources of water) wereexamined. Thompson et al. found that water supplieshad deteriorated in most locations from 1967 to 1997because they received less water per day, spent moretime collecting water, and paid higher prices. Familieswithout piping receive their water from unprotectedsources such as springs, seeps, streams, rivers, and lakesand are prone to water shortages in dry seasons as wellas higher rates of contamination in wet seasons.

III. EMPIRICAL BACKGROUNDRwanda gained independence from Belgium in 1962.

The Hutu genocide of Tutsis in 1994 was followedby the Tutsi Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) gainingpower in the following year. The first post-genocideelections were held in 1999 and the country joinedthe Commonwealth (a voluntary association of 53independent countries) in 2009.

Rwanda is located in Central Africa and has anarea of 24,670 sq km, of which only 96.25 sq kmare irrigated (CIA, 2014b). As of 2005, about 17.25m3 of freshwater per person per year were withdrawnfrom Rwandan water sources (CIA, 2014b). Agricultureaccounts for about one third of total GDP, andagricultural land constituted 81 percent of the total landin 2009 (World Bank, 2013).

After the 1994 genocide the Government set up adevelopment agenda that was people-centred and aimedat providing basic needs to the population. This includedthe provision of decent housing and the mobilization ofcitizens to participate in reconstruction activities. Thesuccess in improving settlements across the country (theImidugudu plan) has had a multiplier effect on manyother Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets,including access to water and sanitation(WaterAid 2010).

The Rwandan Government has committed to reachingambitious targets in water supply and sanitation, withthe vision to attain 100 percent service coverage by2020. The importance of adequate water supply andsanitation services as drivers for social and economicdevelopment, poverty reduction and public health isfully acknowledged in Rwandas main policy documents.

The national policy sets out the sectors contributionto achieving Rwandas Vision 2020, the MDGs andEconomic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy(EDPRS) targets. To accelerate the move towards thenational 2020 targets of 100 percent access to watersupply and sanitation country wide, Rwanda adopteda 7-year programme to achieve 100 percent accessto improved water supply and sanitation facilities by2017. To monitor progress, the Government establisheda Management Information System (MIS), through theEnergy, Water and Sanitation Authority (EWSA), whichhas been functional since 2012.

IV. CAUSES OF THE WATER CRISISIn order to implement effective solutions to the

water crisis in Rwanda, the major causes must firstbe understood. This section analyzes the five majorcauses: poor management of water resources, populationgrowth and urbanization, climate change (droughts,floods, and increases in temperature and rainfall), watercontamination (particularly in urban slums), and littleeducation about water treatment and safety. Areas offocus in implementing solutions are also outlined whenapplicable.

IV.1 Management of Water ResourcesA report by the World Resources Institute (1994)demonstrated that the availability of freshwatersources has been declining in many Sub-SaharanAfrica countries, including Rwanda. It was foundthat freshwater availability per capita was 843 m3 inRwanda, as compared to the global standard of 1000m3, and projections indicated that those levels woulddrop to 235 m3 per capita by 2025 if no correctivemeasures are taken.

The lack of clear policies on water resource managementhas served to perpetuate the poor water availabilityconditions despite goal to supply water to Rwanda isVision 2020 to supply water to the entire populationby 2020 (Rwandas Management Information System,2012).

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Despite attempts by various organizations to improvewater availability, Figure 2 shows that Rwanda hasexperienced a reduction from 66 to 65 percent ofthe population with access to an improved watersource. However, unlike Rwanda. There are significantdifferences in improvements between rural and urbanpopulations from 1990 to 2010. The percentage of therural population decreased in Rwanda from 64 to 63percent.

Figure 2 :Improved water sources in Rwanda

To correct failed policy reforms and watermanagement, other challenges must also be addressedin management approaches in order to take steps towardlong-term improvement (Sano, 2012). Such challengesare as follows:a)Insufficient funding and decreasing allocations ofthe government development budget for water andsanitation.b)Disparities in access to water in both rural and urbanareas.c)Low sustainability of water supply services inrural areas in conjunction with high infrastructurerehabilitation costs.d)High water tariffs in rural areas and water tariffs inurban areas that do not reflect operation and maintenancecosts.e)Unplanned settlements in both urban and rural areasresulting in difficulty in reaching the entire population.

An evident factor in many of the aforementionedchallenges is population growth and urbanization, as itaffects the population proportions in rural and urbanareas.

IV.2 Population Growth and Urbanization

Rwanda have experienced large levels of populationgrowth in the past 40 years, which has negativelyimpacted the water crisis. From 1970 to 2011,the population of Rwanda increased from about4 million to 11 million, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 :Total Population in Rwanda, 1970-2011Not only have the populations grown, but also activeurbanization in which a proportion of the ruralpopulation has migrated into urban cities. For instance,from 1970 to 2011 the percentage of the population thatlived in rural areas decreased from 97 to 81 percent inRwanda (World Bank, 2013).The increased concentration of people in urban areashas resulted in unplanned housing in cities, raising thecost of water treatment. Population growth in generalhas had major implications in both rural and urbansettlements because not only are there more individualswho need access to water, but unplanned settlementsthat account for the increasing population also lead to agreater number of areas that lack access to establishedwater systems (African Development Bank Group,2012).

IV.3 Climate Change: Droughts, Increases inTemperature and Rainfall

Rwanda is dependent on rain-fed agriculture forrural sustainability and certain exports (such as tea andcoffee), and half of its electricity is hydro powered.During the rainy seasons from February to May andNovember to December, it is predicted that rainfallcould increase by 20 percent by 2050, thus causinglandslides, loss of crops, health risks, and damage toinfrastructure (Republic of Rwanda, 2011). Figure 4shows the current precipitation rates in Rwanda, butlarger areas surrounding regions of high precipitation

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could become more affected in future years by increasesin flooding during the rainy season.

Figure 4 :Average Annual Precipitation in Rwanda(mm)Floods leads to severe impacts on Rwandan communitiesbecause cause floods that lead to damage andcontamination of water sources. Simultaneous increasesin temperature can also lead to vector-borne andwater-borne diseases, leading to increased health risksfor humans and animals, decreases in crop yields, andnegative impacts in the export sector of the economy(Government of Rwanda, 2011).

Some specific impacts of climate variability havebeen catchment degradation (which increases erosionand run-off), the drying up of rivers, receding lake levels,significant siltation of dams meant for hydropower andwater supplies, and the deterioration of water quality(Ministry of Water and Irrigation, 2006). In order tobecome more resilient to climate changes, the followingissues must be focused on in Rwanda:

1)Irrigation Infrastructure2) Stronger Road Networks3) Center for Climate Knowledge and Development

Although the water crisis is heavily focused on thelack of a sufficient amount of water, another key aspectis water quality. Water contamination is a major issuein many urban slums due to the close proximity ofwells (from which water for household use is drawn)and pit latrines (holes dug into the ground into whichexcrement falls).

The short distances between the wells and latrinesallow bacteria and other micro-organisms to invade

the water sources from the nearby latrines, resultingin contamination of communal water sources (Kimani-Murage and Ngindu, 2007).

In one study done in Rwanda by(Namuwaya, 2012),192 households were selected and 31 shallow wellswere tested, along with 4 deep wells and 5 taps (nearbykiosks). The World Health Organization (WHO) definesacceptable standards for drinking water as water inwhich there are no traces of E.coli or coliform bacteria.

However, about one-third of the children wereaccustomed to excreting openly on the ground andmany of the wells did not have adequate coveragefor protection, resulting in the contamination of thewells from run-off of the excrement in the presenceof rain. There could have been additional sources ofcontamination, such as contact between the childrensdirty possessions and the water, withdrawing water withunsanitary containers, deposits of animal excrementnear the wells, and the use of wells to wash clothes.

IV.4 Lack of EducationOne of the root causes of the contraction of water-bornediseases is the lack of education about clean waterand water treatment. Many individuals in developingcountries use whatever water sources that are available,due to the lack of adequate resources as well as thelack of knowledge about the implications of drinkingunsafe water.

OReilly et al. (2007) described the result of theintervention as an increase in knowledge of correctwater treatment from 21 to 65 percent of students,in conjunction with an increase in the percentage ofparents who claimed to be treating their water.

V. CONCLUSIONRwanda is significantly impacted by the water crisis

due to factors such as poor management of waterresources, population growth and urbanization, climatechange (that involves more droughts during the dryseason, more floods during the rainy season, andincreases in temperature), water contamination, andeducation about water treatment and safety. Changesin policy implementation and construction of morewidespread and strengthened infrastructure can help toreduce the impacts of low water availability and poormanagement.

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In Rwanda, A renewed focus on the importanceof education for girls is essential to reduce fertilityrates further and stabilize the population. Servicesto assist in family planning will also contribute toreducing population growth further, and thus heightenedemphasis must be placed on the future educational andinformational services for female children.

Finally, until long-term management, policy, andinfrastructure changes can be made, short-term solutionsmust be employed. Such short-term solutions consistof educational awareness about safe water drinkingand treatment habits, increased availability of chemicalwater treatments, and an increased provision of clay potsfor safer water storage along with filtration systems toclean drinking water. These relatively simple solutionswill not only serve to reduce naivety to the water crisis,but they will also minimize the incidences of watercontamination and contraction of harmful and fataldiseases.

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Rwanda. Global Majority e Journal

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[13] Sano, James (edited by Joanna Esteves Mills, BethlehemMengistu and Nshuti Rugerinyange (WaterAid), and Richard Watts(Development Finance International)) (2012). Financing of theWater, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector in Rwanda

[14] World Bank (2013). World Development Indicators / Global De-velopment Finance database (Washington, DC: The World Bank); asposted on the World Bank website: http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/ (downloaded on April 3, 2013).

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