Countering Poaching in Tanzania

White Paper for the Government of Tanzania

Prepared by:

People and Wildlife, Ltd.

Kyle Simon, Mahmut Guler and Rachel Coolican

December 3, 2014

Comparative Foreign Policy

Professor Matt Bonham

People and Wildlife, Ltd.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Executive Summary………………………………………………...……………….…… 3

II. Background ……………………………………………………………………...….…… 4

III. Pilot Program Parameters and Recommendations ……………….………….………..…. 7

a. Implementation …………………………………………………………………....… 8

i. Security Sector Reform ……………………………….…………..………..... 8

ii. Stricter Legal Reform ……………………………………………………… 10

iii. Recommended Location and Timing……………………………………….. 11

iv. Local Empowerment and Sustainability ………………...…………………. 12

IV. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….…….. 14

V. Appendix A ………………………………………………………………………..…… 15

VI. Appendix B …………………………………………………………………………….. 16

VII. References ……………………………………………………………………………… 17

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Countering Poaching in Tanzania

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Wildlife poaching in Tanzania is currently a major threat to the sustainment of endangered

animal populations, as well as the health of the country’s economy. While the Tanzanian

government has recognized this, previous policies attempting to mitigate this problem have all

met an early end due to problems associated with corruption, a lack of professional security

forces, and instances of human rights violations. In response to the Tanzanian Government’s

need to implement an effective and maintainable anti-poaching campaign, People and Wildlife,

Ltd. recommends a comprehensive pilot program labeled “Operation Walinzi Pori” that focuses

on adopting security sector improvements, continuing local sustainability efforts, and

implementing a stricter legislative agenda that counters the illegal extraction of wildlife

resources. These recommendations emphasize the importance of engaging existing NGO

networks, African institutions, and international partners to begin these reforms and ensure that

the proposed measures are feasible in a regional context. In the wake of a successful pilot, this

operation may be implemented nation-wide to aid the Tanzanian Government in securing its eco-

tourism sector.

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II. BACKGROUND

Africa has undergone destruction of wildlife populations since its colonization. In the modern

era, elephants and rhinoceros are particularly vulnerable due to the booming and lucrative illicit

international trade in ivory and rhinoceros horn. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw large

elephant massacres throughout the continent’s game preserves. Today, one third of all elephants

poached in Africa, are killed in Tanzania.1 No country is more dependent on its ecotourism than

Tanzania; and no country has a more serious poaching problem. Ecotourism comprises 20% of

the country’s economy,2 with tourists flocking from all over the world to observe Tanzania’s

natural majesty.

Poaching also poses implications for Tanzania’s national security. The threat involves

transnational actors and criminal networks violating Tanzanian sovereignty. Furthermore,

counter-poaching campaigns typically involve military efforts and diverting the resources of the

country’s security apparatus from other endeavors. The same networks that transport ivory and

rhinoceros horn are also suspected of involvement in the global trafficking of narcotics,

weapons, and humans. Many destabilizing movements in Africa, such as Joseph Kony’s Lord’s

Resistance Army, Al-Shabaab in Somalia, and Boko Haram in Nigeria, fund their activities

through poaching revenues or the illicit trafficking of wildlife parts. 3

Anti-poaching operations have played a crucial role for the survival of endangered animal

populations in Africa, but they have been more successful in some countries than others.

Tanzania has conducted two large-scale operations to date. After increased poaching activity in

the 1980s, The Tanzanian government implemented Operation Uhai (Swahili for Life). With

strong political will and the deployment of paramilitary forces including military, police, and

wildlife department officials, the 1989 initiative was successful in curbing poaching in Tanzania,

with a subsequent rebound in critical animal populations. Elephant numbers in the Selous game

area increased from 32,000 to 67,000 within a decade following Uhai.4 Between two and three

thousand people related to illegal poaching were arrested during the operation.5 Another reason

for the decline of ivory poaching in this period was the enforcement of a 1989 ivory trade ban

under The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

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Countering Poaching in Tanzania

(CITES)6, as well as increased security measures in Tanzania’s National Parks and Game

Reserves.7

Unfortunately, poaching has been a rising trend again in recent years. Since 2007, the country’s

elephant population has decreased by half, with some predictions that the country will lose the

species entirely within another seven years.8 Selous,9 which boasts the second largest number of

elephants in Africa, held 38,975 elephants in 2009.10 Despite some counter-poaching

initiatives,11 25,000 of them were killed by 2013.12

In response to the new poaching threat, fueled by emerging ivory and rhinoceros horn markets in

Asia, Tanzania implemented Operation Tokomeza (Swahili for annihilate) in 2013. Armed

forces, police, forestry officials and other law enforcement units participated. However, the

security forces exceeded their authority, killing at least 13 innocent people, making more than

1,000 questionable arrests, and were implicated in some instances of torture and rape. 13 This

misuse of power transformed an operation, began with the best of intentions, into an

embarrassment for the government and a nightmare for the country’s rural populations. Thus,

authorities suspended Tokomeza following international pressure and a parliament report

confirming human rights violations. The president additionally dismissed four government

ministers in the wake of Tokomeza’s failures.14

Operation Tokomeza demonstrated, however, that paramilitary campaigns in the country’s game

parks can achieve the intended benefits. Despite its many failings, the operation brought notable

successes. In October 2013, when Tokomeza was in full effect, there were only two elephants

poached nation-wide, compared with an average 30 poached per day between 1976 and 2009.15

Law enforcement agencies conducted effective ivory seizures and prosecuted criminals.

According to Tanzania’s Chief Justice, courts were processing more than 516 cases of poaching

by June 2014. Unfortunately, if not arranged and executed properly and efficiently by

government agencies, the success these campaigns achieve carries the grave potential of

undermining their stated goals, as evidenced by the aforementioned problems associated with

Tokomeza.16 Indeed, Tanzania saw 60 known poaching cases in the two months following

Tokomeza’s suspension.17

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Another lesson learned from Tokomeza is that lack of transparency and accountability facilitates

corruption and misuse of power by officials, creating an attitude suspicious of anti-poaching

initiatives in local communities.18 Implementation of an initiative with more transparency and

accountability can limit corruption and build trust with the public, while answering the poaching

threat.

Political determination and public will is the key in successful country-wide operations targeting

poaching. The criminal actions of counter-poachers dissolved any public support the operation

might otherwise have had. It is important, additionally, to understand that in this sense, national

and international media coverage play an important role.

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Countering Poaching in Tanzania

III. PILOT PROGRAM PARAMETERS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

People and Wildlife, Ltd. concurs with the voices in Tanzania’s government seeking to re-launch

a paramilitary counter-poaching campaign in the vein of Tokomeza. We additionally recommend

other measures in conjunction with the new campaign. We propose an initiative dubbed,

“Operation Walinzi Pori” (Swahili for Wild Guard). Walinzi Pori should be modeled in part on

Tokomeza’s successes in curbing illegal activities, while incorporating measures meant to

prevent recurrence of the prior operation’s failures. It has great potential to again limit the illicit

exploitation, extraction, and trafficking of wildlife parts in Tanzania. Our recommendations

center on better security, as well as development and governance-related initiatives to augment

the initiative, mitigatingthe probability of a repeat of Tokomeza’s problems. Our recommended

measures are synergistic—empowering both government entities and the local citizenry in a

fashion we believe will prove mutually beneficial to local populations in affected areas, as well

as the Tanzanian government and populace as a whole. We urge Tanzania’s leadership to work

through the country’s legislative systems to establish more effective laws targeting corruption

among government officials, and to enhance the country’s security forces’ capabilities and

professionalism.

One additional note bears mention before the specifics of our policy recommendations are

discussed. While our opinion is that implementing these recommendations can significantly curb

poaching in the target region, the ultimate eradication of illicit trafficking in wildlife parts

involves needed reform that extends far beyond the borders of Tanzania. Until demand in Asian

markets for illegal ivory and rhinoceros horn is eliminated, poachers will find ways to illegally

extract illicit goods from Africa. We believe, however, that our policy recommendations,

modeled on countries with more effective anti-poaching campaigns than Tanzania presently

executes, can limit the appalling rate of extraction of the country’s vital natural resources. These

recommendations are components of a partial solution. It is doubtful that, until global demand

for illicit wildlife parts subsides, any program will prevent 100% of poaching incidences.

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Implementation

People and Wildlife recommends a robust new anti-poaching campaign, initially structured as a

pilot program, based on the parameters described below. Broadly speaking, they include security

sector reform, empowerment of local populations while seeking their assistance, and new

legislative / legal measures. We also offer suggestions regarding when and where the pilot

program should be imposed.

A. SECURITY SECTOR REFORM

This is the core of People and Wildlife’s recommendations. A capable military, respectful of

local populations’ human rights, can work wonders in the curbing of poaching activity in Africa.

Before Walinzi Pori is implemented, People & Wildlife, Ltd. suggests two important courses of

action grounded in other successful campaigns in neighboring African countries: (1) increased

professionalization of the military, facilitated by NGOs familiar with counter-poaching, and (2)

training in the importance and value of human rights, facilitated by requesting assistance from

the United States Africa Command (AFRICOM).

Professionalizing Tanzania’s Security Apparatus

It is important for those unfamiliar with the poaching problem in Tanzania (and throughout

Africa, for that matter) to understand that poaching and counter-poaching alike do not involve

isolated acts of individuals acting alone, independent of material support or assistance from other

entities. Poaching is a highly funded and militarized activity. Poachers tend to move in groups

carrying not only large-bore rifles for taking down big game, but automatic military-style

weapons as well, to fend off security officials and park rangers. Similarly, counter-poachers also

work in teams utilizing advanced weaponry and tactics. To the uninitiated, poaching and

counterpoaching activities in Africa are much more akin to guerilla warfare than to small-scale

poaching, as it exists in other parts of the world. Indeed, there are even incidents of poaching

involving shooting from helicopters.

To this end, P&W recommends increased professionalization and tactical training of units to be

involved in the initiative. Given the relatively small size of the area we will propose for the pilot

program, P&W recommends that two companies worth of light infantry soldiers deploy this

June, following several weeks of train-up covering small unit tactics, maneuver under fire, light

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arms familiarization, and first aid. Tanzania’s military is among the more capable in Africa.

However, given prior hindrances in counter-poaching campaigns, People and Wildlife, Ltd.

recommends increased funding, as well as seeking the help of outside agencies that can assist in

enhancing these capabilities.

Because many states attach conditions on material military support, People and Wildlife, Ltd.

recommends utilizing assistance from NGOs with this expertise. One possibility is to seek

assistance from an Australian NGO, the International Anti-Poaching Foundation. Among this

organization’s advisory committee is Dr. Jane Goodall, famed primate researcher and

conservationist. In South Africa, IAPF is developing a multi-tiered program called Anti-

Poaching Ranger, which trains state officials on various paramilitary tactics, techniques, and

procedures that likely would be useful in Tanzania, as well. People and Wildlife, Ltd. expects

that IAPF or similar organizations would be more than eager to assist the Tanzanian government

given appropriate compensation. In time, and with this support, it is a reasonable expectation that

Tanzanian security forces will achieve a higher degree of capability in counter-poaching

operations.

Additional force multipliers should also be considered. For instance, Kenya recently began

drone operations to monitor vulnerable animal populations within its borders. Similar measures

would likely prove beneficial in Tanzania.

Prevention of Human Rights Abuses

Tokomeza’s biggest failure was the blatant violation of human rights despite otherwise

successful counter-poaching operations. It is important that those agents of the state seeking to

curb poaching be reminded that they ultimately serve the people of Tanzania. While military aid

from such entities as the United States often comes with a myriad of stipulations, training in the

respect of populations served does not. Following a defeat by M23 Rebels in the Democratic

Republic of Congo, Congolese security forces committed a number of human rights violations in

Goma during their retreat to the Congolese interior. Not long after, the United States and the

DRC partnered for human rights training of Congolese soldiers. The United States’ Africa

Command is a new U.S. combatant command, still seeking in some ways to define its role and

scope on the continent, all within the auspices of “build[ing] defense capabilities, respond[ing] to

crisis, and deter[ing] and defeat[ing] transnational threats in order to advance U.S. national

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interests and promote regional security, stability, and prosperity.”19 People and Wildlife, Ltd.

assesses an opportunity for mutual benefit between Tanzania and the United States. It is

conceivable that were Tanzania to seek human rights training for its Soldiers, covering escalation

of force measures, positive identification of legitimate combatants (in this case poachers), and

respecting and preserving lives of the innocent, the American command would oblige.

B. STRICTER LEGAL REFORM

The recent alleged case of a Chinese state plane exiting the country laden with ivory illustrates

the unfortunate reality that this problem involves officials at varying levels of both the

Tanzanian, and foreign governments. Additional allegations have circulated of occasional

instances of official collusion with poachers or traffickers in other ways. People and Wildlife,

Ltd. therefore encourages Tanzanian leaders to seek to implement legislation to the following

ends to help curb the poaching problem. If the current political climate will not facilitate

nationwide adoption of such legislation, we urge, at a minimum, to establish these measures in

the vicinity of the pilot program:

Mandate longer-term prison sentences for those convicted of poaching crimes.

Establish stiff financial penalties for those found to facilitate movement of illicit wildlife

goods, including customs officials and other government personnel.

Withdraw diplomatic privilege for diplomats and other foreign government personnel,

traveling on both diplomatic and official passports, exiting the country (i.e.—subject

diplomats to the same search protocol as civilian passport holders).

Severe penalties for security force members deemed to have committed human rights

violations in their course of duty.

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Countering Poaching in Tanzania

C. RECOMMENDED LOCATION AND TIMING

Where? Tarangire National Park (See Appendix A)

Wildlife in Tanzania is spread through more than a dozen wildlife refuges and reserves

nationwide. These parks attract tourists and poachers alike. Given the country’s expanse and the

need to evaluate the effectiveness of our proposed measures, People and Wildlife, Ltd.

recommends the pilot program commence in an area that encompasses conditions ripe for

poaching – not only by criminals and illicit traders—but by farmers who kill animals whose

activities disrupt local agricultural practices. These rural populations are also most vulnerable to

the types of atrocities committed during Tokomeza. After careful research and deliberation,

People and Wildlife, Ltd. recommends the government of Tanzania implement the proposed pilot

along the northeast edge of the Tarangire National Park, specifically around the Tarangire-

Siranjiro migratory corridor.20

Tarangire is a uniquely suitable location to implement trial anti-poaching initiatives for several

reasons. Most importantly, the northern safari circuit, consisting of multiple preserves and game

lands, gathers a high portion of foot and vehicular traffic from tourists, farmers, and poachers,

due to predictable annual migrations across the area. Poachers also frequent the area due to easy

access to the Kenyan border and the capital city of the Arusha region, Arusha City. Both

facilitate easy transportation in and out of Tanzania.21 The Tarangire also is home to substantial

numbers of elephants. Because ivory is among the most lucrative targets for poachers, an area

with a large elephant population is of critical importance to any trial anti-poaching campaign.

When? At Peak Animal Population

The best time of year to monitor the wildlife in the area, and by extension, to implement the

pilot, is between June and October. This recommendation is based on seasonal weather

conditions that induce migration into the park between June and July, and support large animal

populations through the spring, which in Tanzania, ends in December.22

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D. LOCAL EMPOWERMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

In some cases, poaching is exacerbated when local populations in wildlife habitats conflict with

animals’ activities. The planting of crops, for instance, disrupts wildlife migrations and there

have been instances of poaching in response to elephant herds destroying or consuming crops.

The pastoral Maasai people of Tanzania were able to live in relative balance with wildlife for

generations, but recent population surges (almost double since 1990)23 have made land scarce for

farmers and have exacerbated the poaching problem in the area. A successful counter-poaching

initiative must take this reality into account. (See Appendix B).

NGO Partnering

A number of NGOs have been working in the region for decades to empower and assist in

sustainable development among indigenous communities in northern Tanzania. People and

Wildlife, Ltd. encourages Tanzania to leverage these initiatives during this anti-poaching

campaign. The following paragraphs recommend four specific NGOs and civil initiatives that

are currently aiding counter-poaching efforts in the region, and are recommended as continued

partners.

The Wildlife Conservation Society24 has taken measures to monitor the conditions of the various

migratory corridors around the Tarangire National Park. Specifically, they are currently working

with the local Massai communities to preserve existing wildlife corridors and provide economic

incentives that negate the necessity of cultivating the land for income, and the resultant killing of

wildlife that historically threatened crop yields.

The Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998 and revised in 2007) 25 was issued to establish Wildlife

Management Areas (WMAs) across Tanzania. Part of the policy enables local communities to

manage the protection of wildlife near their villages. In return, community members receive

social services. There are currently 38 of these programs across Tanzania. Our area of interest

(to be mentioned below), contains the Burunge WMA, consisting of ten districts that help to

preserve wildlife in exchange for services.

The African Wildlife Foundation 26 raises money to build “predator-proof bomas.” Bomas are

chain-link fence enclosures that protect livestock from predators overnight. This organization

recognizes the risks that wildlife poses on farmers’ livestock and crops. They also recognize the

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necessity of engaging locals in conservation efforts if they are to succeed. They are often too

expensive for villagers to build themselves. The construction of these structures has proven

successful, especially in deterring lions from attacking livestock.

The Honeyguide Foundation is a non-profit NGO that currently engages local populations,

including the Maasai, in efforts to build long-term community partnerships.27 They gather

information on events and conditions within relevant ecosystems. They highlight the relative

ease that poachers have because of the lack of strong security forces. Attacks often occur at

night, when animals are “disoriented from spotlights” and “gunned down at close range from

vehicles.”28

When to Destroy an Animal

This policy recommendation white paper has noted that in some cases poaching occurs when

locals kill animals that threaten their livelihood. While unfortunate, these instances do not

constitute the bulk of poaching and it would be inappropriate for the government of Tanzania to

overly-interfere in this way with citizens’ livelihood. In addition to the boma fencing measures

previously discussed, P&W poses the following recommendation regarding locals’ interaction

with endangered wildlife: Establish / maintain policies of limited and tightly controlled

destruction of problem animals, to include elephants, when necessary for community livelihood.

Local authorities only, when notified by the citizenry that a problem animal is in the vicinity,

may destroy an elephant threatening crops. Ivory must be immediately seized by authorities and

destroyed rather than sold in illicit markets. Audits of this arrangement should be conducted to

minimize chances of corruption or gaming the system. If ivory is not recovered, the situation

must be treated as a poaching incident. This parameter of the pilot ensures illicit markets are not

fed and cover for illegal traffickers is not given. Because these instances constitute such a small

minority of poaching, and it helps to incentivize local cooperation against poachers, People and

Wildlife, Ltd. believes it an appropriate measure as a part of a broader solution against organized

crime while not infringing on locals’ economic necessities.

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IV. CONCLUSION

The above recommendations, offered by People and Wildlife, Ltd. are aimed at meeting the

Tanzanian Government’s goals of implementing a successful counter-poaching program.

Because eco-tourism plays such an important role in the Tanzanian economy, it is important that

Operation Walinzi Pori incorporates empowerment of all involved parties and is

comprehensively and holistically pursued. Security, development, and governance-related

initiatives will provide for a more sustainable program, while limiting potential for human rights

violations and possible failure. Natural conditions suggest that Tarangire Park, in the winter

through spring, poses the best opportunity to evaluate the operation. People and Wildlife, Ltd. is

available to advise and assist the pilot program’s development and implementation, and to refine

it for more successful implementation on a broader scale pending its success.

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V. Appendix A29

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VI. Appendix B31

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References

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1 http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21631202-claims-links-between-politicians-and-poachers-merit-further-in. vestigation-big2 1 http://www.yesmagazine.org/planet/a-local-economy-solution-to-africa-s-poaching-problem 3Poe, T. (2014). How poaching fuels terrorism funding. CNN. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/22/opinion/poe-poaching-terrorism-funding/index.html4 Simon, B. (2010). Poaching is a retro fashion we can do without. The Times. Retrieved from http://www.sheldrickwildlifetrust.org/updates/updates.asp?ID=2525 Anjarwalla, N., et al., (2014).6 “CITES, entering into force in July 1975, sets the rules to arrange international trade of plant and animal species. (Retrieved from http://cites.org/eng/elephant_poaching_and_ivory_smuggling_figures_for_2013_released)7 Source: Tanzania Wildlife Research Institue (TAWIRI). Tanzania Elephant Management Plan 2010-2015. Retrieved from http://www.tawiri.or.tz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27&Itemid=368 http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/time-is-running-out-fast-for-tanzanias-elephant-herds-9044727.html9 The Selous ecosystem, located in southeast Tanzania spreads about 80,000 km2 area. TheSelous Game Reserve, Mikumi National Park, the Kilombero Game Controlled area, and land to thenorth, east and south of the Selous Game Reserve are significant part of this ecosystem. 10 TAWIRI. Tanzania Elephant Management Plan 2010-2015. Retrieved from http://www.tawiri.or.tz/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=27&Itemid=3611 Wildlife Division forces and police implemented two operations in 2010, which are Operation Kipepo targeting poaching in Selous Ecosystem and Operation Costa. (TAWIRI. Tanzania Elephant Management Plan 2010-2015.)12 Vira, V. and Ewing, T. (2014). Ivory’s Curse: The Militarization & Professionalization of Poaching in Africa. Born Free USA and c4ads. 13 EIU Country Analysis. (2014). Tanzania economy: Quick View - Elephant poaching on the rise again Jan 21, 2014. Retrieved Nov 08, 2014 from <http://news.alacrastore.com/eiu-news/Tanzania-economy-Quick-View-Elephant-poaching-on-the-rise-again-VW_VW_MAIN_20140121T164000_0002>14 The Citizen. 4 minister axed over ‘Tokomeza Ujangili’.(2013). Retrieved from http://www.thecitizen.co.tz/News/4-sacked-over-Tokomeza-Ujangili/-/1840392/2120620/-/7q8ff1/-/index.html 15 Tanzania economy: Quick View - Elephant poaching on the rise again. (2014).The Economist Intelligence Unit Country Analysis. Retrieved Nov 08, 2014 from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/1490801084?accountid=14214>16 Anjarwalla, N., et al., (2014).17 Tanzania economy: Quick View - Elephant poaching on the rise again. (2014).The Economist Intelligence Unit Country Analysis. Retrieved Nov 08, 2014 from <http://search.proquest.com/docview/1490801084?accountid=14214>18 Anjarwalla, N., et al., (2014).19 United States African Command. (n.d.). “What We Do.” Retrieved on Nov 17, 2014 from http://www.africom.mil/what-we-do 20 TAWIRI and Wildlife Conservation Society. (2014). “Tarangire – Simanjiro.” Tanzania Wildlife Corridors. Retrieved Nov. 09, 2013 from <http://www.tzwildlifecorridors.org/corridors/tarangire-simanjiro/> 21 Tanzania Odyssey. (n.d.). “Tarangire National Park.” Tanzania Odyssey: Specialists in Travel to Tanzania. Retrieved Nov. 11, 2014 from <http://www.tanzaniaodyssey.com/tanzania/tarangire>22 Weather conditions and visiting suggestions found at Rift Safari. “Traveling Along the Rift Valley: Tarangire National Park.” Rift Safari. Retrieved Nov 10, 2014 from <http://www.riftsafari.com/tarangire_en.html > 23 According to World Bank estimates24 The Wildlife Conservation Society. “Tarangire, Tanzania.” Retreived on Nov 20, 2014 from < http://www.wcs.org/>25 Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. (March 1998). “The Wildlife Policy of Tanzania.” Retrieved on Nov 14, 2014 from < http://www.tzonline.org/pdf/wildlifepolicy.pdf>26 African Wildlife Foundation (n.d.). “Maasai Steppe Predator-Proof Bomas.” AWF. Retrieved on Nov 14, 2014 from < http://www.awf.org/projects/maasai-steppe-predator-proof-bomas>27 Honeyguide Foundation. (2014). Accessed on Nov 06, 2014 from <http://www.honeyguide.org/>28 Honeyguide Foundation. (2014). “The Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem.” The Honeyguide Foundation. Retrieved on Nov 06, 2014 from <http://www.honeyguide.org/where-we-work/tarangire-manyara-ecosystem/>29Tanzania Odyssey. (n.d.). “Tarangire Map.” Tanzania Odyssey: Specialists in Travel to Tanzania. Retrieved Nov 11, 2014 from <http://www.tanzaniaodyssey.com/tanzania-map > 30 TAWIRI and Wildlife Conservation Society. (2014).31 African People and Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). “The Noloholo Environmental Center.” Retrieved on Nov 07, 2014 from< http://afrpw.org/noloholo-environmental-center/directions/>