PE Core 2 Print Out Summary

8/13/2019 PE Core 2 Print Out Summary

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Core 2: Factors affecting PerformanceHow does training affect performance?

Energy systems:alactacid system (ATP/PC) lactic acid system aerobic system

Source of fuel Creatine phosphate Carbohydrates in the form

of glucose in the blood

Carbohydrates, then fat,

then protein as a protein as

a last resort

Efficiency of ATP

production

-can occur without oxygen

present

-ATP is more readily available

-Supply of ATP is limited if

demand is too high

-provides ATP quickly

-but requires large

quantities of glucose

-Extremely efficient: can

produce much more energy

(from glucose) that the

other systems

- enabling us to continue

sustained work for longer

Duration that the

system can operate

10-12 secs of high intensity

activity at 100% max effort

30 seconds to 2 minutes 1 hour and more

(unlimited)

Cause of fatigue -At max effort, fatigue is caused

due to the inability of the system

to continually resynthesise ADP

from CP as CP stores are quickly

exhausted

-Fatigue occurs when lactic

acid builds up in the

muscles.

-High levels of lactic acid

prevents muscle fibres

contracting and in turn, a

rapid deterioration in

performance.

-Tolerable levels can be

used as a fuel

-activity after an hour can

result in glycogen

depletion, causing body to

tire.

-the point at which the

body tires is called hitting

the wall

By-products None Lactic Acid (can hinder

performance if not trained

to use as a fuel)

Carbon dioxide and water

(does not hinder

performance)

Process An explosive movement causes

ATP to split, providing energy for

muscular contraction. Further

muscular work relies on Creatine

phosphate breaking down and

releasing energy to drive free

phosphates back to ADP to form

ATP. Once reformed, it can

break down again for more

energy.

After 10-12 secs CP

supplies are exhausted. By

using immediate sugar

supplies in the blood

(Blood-sugar glucose) so

that ATP can still be

produced to provide

energy. (using a new

energy system)

Physical activity lasting

more than a few minutes

requires the presence of

oxygen to ensure the

continuation of muscular

contraction. The aerobic

pathway becomes the

dominant supplier of ATP.

(by breaking glucose and

fat in the presence of

oxygen to produce ATP)

Rate of recovery 2 mins (50% after 30 secs and

100% after 2 mins)

30 minutes to 1 hour (following glycogen

depletion) takes 24-48

hours- to replenish

glycogen stores

Example 100m sprint, long jump, high

jump

200m sprint, gymnastics

routine, 100m freestyle

Marathon, triathlon,

1500m swim, 5000m run

Glycogen sparing: training to save some glycogen for a sprint finish.

Types of Training and training methods


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Aerobic:increases the efficiency of the aerobic energy system and increases the ability of the body to deliver

and use oxygen.

Continuous:continual effort for 20 mins with no rest. Heart rate must rise above the aerobictraining threshold and maintained in the aerobic training zone.

Fartlek (speed play/training): adding bursts of speed to a continuous training session. No rests Aerobic interval: alternating periods of work and recovery. Rest allowed, but shorter than work time

so maintain stress on the aerobic system and not allow full recovery.

Circuit:moving from one station to another performing different exercise at each station. Can traincertain skills needed for a specific sport e.g. soccer. Can be both aerobic and anaerobic. Work period

more than rest period.

Anaerobic:uses the ATP/PC system and Lactic acid systems. Where training activities that require max effort

for less than two mins, where oxygen is not a limiting factor.

Anaerobic interval:Same as anaerobic, however rest periods are longer than work timeFlexibility: is the range of movement or motion about a joint. An athletes level of flexibility can be affected

by age, gender, temperature, exercise history.

Static:muscle is stretched and held in a fixed position for 10-20 secs Ballistic:muscle is stretched beyond its normal range of motion. characterised by bouncing. PNF:muscle is stretched and held in a static position, followed by an isometric contraction, followed

by another static stretch.

Dynamic:uses movement, speed and momentum to warm up muscle fibres to extend them.Strength training:

Free weights:are unrestrained or non-fixed, e.g. barbels. Fixed weights: are pin-operated and offer a wide range of safe movements Elastic:a resistance tube of elastic rubber Hydraulic machines/cylinders: is where the resistance is delivered by hydraulics.

Principles of training: Progressive overload: gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is

progressively increased. Once the body has adapted to the new load, the workload should be

increased to gain further improvements. Gains will not be made if the load is too high or too low.

Specificity:greatest gains are made when the game or activity resembles the training programbecause the body adapts to stresses in a specific way.

Reversibility:Just as the body can adapt and improve with training, the reverse can happen in theabsence of training. (detraining effect) If big gains are made during training, greater losses will

follow.

Variety:athletes require a variety in their training methods to avoid boredom and maximiseenjoyment.

Training threshold: improvements begin after a certain point. (aerobic threshold: is the minimumlevel of exercise intensity to cause an aerobic training effect- at 70% of max. heart rate) (anaerobic

threshold: when levels of lactate start accumulating) Working between the aerobic and anaerobic

thresholds they are working in the aerobic training zone.

Warm up and cool down:a warm up helps reduce the risk of injury, increases body temperature,stimulates the cardiorespiratory system and mentally prepares the athlete for training. A cool down

follows the session aiming to minimise stiffness, soreness and disperse lactic acid.

Physiological adaptations in response to training


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Resting heart rate: is the number of heart beats per minute while the body is at rest. The trainedathlete has a lower resting heart rate than the untrained as training decreases resting heart rate.

Stoke volume:is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle of the heart during a contraction.Measured in mL/beat.

Cardiac output:is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. It is determined bymultiplying the heart rate and stroke volume.

Oxygen uptake: is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being delivered. MaximalOxygen uptake or VO2max levels improve as a response to training, becoming more efficient after

training.

Lung capacity:is the amount of air that the lungs can hold. Lung volumes and capacities changelittle with training. Vital capacity(amt. of air expelled after maximal inspiration) increases slightly.

Residual volume; (air that cannot be moved out of the lungs) slight decrease. Following training tidal

volume(air breathes in and out during normal respiration) is unchanged at rest; however appears to

increase at max levels of exercise.

Haemoglobin level: is the substance in blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around thebody. Haemoglobin levels increase with training, and substantially at high altitude.

Muscle hypertrophy:refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells.Occurs when the training program stimulates activity in, muscle fibres causing them to grow.

Without this the opposite can occur (atrophy)

Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres:- Slow twitch: or red fibres contract slowly for long periods of time, required for endurance-type

activities like marathons.

- Fast Twitch: or white fibres reach peak tension quickly, required for power and explosivemovements such as throwing and lifting.

The best physiological adaptation is when their muscle fibres types must match their activity

How can psychology affect performance?

Motivation Positive:where an individuals performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours. Positive

motivation relies on continual self-reinforcement or reinforcement by others such as the coach,

friends and family.

Negative: an improvement in performance out of fear of the consequences of not performing toexpectations. Athletes may be punished if they fail. Athletes will perform well due to fear of failure.

Intrinsic:is motivation that comes from within the individual. It is a self-propelling force thatencourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity.

Extrinsic: motivation that occurs when the individuals state is modified by sources originating fromoutside the person such as parents and coaches. It focuses more on the product rather than the

process. Seen in the form of praise, material rewards and financial remuneration.

Anxiety and Arousal Trait Anxiety:a general level of stress. It is how we respond to daily situations. State Anxiety:is characterised by heightened emotions that develop in response to fear or danger. Sources of stress:

- Personal pressure- Competition pressure- Social pressure (includes the coach, family and peers)- Physical pressure

Optimum Arousal:


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Arousal is a specific level of anxiety. It is a physiological process rather than a psychological one. The

individual performs a skill most successfully when the level of arousal is optimal. Factors that affect

anxiety, such as motivation can increase or decrease arousal. Low arousalmay result from

distraction, disinterest or a depressed level of motivation. A state of over-arousalcan make the

athlete unable to perform the required movement with precision, as he/she is excessively tense and

unable to concentrate.

(see inverted U hypothesis):states if arousal is too low or too high, performance will be affected.

Arousal needs to be optimal. However some sports like Ruby League needs a high level of arousal

and aggression. And some need a lower level of arousal such as golf. (for precision.)

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety Concentration/attention skills (focusing):the athlete should focus on doing rather than thinking

about doing the task. However, total focus can contribute to over-arousal. The athlete should focus

on the process, not the outcome as it can create stress from pressure to achieve high standards

Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery:is the technique of picturing the performance or skillbefore executing it. Involves the mental repetition of a movement or sequence to increase the

minds familiarity with the desired motion. Mental rehearsal helps improve concentration, usually

used in gymnastics, weight lifting and diving.

Relaxation techniques:are a series of techniques that seek to control the bodys response to stress.Helps improve concentration by relieving stress. Techniques commonly used includes:

- Progressive muscular relaxation- Mental relaxation:(gain a floating feeling)- Self-hypnosis- Mental rehearsal:concentrating on the task rather than how you feel about it.- Meditation: narrowing thoughts- Centred breathing

Goal-setting:are targets that we direct our effort towards. When an athlete sets their own goals,they are more likely to attempt to fulfil it seriously. Goals provide athletes with a reason to

persevere with training. Goals provide focus, give direction and help athletes realise their

aspirations.

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance?

Nutritional considerations: Pre-performance:foods consumed prior to activity are useful if digested and its energy made

available when required. Eat foods that complex carbs (breads pasta cereals) as they have a slow

energy release. Avoid foods high in fat, protein and fibre as they can lead to discomfort. Liquid meals

recommended. If undertaking an endurance activity, more kilojoules, therefore more quantity of

food required. Only eat a normal meal 3-4 hours before competition to allow digestion. Drink

adequate fluids leading up to competition. Drink 500-600ml in 2-3 hrs before competition and 250-

300ml in the last quarter.

- Carbohydrate loading:- Technique requires loading up the muscles with glycogen in preparation for high intensity

endurance activities lasting more than 90 mins.

- Technique requires a balanced diet high in carbohydrates and a tapering phase.- Tapering refers to a period immediately before competition where the volume and intensity of

training is reduced. This process allows glycogen stocks to be maximised. During performance:the need for carbohydrate and fluid replacement during an event depends on

the intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type, and an individuals sweat rates. Nutritional

consideration aims to maintain blood glucose levels therefore carbohydrate supplementation is


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required. For e.g. a carbohydrate sports drink can delay glycogen depletion for 30 mins. To ensure

adequate hydration and prevent thermal distress athletes need to:

- hydrate before (drink water or low carbohydrate concentration sports drinks)- consume fluids every 15-20 mins during activity- train to acclimatise- wear clothes that breathe- be able to recognise heat stress symptoms- dont exercise if sick/fever

Post-performance:aims to reduce the body to its pre event state a.s.a.p. enabling resume oftraining in preparation for the next phase of training. Recovery should begin immediately and

continue for 8-12 hrs.

Recover should follow the 4R-Rule

>REFUEL: high GI carbs within 30 mins of activity.

>REHYDRATE: replace 125-150% of total fluid loss during the 2-4 hours after competition.

>REPAIR: prolonged activity causes breakdown of muscle protein. Dietary protein (10- 12 grams) is

taken up more effectively than protein consumed in the hours after.

>REVITALISE: consuming carbohydrates during or after high intensity exercise reduces any problems

with the immune system, (that tends to be supressed in the hours after exercise) thus reducing

infections.

Supplementation Vitamins:are inorganic compounds that are essential to maintaining bodily functions. A well

balanced diet is the main source of vitamins. Excessive quantities are potentially dangerous.

Supplementation does not improve performance and should only be considered because of special

needs. Does not provide energy.

Minerals: do not provide energy, but are important for the body to function adequately. Iron isfound in haemoglobin, diminished levels will affect performance. People most at risk of iron

deficiency include endurance athletes, females, vegetarians and adolescent males, therefore mayneed supplementation.

Protein:is important for growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue. Protein supplements in theform of powders and fluids have few benefits for athletes. Excess protein can contribute to

osteoporosis, kidney problems and density.

Caffeine:does not improve performance in short duration, high intensity activity. High doses shouldbe avoided due to its diuretic effect, as it contributes to dehydration especially in hot and humid

conditions. However caffeine has properties for those undertaking endurance sports. It has the

ability to mobilise fat, making it a usable source promoting glycogen sparing.

Creatine Products: is produced by body cells, and assists with the resynthesis of ATP. Creatine ismarked for increasing strength and burning fat, however our body cannot store excess creatine so

supplementation has little effect or benefit, if adequate protein is consumed. Creatine helps achieve

muscle hypertrophy with training.

Recovery strategiesPhysiological strategies:focuses on two elements. 1. Removing by-products(an effective cool-down is

recommended) and 2. A nutritional planto replace lost fluid and energy-rich nutrients.

-cool down: purpose is to gradually reduce heart rate, body temperature and metabolism to pre-

exercise state. A cool down also helps remove waste products (lactic acid), and prevent muscle

spasms, cramps, blood pooling and maybe prevent DOMS. (delayed onset muscle soreness).-hydration: Thirst is not a good indicator of dehydration, though urine that is dark in colour is.

Weight difference before and after exercise represents fluid loss; if more than 2% of body weight is


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lost, 600mLs for every a kilogram lost is recommended. Severe dehydration may require 24-48

hrs for full fluid replacement.

Neural strategies:aim to relax muscle that have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high-intensity

exercise. Strenuous exercise impacts on the CNS, which may contribute to fatigue. Neural strategies are

popular in collision sports such as rugby league.

-hydrotherapy: involves the use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery. Water

provides support for movement and prevents jarring and straining movements. Examples include:

spas, steam rooms, underwater massage (with jets) and heated swimming pools.

-massage: focuses on body and mental relaxation; Massage is important as exercise induced tension

can cause stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscle. Post-event massage helps relieve

swelling, muscle tension, and helps eliminate by-products promoting flexibility. Rehabilitation

massage focuses on injury treatment, like cramps, muscle damage, ligament repair, and general

discomfort. Depending on sport and the stress it imposes, different muscle groups needs to be

addressed. Massage can improve recovery time.

Tissue damage strategies:involves the use of cooling to help with minor tissue damage, such as soreness or

long term, such as bruising or muscle tear. RICER or ICER can also be used.

-cryotherapy: is when ice is used as it slows down the tissue inflammatory process preventing the

build-up of waste, otherwise leading to muscle stiffness and soreness. Ice-baths are popular in sports

like rugby league and endurance racing. Decreased temperature contracts blood vessels, on

emerging from the bath, the body warms and blood vessels enlarge allowing oxygen-rich blood flow

into the muscle stimulating recovery.

Psychological strategies:target both the body and the mind. Following hard training and demanding

performances athletes may experience lack of motivation, low concentration and anxiety.

-relaxation: techniques reduce tension and relax the mind e.g. reading, listening to music orwatching movies are helpful. Debriefing sessions and performance evaluations are necessary,

though feedback must be positive focusing on the process, not the outcome. (Important for

adequate sleep and recovery) Other techniques are:

-progressive muscular relaxation

-meditation

-visualisation

-centred breathing

-positive self-talk

How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

Stages of skill acquisitionCognitive:The planning stage, where the learner is introduced to a skill and needs to see, feel and

experience the movement. The learner focuses on conceptualising (generate a clear mental picture of the

task). The learner will experience errors and must receive continuous feedback. Rates of progression will

differ due to motivation levels and the complexity of the task.

Associative:Where emphasis is on practice and the correct sequencing of movement and skills. Skills are

more refined, few errors are made, and the learner can recognise errors and correct technique. Internal and

external feedback is important. The learner may never progress to the next stage.

Autonomous:or the automatic stage where the athlete is characterised by few errors and a consistent

skilful performance. Athletes are able to detect and correct errors and have a kinaesthetic feel for the skill or


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movement. Practice is still important during this stage so athletes adopt the skills to real performances by

focusing on tactics, strategies and reading the game.

Characteristics of the learner-Personality: Coaches tend to recruit those who possess positive learning attributes such as willingness to

listen, determination, enthusiasm, dedication, level of motivation, aggressiveness, willing to take risks and

learn. Learners who behave in positive ways are more receptive to instruction and advice, cooperative inperforming set tasks and are more helpful in creating a productive, learning environment.

-Heredity: refers to certain characteristics inherited from our parents. They are unchangeable and limit a

learners potential. E.g. the % of fast-twitch to slow-twitch muscle fibresmeans we can be more or less

suited to endurance type or anaerobic, explosive type events. A persons somatype (body type or shape)

again create suitability for different events. E.g. mesomorphyis favoured for netballers and lightweight

boxers, where ectomorphyis favoured for high jumpers. Gender- increased levels of testosterone allow

males to have greater strength, power than females. Heightcan also provide better execution of a skill e.g.

shooting in basketball. Conceptual ability(to be able to visualise a movement) is important for learning and

skill execution where mental rehearsal is needed. E.g. diving.

-Confidence: successive failures can destroy confidence. Confidence develops from experiencing success in

learning situations. Confident learners approach skill learning situations with feelings of being able to rise

out of challenge. Confidence unlocks the power of belief, where something worthwhile can be achieved

through perseverance and effort. Learners should not doubt their ability.

-Prior Experience: it is easier to learn a new skill, when similar movements have been acquired. Prior

experience can accelerate the learning process

-Ability: is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine. Learners with a good

sense of acuity grasp key concepts, ideas, and movements easily, and move through the learning stage

promptly. E.g. some learners possess the ability to readily comprehend practical tasks; others can have a

quick reaction time. Ability incorporates a range of factors: such as sense, acuity (sharpness), perception,

reaction time, and intelligence which allows the learner to readily do what is intended.

The learning environmentThe Nature of the Skill:

- Open:a changing and unpredictable environment, due to changing weather, playing surface orunconventional (unpredictable) tactics. E.g. surfing, golf, batting in cricket

- Closed:an environment that is stable and predictable, is beneficial to a learner as they are notdistracted, or find execution of the skill difficult. E.g. swimming, gymnastics

- Gross:a skill or movement involving large muscle groups, commonly found in team games. E.g.football, tennis

- Fine:skill movements using small muscle groups, used in activities that require finesse and littlemovement. The execution of the skill requires precision and exactness. E.g. archery, shooting

- Discrete:skills that have a distinctive start and finish that can be identified as a start and end.E.g. tennis serve, cartwheel, forward roll, bat in baseball

- Serial:where smaller movements are put together to form a whole skill. It is a number ofdiscrete skills put together. A learner needs to focus on each discrete skill. E.g. high/long jump,

penalty shoot-out in soccer

- Continuous:skills that have no distinct start or finish and appear ongoing. When the length ofthese skills is unspecified. E.g. running, swimming, cycling, canoeing

- Self-paced:is when the timing of the skill is under the control of the performer. E.g. tennis serve,high jump, penalty in soccer, archery,


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- Externally paced:where the timing of the skill depends on factors outside the control of theperformer. E.g. hit in tennis, dancing, goal keeping, dive in swimming.

The performance elements:The game centred approach: aims to focus on the whole game and all

components, rather than a sequence of basic skills assembled within a game format.

- Decision making:is improved when practiced making decision in performance like situations. Itis best achieved through; Observation:use of boards, demonstrations and observation of theirplayers. Questioning:highlighting options in that game-like scenario e.g. how do we create a

gap between the players? Whole-part-Whole approach:where game strategy is taught as a

whole to see it overall. Then learners learn the specific roles (discrete movements). The specific

parts are then put together to be executed, and finally practiced with an opposition. Variation:

e.g. changing the defence alignment, players will then be able to explore new and imaginative

ideas increasing motivation. Creativity:is productive in developing decision making skills. Players

can contribute to solve problems making players feel they can make a worthwhile contribution.

- Strategic and Tactical development:Strategic: refers to the way we play, where we should be ata particular time and what to do. (e.g. returning the ball in tennis using backhand) Tactical

awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent, which also matures

gradually using mini-games and drills in game-like situations. Players need to develop: technical

efficiency (correct execution of movements and strategies for consistency), Understanding

options and variations when match is less predictable and skilful execution: strategies work well,

when there is gradual pressure to explore creative options and replicate game-situation.

Practice methods: coaches and athletes will have greater success when the practice method is appropriate

to the type of skill and the athletes individual performance.

- Massed practice:involves a continuous practice session with rest intervals shorter than practiceintervals. Works best when learner is highly motivated.

- Distributed practice:where rest periods are longer than practice intervals. Keeps learners frombecoming unmotivated or frustrated because of the complexity of the task. E.g. gymnastics skill

(otherwise can cause disorientation, dizziness)

- Whole practice:is applied when a skill is practices as a whole, helps visualise to see it as a whole.E.g. layup in basketball.

- Part Practice:a skill broken into smaller components and each discrete sub skill is practicedseparately. Used for teaching both new and complex skills. (In a basketball layup- shooting,

dribbling, stepping, catching, driving up)

Feedback:- Internal feedback:a normal consequence of executing a skill. It embodies feelings, with sensory

information such as seeing the ball go off court or hearing the ball hit the bat.

- External feedback:includes external information such as suggestions from the coach, videoreplays, judges scores and race results. (e.g. time taken, or crowd appreciation)

- Concurrent feedback:is received during the performance of a skill. Relates to internal feedbackin the mind. E.g. a handstand where you aim to regain balance before falling.

- Delayed feedback:is received after the skill has been executed. E.g. in netball the result can beseen after the completion of the shot and whether the shot went in or not.

- Knowledge of results:is information about the outcome of a movement e.g. score of results,statistical data, to help improve performance for next time, and see areas of success and other

areas that need improvement.

- Knowledge of performance: coachs feedback, about the pattern of movement during anexecution. E.g. batting in cricket, where the coach might say, put your elbows up higher


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Assessment of skill and performanceCharacteristics of skilled performers:

- Kinaesthetic sense:the skilled performer has developed a kinaesthetic sense or feel for the skillbeing performed. They are aware of any errors occurring while the skill is still being performed

and can make necessary adjustments.

- Anticipation:the skilled performer is able to predict what is going to happen in game situation,allowing them more time to react to situations in a game and produce smooth coordinated

movements.

- Consistency:the skilled performer has the ability to successfully perform the skill or movementover and over again.

- Technique:skilled performers have mastered the technique of a particular skill, displayingefficient movements with maximum results.

Objective and Subjective Performance Measures:

Subjectivity: is when the assessors feelings, opinions and personal judgement make up the evaluation.

Objective: is when human elements are taken out of the evaluation to some degree. Objectives

measurements of a skill occurs when results of a performance is not influenced by the personal decision of a

judge e.g. long jump. Subjective is influenced, e.g. when evaluating a boxing match. Many sports include

refereeing which have both and objective and subjective elements. To minimise subjective nature of judging,

a marking criteria, check lists, rating scales measurement systems and multiple judges are used to increase

objectivity.

Many sports have introduces rule changes or new technology to increase objectivity: such as (hotspot

replays - seen in a negative image) in cricket or a net senor in tennis. Rugby League also has video referee,

where replays are seen in slow motion. (Can be a subjective decision though, others quite successful)

Validity and Reliability of tests:Reliability: is the ability of the test to produce similar results with similar subjects under similar test

condition. E.g. a shooting test for basketball from the half-way mark provides random results, where the ball

would occasionally go in due to a large degree of luck. The test does not produce same results for the same

person, with the same test, therefore it is reliable and gives misleading information.

Validity: is the ability of the test, to test what it says it will. E.g. a test designed to measure basketball skills

for the purpose of team selection is not valid. If the test was on shooting ability, the person with the best

shooting score may lack dribbling and passing skills.

Personal versus Prescribed judging criteria: refers to the standards or quantities that are used for judging

the value of a performance.

Personal criteria: are the preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a

performance. These opinions and possible bias may lead to judgements that others believe to be incorrect or

unjustified.

In top level of competition, prescribed criteria is used to standardise interpretation. This adjusts subjectivity

to an area where it is subjective. A judges use of a prescribed criteria such as a checklist, rating scales and

degree of difficulty charts, are able to accurately convert the appraisal into meaningful measurements such

as a score. During a competition, a judge matches the performance to the criteria to rate the standard of the

performance. The skills checklist has predetermined data for assessment and notes the areas which to focus

on.


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PE Core 2 Print Out Summary