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BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 1
History of Pesticide Use
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 2
History of Pest Control ● Many pests plague humans: – Rats, mice, cockroaches, termites, beetles,
moths/caterpillars, ants, lice, fleas, mosquitoes, spiders, mites, ticks, pigeons, raccoons, coyotes, deer, woodchucks, beavers, nematodes, fungi, weeds etc…
● They compete for our food, eat our clothes, homes, impact our health, transmit disease, disturb our dominance over nature or simply annoy us.
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 3
Human ancestors had few problems
● Didn’t grow and store food, no permanent homes
● Pest control involved scratching, grooming, swatting and squashing
2
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 4
Relationship with pests changed 10,000YA
● Advent of agriculture ● Increased human
density ● Stocks of domestic
animals ● Grain stores ● Clothing fibres
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 5
Pests in recorded history
● Locust swarms in Bible – Added to list of kosher
animals
● Cave paintings in Tassili n’ Ajjer (Algeria) show crop infestations
● Egyptian papyrus documents also
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 6
Early Pest Management Practices
● Domain of witch doctors ● Religious ceremonies and
superstition ● Limited success ● Greeks assigned Gods to the job
– Apollo: domain over mice and mildew – Hercules: domain over locusts and
worms – Zeus: “flycatcher”
3
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 7
Christianity
● Employed divinity in pest control up until 15th century
● Pests tried in religious court, found guilty, excommunicated and banished
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 8
Not all “Hoodoo Voodoo”
● Early non-chemical pest control often based on actual ecological principles – E.g. Romans drained swamps, built
sewage systems, built baths – E.g. Homer (800 BC) recognized
usefulness of burning fields to control locusts
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 9
Geoponika
● Greek agricultural encyclopedia ● Listed insecticides including: – Bay, asafetida, elder, cumin,
hellebore, oak, squill, cedar, absinthe, pomegranate etc.
– Modern chemists have since identified insecticidal chemicals from all of the above
4
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 10
Human Preference for Insecticides as Food
● Question of dosage ● Herbs and spices ● Alcoholic beverages ● History of the world – Route to the Orient
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 11
Early Chemical Pesticides ● Sumerians: elemental sulfur for insects and
mites (2500 BC) ● Romans: added oil and used as insect repellent ● Chinese: arsenic and mercury against body lice
– Earliest biological control using predatory ants against beetles and caterpillars in citrus orchards
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 12
Little progress for ~1700 years
● Ended with fall of Roman Empire (~476AD)
● Dark ages (475-1000AD) ● Middle ages (1000-1700AD), dominated by
religion, not much critical thinking ● Resurgence in interest in pest control by
18th century
5
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 13
18th Century ● Agriculture went from subsistence to
commercial (revolution) ● Use of manure and other fertilizers ● Expanded acreage ● Row planting ● Facilitated by use of machines
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 14
Mid 1800s
● Major pest problems in Europe – Potato blight in Ireland, England and Belgium – Powdery mildew on grapes – Fungus leaf disease on coffee in Ceylon (forced
switch to tea crops) – French wine industry threatened by grape
phylloxera insect ● Infestations caused by
– 1) Vast area of single food source – 2) Imperial colonization and trade spread
pests around
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 15
Concurrent Medical Discoveries ● Diseases were vectored by
pests – 1st demonstrated case: Texas
Cattle Fever caused by parasite, transmitted by flies
● Later discovered many more: – Tse tse flies and African
Sleeping Sickness – Rat fleas and the plague – Mosquitoes and malaria
● This knowledge stimulated push for chemical pest control
6
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 16
Origin of Today’s Chemical Pesticides
● Can be traced to accidental observation by French grape farmer
● Sprayed perimeter of vineyard to repel pests (humans) – Noticed these plants resisted powdery mildew
● Origin of Bordeaux Mixture (lime and copper sulfate) still widely used fungicide
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 16:09 17
First Phase of Chemical Pesticides ● French grape farmers started using
copper aceto-arsenite against insects ● Led to use of many other inorganic
compounds – Arsenic, antimony, selenium, sulfur, thalium,
zinc, copper ● Full expansion of industry caused by
development of spray nozzle and airplane distribution
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 18
Phase 2 of Chemical Pesticide Industry
● Chemical warfare ● Chlorine gas (Germany, 1915) ● WWII full expansion of chemical weapons via
intense R&D – Goal of lowering soldier mortality due to pest
vectored disease – WWI soldiers plagued by fleas, ticks, bedbugs – Another interest was in anti-personnel chemicals – Most insecticides neurotoxins and invert/vert nervous
systems essentially the same
7
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 19
World War II
● Both Axis and Allies developed and tested hundreds of chemicals
● Major breakthrough for USA with discovery of chemical highly toxic at low doses
● Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT)
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 20
Post-war period
● Chemicals abundant and cheap ● Miracle cures to pest infestation ● Second agricultural revolution ● Emphasis switched from pest
management to eradication
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 21
Resistance to Pesticides
● Overuse of pesticides led to escalation due to resistance – 1948: 14 species – 1969: 224 – 1990: >500 insects
● Also: diseases, weeds
8
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 22
Pollution Problems Seen in Wildlife
● Bioaccumulation and Bioamplification caused wildlife declines higher up the food chain
● 1950-1960s
ppm
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 23
Decline of Top Predators
● Bald Eagle, Peregrine Falcon
● Egg-shell thinning
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 24
Reintroduction Programs
● Captive bred and reintroduced to nature
● US and Canadian Wildlife service
● 1970-1990s ● Populations back to
normal
9
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 25
Silent Spring: Rachel Carson (1962) ● Awakened world to
slow poisoning by misuse of pesticides
● “Everyone should have the right to secure their own home against the intrusion of poisons applied by other persons”
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 26
Silent Spring: Rachel Carson (1962) ● Linked humans to ecology ● Human body is permeable
to toxins ● Died in 1964 but not before
environmental movement was triggered – DDT banned in N.Am. – Earth day – Establishment of EPA – Post-humous Presidential
Medal of Honour (1981)
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 27
Silent Spring: Rachel Carson (1962) ● Not without opposition
from people who hadn’t read it
● Globe-Times Newspaper (Pennsylvania): “No one in either county farm office who was talked to today had read the book, but all disapproved of it heartily”
10
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 28
Silent Spring: Rachel Carson (1962) ● Opposition came for 2 reasons: ● 1) fear of decreases in profits
for chemical industry, negatively affect economy
● 2) differing views of role of science in society – An era of scientific backfiring
(nuclear, thalidomide, DDT) – Double-edged sword: science can
improve life and cause damage
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 29
However, the killing goes on…
● Agent Orange [2,4- dichloro-phenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5- trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T)]!
● Used as a defoliant in Vietnam!● Released dioxins (carcinogen)!● Canadian govt secretely
tested in Gagetown, NB in 1967!– Sprayed on Ontario roads in 80s!
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 30
Environmental Movement
● 1970s: nukes and whales ● 1980s: recycling paper ● 1990s: CFCs and habitat conservation ● 2000s: biodiversity, biotechnology and
climate ● Market shift recently towards sustainably
produced food products (organic) – Stimulated increase in IPM techniques
11
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 31
However, Pesticides Still Widely Used
● Data from USA, 1993 – 1.1 Billion lbs pesticide used (4 lbs/citizen) – 4.5 Billion lbs used worldwide
• 5.2B in 2008 (40% herbicides) – Pest industry worth $8.5 Billion annually – 860 active ingredients registered under
Federal Pesticide Act – 26000 products manufactured by 1200
companies – Used on 900 000 farms and 69 Million homes
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 32
6
PesticidesPesticides
USE OF PESTICIDESUSE OF PESTICIDES
Global Pesticide Use 2001 (%)
herbicide
insecticide
fungicide
other
www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/market_estimates2001.pdf
The pie chart shows the global use of pesticides and the different types.
Insecticides are mostly used in developing countries and fungicides/herbicides in developed countries.
<<READ SLIDE.>>
Refs:
•American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Environmental Health. Pesticides. In: EtzelRA ed. Pediatric Environmental health. 2nd ed. Elk Grove Village, American Academy of Pediatrics, 2003.
•Jeyaratnam. Acute pesticide poisoning: a major global health problem. World Health Stat Quarterly, 1990.
•UNEP United Nations Children´s Fund and WHO. Children in the new millennium:environmental impact on health. UNEP, UNICEF, WHO, 2002.
•US EPA Pesticides industry sales and usage: 2000 & 2001 market estimates:
(www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/01pestsales/market_estimates2001.pdf).
•Vaagt. New code of conduct on pesticide adopted. FAO Newsroom (www.fao.org/english/newsroom/news/2002/10525-en.html).
Pamphlet OMS
BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment BIO 4101: Pesticides and the Environment 33
Next Class
● The cost and economics of pesticides