PATTERNS of SUBSISTENCE

TYPEEXAMPLESCHARACTERISTICS

Foraging Northwest Coast Indians Chumash and California Indians Khoisan Agta/Aeta Australian Aborigines Calusa Ainu

They survive on hunting, gathering and/or fishing for resources They live in small, nomadic groups Men usually hunted while women gathered plant resources Found in deserts, tropical rainforests, arctic

Pastoralism Saami Wodaabe Maasai Bakhtiari Navajo

Domestication of livestock/ herd animals (cattle, goats or sheeps) They herd to gather milk products, wool, blood and sometimes including meat Involves exploitation of grazing lands

Horticulture Tsembaga Ainu

They practice slash-and-burn The domestication of crops with hands and simple tools

Agriculture Konso atal Hyk They cultivate lands; horticulture requires fallowing and so becomes more labor intensive Irrigation, terracing and multi-cropping are employed. Animals are also domesticated and used to produce different products like milk, meat, eggs. They are used for plowing, killing rodents, and fertilizing.

I. Briefly identify the cultures listed below, and locate them on the world map.

1. Tsembaga

The Tsembaga is a subclan of the Marings who at one point had 200 members. They are herders of pig although these pigs are not used for human sustenance. These pigs, however, have high values and are not killed unless for religious or family obligations. When there is a surplus of pigs, the Tsembagas would hold a pig festival in which 85% of the pigs will be slaughtered and consume while discussing issues with other clans. It also marks the time for the removal of restrictions on warfare.

2. Comanche

The Comanche Indians are from the southern part of Nebraska and northern part of Texas. They are good traders and warriors. They are usually nicely dressed in leather boots and silver conchos. They are known for kidnapping women and children and requesting ransom from their families as part of their trading tradition. They lived in tee-pees and are nomadic hunter-gatherers.

3. Shoshone and Paiute

Shoshones or the Valley people live in several areas in USA including California, Idaho, Nevada, Utah and Wyoming although there is a concentration of Shoshone population in the Snake river area in Idaho. Their subsistence varies based on the settlement area (either on the east, west, north). Women generally do the gathering and leather-making. Men are responsible for hunting and decorating items.

The Paiute are scattered in the USA with some living in California, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and Oregon, but the largest concentrations are historically along the Virgin and Muddy rivers. Pauites are foragers but also practiced simple irrigation-agriculture. Economy is embedded in the social institution of the family.

4. Hadza

Hadzas settled in northern Tanzania. They are known for not having any concept of time (in hours, days or even years), and no words past the number three or four. They are strictly hunter-gatherers, growing no livestock or plants. They do not take part in warfare. They are barely any rules and very few social obligations; they have no leaders at all.

5. Mekranoti Kayapo

Mekranoti Kayapos are very knowledgeable swidden farmers from Central Brazil. They plant intensively in a short time usually 8.5 hours a week.

6. GururumbaGururumbas of the Upper Asao Valley in Papua New Guinea are also hunters and gatherers on top of being swidden farmers. Like the Tsembagas, they also raise pigs but not necessarily/mainly as food consumption but in their case, to regulate political economy. Their division of labor is traditional with the women as gatherers and farmers while the men hunt and guards. They have patriclans who control access to their lands.

7. Bahktiari

Bahktiaris inhabit the central Zagros mountains of Iran. The name Bahktiari means bearer of good luck. A third of the some 800, 000 tribe members are nomadic while the rest are agriculturists. They herd sheep, cattle and goat to produce dairy and meat products. They are actually Shiite Muslims, but were Zoroastrians before the Arabs invaded Iran.

8. Aymara

They can be found in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America, more specifically in Bolivia, Peru and Chile. They have a reverse concept of time according to recent studies. Aymaras practiced husbandry and agriculture in 2500 BC. Grazing lands are communal, but agricultural land was passed on rotation depending on each familys needs. They had a socio-political unit called the allyu which is used in collective land ownership. Division of labor is divided equally between spouses.

II. Briefly identify the cultures listed below, and locate them on the world map.

1. Enga

The Engas are found in the Enga highlands of Papua New Guinea. They have a strict segregation between the sexes. They have a ceremony called sangai for boys aged 16 to 19 to be cleansed from any sort of female contact. Their primary mode of subsistence is horticulture. Economic transactions like finance, credit and interest revolved around the concept called tee.

2. Inca

The Incas inhabited the highlands of Peru as early as the 13th century. They cultivate crops like corn, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, peanuts, etc. They also raised animals like llamas and alpacas for their wool and meat. The Incas had a tax system and generally a complex socio-political sphere. Their empire is the largest in pre-Columbian America.

3. Afar

The Afar tribes are located in Djibouti, Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea. Most of the Afar tribes are nomadic who herded sheep, goats, cattle and camels ones wealth was measured by the size of the herd. However, some have jobs or work as laborers in the nearby areas. They are proud people, known for gaining prestige from killing people.

4. Tiv

The Tivs can be found in Nigeria and Cameroon. They are also known as Mitshi, Munchi or Munshi. They are agriculture-dependent who practice fallowing, hoe cultivation and crop rotation. Major crops are yams, sorghum and bulrush millet. They also cultivate sweet potatoes, maize, peanuts, etc. They do not have chiefs or councils, but a group of people living together as a community is called a tar. Religion revolved around the akombo which is a magical force and its emblems.

5. Kota, Toda, Badaga, Kurumba

The above four tribes are found in India. There is a legend saying that the two former and Kurumba tribes are brought out at the same time by a single creator. Kurumbas are traditionally hunters and gatherers. They also exchanged goods with neighboring tribes or providing goods for Toda festivals.

Kota tribes are usually introverted and shy people. They farm and cultivate. They are also adept in arts and crafts. Toda tribe is the most ancient and unusual of those in the Nilgiri Hills. They have secretive customs and worship different gods. They are known for their embroideries. Major subsistence is cattle-herding and dairy production, therein. They are also vegetarians, but they eat dairy products and some eat fish. Badagas are mixed farmers of millets, barleys and wheat. They do not have irrigation and rely on rainfall extensively. Herded animals are kept for dairy production. They also practice bee-keeping.

References:

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