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PAST 1 THE LOUGHCREW LANDSCAPE PROJECT Megalithic sites in isolation are often impressive, both intrinsically and through their setting in the natural landscape. This is clearly so for the Loughcrew passage tomb cemeteries on the Slieve na Calliagh hill and adjacent Carnbane West and Patrickstown summits in northwest County Meath in Ireland. The clusters of cairns that occupy the top of the Loughcrew hills include the well-known Cairn T with its megalithic art and passage alignment towards the equinoctial sunrise. Together, the cairns are the largest concentration of megalithic monuments in the central plain of Ireland. The Loughcrew hills, as is noted in all early publications, NUMBER 51 NOVEMBER 2005 THE NEWSLETTER OF THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY Registered Office University College London, Institute of Archaeology, 31–34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY http://www.ucl.ac.uk/prehistoric/ The copy date for PAST 52 is 1 March 2006. Contributions to Joanna Brück, School of Archaeology, Newman Building, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Email: [email protected] Contributions on disc or as e-mail attachments are preferred (either word 6 or rtf files) but hardcopy is also accepted. Illustrations can be sent as drawings, slides, prints, tif or jpeg files. The book reviews editor is Dr Mike Allen, Wessex Archaeology, Portway House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury, Wilts, SP4 6EB. Email: [email protected]. Queries over subscriptions and membership should go to the Society administrator Tessa Machling at the London address above. 51 Digital surface model at 50 cm interval of part of Summerbank and Ballinvally townlands, relief shaded from the north-west, with transcription of field and monument details (red), and re-surveyed location of standing stones (yellow triangles) (image: C. Roughley). P AST

PAST - UCL - London's Global University · THE NEWSLETTER OF THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY ... survey of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site, the ... PAST 3 Panel of new cup and ring rock

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PAST 1

THE LOUGHCREW LANDSCAPEPROJECT

Megalithic sites in isolation are often impressive,both intrinsically and through their setting in thenatural landscape. This is clearly so for theLoughcrew passage tomb cemeteries on the Slieve na

Calliagh hill and adjacent Carnbane West andPatrickstown summits in northwest County Meathin Ireland. The clusters of cairns that occupy the topof the Loughcrew hills include the well-known CairnT with its megalithic art and passage alignmenttowards the equinoctial sunrise. Together, the cairnsare the largest concentration of megalithicmonuments in the central plain of Ireland. TheLoughcrew hills, as is noted in all early publications,

NUMBER 51 NOVEMBER 2005

THE NEWSLETTER OF THE PREHISTORIC SOCIETY Registered Office University College London, Institute of Archaeology, 31–34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY

http://www.ucl.ac.uk/prehistoric/

The copy date for PAST 52 is 1 March 2006. Contributions to Joanna Brück, School of Archaeology, NewmanBuilding, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland. Email: [email protected] Contributions on disc oras e-mail attachments are preferred (either word 6 or rtf files) but hardcopy is also accepted. Illustrations can be sentas drawings, slides, prints, tif or jpeg files. The book reviews editor is Dr Mike Allen, Wessex Archaeology, Portway

House, Old Sarum Park, Salisbury, Wilts, SP4 6EB. Email: [email protected]. Queries over subscriptions andmembership should go to the Society administrator Tessa Machling at the London address above.

51

Digital surface model at 50 cm interval of part of Summerbank and Ballinvally townlands, relief shaded from the north-west, withtranscription of field and monument details (red), and re-surveyed location of standing stones (yellow triangles) (image: C. Roughley).

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have a commanding view of the central Irishlandscape, with there being only slight disagreementof how many of the counties of Ireland can be seenfrom them on a clear day, 18 being regularly quoted.However, such a statistic denies the impressiveimmediate landscape prospect across the centrallowlands. The central position in midland Ireland isemphasised by the hills being the watershed betweenthe river Boyne to the south, its tributary theBlackwater to the northeast, and the Shannon to thewest.

More recently, archaeological attention has beendrawn to the land below Slieve na Calliagh, inparticular to the north. Here Conor Newman notedfor the first time a cursus-like monument 150 metresto the southwest of the Ballinvally stone circle, in alandscape in which Elizabeth Twohig has identified arange of monuments, including the stone circle, ahenge, standing stones, open-air rock art, and cistburial sites, all of which point to a ritual landscapebelow the passage tombs that, if not contemporarywith their initial construction, may neverthelessreflect their ongoing influence on the use of thislandscape.

The Loughcrew Project is studying in detail thewider environs of Slieve na Calliagh. The projectdeveloped from Elizabeth Twohig’s interest inCorinne Roughley’s doctoral research use of aerialphotogrammetry to study the location of megalithicmonuments in the Carnac region of Brittany andhow it might be applied to Loughcrew. Thiscoincided with Colin Shell’s work on the potential ofa new technique, airborne laser scanning (lidar - lightdetecting and ranging), to obtain an even moredetailed definition of the landscape than possible byphotogrammetry, and explore its use both to detectsites and to monitor their state of survival. A lidarsurvey of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site, thefirst major field assessment of the technique,confirmed its potential both to discover new sitesand extend known ones through its ability to detectslight surviving surface evidence of buriedarchaeology. The value of the lidar data also wasimmediately appreciated for computer-based studyof sites and their inter-relationships in the landscape.Stonehenge is in a still largely arable landscape. Thelidar survey of Loughcrew provided the opportunityto investigate its use in a predominantly improvedgrassland environment. In this, Gill Swanton hasbrought her monument recording expertise to theassessment of the lidar features in the field.

For archaeological purposes, lidar survey involvesthe measurement of the height of the ground and thebuildings and vegetation upon it, at an averagespacing of between 0.5 and 1m, to create a digitalmodel of the landscape. The survey is built up by thelaser scanning side to side through a small angle

(typically 10-15º) as the aircraft flies a straight path,measuring from 25,000 to 100,000 points persecond. By continually measuring the position of theaircraft with a differential Global Positioning Systemand recording the aircraft’s changing attitude inflight with an onboard inertial measurement unit, inthe best circumstances the point heights aremeasured to a 15cm positional accuracy in x, y andz, defined with respect to the national survey grid.The digital surface model can be processed toremove the buildings and trees to create a digitalterrain model so that monument intervisibility canbe studied. For the Loughcrew landscape, this isespecially valuable as field walls built from stoneclearance interrupt completely the appreciation inthe field of the relationships between the standingstones and other monuments.

The first stage of the project, funded by the IrishHeritage Council 2003 Archaeology Grant Scheme,surveyed a 5x6 km area around Slieve na Calliaghwith the Cambridge University Unit for LandscapeModelling’s airborne lidar, and photogrammetricallysurveyed a surrounding 10x12 km area. Reliefshading of the lidar model with low oblique lightingpicks out the fine surface detail, incidentallyincluding the remains of the later field clearanceoperations. This has enabled many new sites to bediscovered and over 150 km of ancient field systemto be transcribed, with clear evidence of the survivalof surface features in the stone-cleared, improvedgrassland. It also became apparent that many of thesites recorded in the digital Register of Monumentsand Places were not accurately located.

With the aid of second stage support from theHeritage Council under its Archaeology 2005 Grant

Measurement and differential GPS location of previouslyunrecorded standing stone (photo: G. R. Swanton)

Scheme, it has been possible to take forward the wayin which the lidar data is used, by using fieldchecking to resolve interpretation of ditch/bankcombinations apparent in the lidar data, toaccurately locate with differential GPS and totalstation survey the standing stones, which were notdetected by the lidar, and refine the digitaltranscription of the sites and field systems.Techniques have been developed to create theaccurate digital terrain model from the digitalsurface model so that the monument inter-relationships can be investigated, including theprogression from one standing stone to the nextacross the landscape.

In the ground checking, several of the new sites havebeen geophysically investigated, including aninteresting, previously unrecorded, set of smallenclosures with low surrounding bank and noobvious ditch, that occupy particular topographiclocations. Geophysics has also investigated therelationship of the ‘cursus’ monument to ameandering field bank which it cuts, as well asexamining its own structure including the position ofthe ditch cuts. A pair of aligned post/pit featureshave been found associated with a standing stone,and an extensive area of possible pits around a newlyrecorded rock-art site.

In the course of surveying the exact location ofstanding stones using differential GPS and totalstation, new ones have been recorded. These are notnewly discovered - their owners were already wellaware of them. The stone shown in the photographhere faces towards Slieve na Calliagh and theBallinvally henge, from which it is clearly visible.Whilst recording this flat standing stone, GillSwanton found a second pillar stone in an adjacentfield.

The most significant of the newly recorded sites is anopen-air cup and ring rock-art location in the areaalready known for a concentration of this type ofart. The site is probably the most extensive exampleof cup-and-ring decoration known so far in Irelandoutside of County Kerry, with over 65 separateelements identified. Elizabeth Twohig and CiaranO’Reilly had previously noted cup marks on theMass Rock at the foot of Slieve na Calliagh. AMinolta Vi900 terrestrial laser scanner has been usedto record these new sites and document all theexisting open-air rock-art, both in the field and inthe National Museum of Ireland collections. This isbeing used to assess its value for clarifying therecording and interpretation of art on open,weathered, surfaces.

As well as realising the high research potential oflidar, this study has emphasised the contribution itcan make to planning and landscape management.

The survey data will assist in the current checking ofthe Register of Monuments and Places for CountyMeath. Following from a presentation to LoretoGuinan, the Meath Heritage Officer, and herPlanning colleagues, it is hoped that examples can beused from the survey to illustrate the new CountyMeath Development Plan, with the possibility of theLoughcrew landscape being considered as a specialarchaeological area. It is not without a certain ironythat one notices the cairns and their landscape aresignposted as part of a Boyne Valley tourist route.

Colin Shell, Dept. of Archaeology, University ofCambridge, Cambridge CB2 3DZ.Email: [email protected]

EXCAVATIONS AT PES,TERAUNGUREASCA IN THE CHEILETURZII GORGE (TURDA,TRANSYLVANIA)

Cheile Turzii is located a few kilometres southwestof Turda, in central Transylvania. It is a naturalreserve of the limestone of the Trascaului Mountainsformation, crossed by the Has,datelor River, whichflows in a northwest-southeast direction through anarrow gorge some 3 km long. The gorge is very richin natural caves, 42 of which have yielded traces ofprehistoric or historic occupation. Of particularimportance for the prehistory of the region is thecave at Pes,tera Ungureasca which opens on the rightside of the gorge at the bottom of a steep cliff calledPreteler Vulturior. The cave, whose opening facesnorth-north-east, is some 76 m long.

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Panel of new cup and ring rock art site (photo: G. R. Swanton)

The first research at this site was carried out by E.Orosz at the end of the nineteenth century. This wasfollowed in the 1970s by the excavation of a test-trench, measuring 4x6 m, at the entrance of the caveby N. Vlassa. The excavations were resumed by thewriter and G. Lazarovici of Resit,a University inAugust 2003 and 2004. The new excavations, whichwere funded by the Italian Ministry of ForeignAffairs (MAE) and the Prehistoric Society, werecarried out in order to check the stratigraphic seriesbrought to light by Vlassa, the preliminary results ofwhich had already been published. The sequence,some 1.50 m thick, is composed of ash and charcoallenses, and sterile, sandy layers, in which variousstructures, including pits and fireplaces, werediscovered. This sequence is of unique importance,because it is the only one to have yielded traces of

occupation. Occupation of the cave spans a longperiod of time from the Middle Neolithic (LumeaNoua Culture) to the Bronze Age. At the bottom ofthis sequence, a layer, some 20 cm thick, containingalmost exclusively micromammal remains, wasdiscovered.

The 2003 and 2004 excavations were carried outover an area of some 5 m2. Given the absence ofrunning water in close proximity to the cave, all thearchaeological soil was carried down to theHas,datelor River and wet-sieved through a 1 mmmesh. Most of the excavation was carried out in theleft part of the trench, where the stratigraphy showsa well-detailed sequence, some 1 m thick, comprisingChalcolithic ‘Toarte Pastilate’ occupation. This liesbeneath the Cot,ofeni occupation and above thePetres,ti levels. The lowermost ‘Early Toarte Pastilate’level revealed the presence of one man-madestructure delimited by a series of very small post-holes. Furthermore a clay kiln, rebuilt at least threetimes, was brought to light within the ‘Middle ToartePastilate’ levels. Four radiocarbon dates have beenobtained from this latter part of the sequence. Theyshow that this local aspect of the TransylvanianChalcolithic most probably flourished during theperiod between the last two centuries of the fifth andthe first two centuries of the fourth millennium BC.

Of particular importance is the date obtained from afragment of a Bos primigenius tibia (GrN-29102,3990-3790 cal BC at 2 sigma), collected from thesame layer in which the kiln was discovered and

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Excavations in progress in August 2003 (photograph by P. Biagi).

Obsidian and flint artefacts from the Toarte Pastilate layers(photograph by P. Biagi).

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providing a likely date for this structure. Several goldbeads, some 2 mm in diameter, and a rectangulargold plaquette were collected from the same layer.This should indicate that the kiln was most probablylinked with the moulding of gold items.

The wet-sieving of the Toarte Pastilate layers led tothe collection of a great quantity of micromammalremains, among which are rodents, fish and birdbones, charred hazelnuts and Cornus mas fruits andcharcoal pieces. The chipped stone assemblage isvery rich. It comprises both obsidian and flintartefacts. The hydration analysis of the obsidian iscurrently under way in order to define itsprovenance. Apart from the cores, retouched andunretouched tools, the obsidian assemblage alsoincludes a large number of waste flakes indicatingthat obsidian tools were manufactured inside thecave.

To sum up: the excavations carried out at Pes,teraUngureasca in 2003-2004 have revealed that thiscave site is of particular importance for variousreasons. First of all, the cave sequence has shownthat at least five cultural aspects, from the MiddleNeolithic to the Bronze Age, are represented insidethe cave; second, the radiocarbon dating of theToarte Pastilate horizon has defined, for the firsttime, the absolute chronology of this TransylvanianChalcolithic aspect; and third, the peculiarity of thestructural remains and gold items brought to lightduring the 2004 season suggest that the cave playeda special role within the Chalcolithic community thatinhabited the Cheile Turzii Gorge during this period.

Paolo Biagi, Ca’ Foscari University, Venice

FLINT ARTEFACTS IN THE BGSFOSSIL COLLECTION

Archaeologists probably do not immediately think ofthe British Geological Survey as a repository ofspecimens of particular interest to them. It iscertainly true that archaeology does not figure muchin this organisation’s current activities. However, it isworth pointing out that the BGS is 160 years old,and over this time has amassed an enormouscollection of rock and fossil specimens, severalmillion of which are housed in its nationalcollections at Keyworth, near Nottingham. Amongthese is a small number of artefacts ranging fromrelatively recent (in human terms) to Palaeolithic,including a set of flint axes and other tools.

Assembly of the BGS collections began in the midnineteenth century. Shortly after the establishment ofthe Survey, the first Director, Henry de la Beche, withthe support of the Prince Consort, oversaw theopening of the Museum of Practical Geology at 28

Jermyn Street, off Piccadilly, in May 1851, the sameyear as the Great Exhibition. This housed theSurvey’s growing collections until it reached thelimits of its capacity and was superseded, in July1935, by the art deco building of the GeologicalMuseum in South Kensington. However, even thisbecame too small, and a further move of thecollections to the new BGS headquarters atKeyworth took place in 1985, while the old museumwas integrated into the galleries of the NaturalHistory Museum. At Keyworth, the specimens arecarefully and securely housed, but there is littlemuseum display area, and few other thanprofessional geologists have had the chance toexamine them.

It was not until the late 1990s that resources wereearmarked for construction of the digital catalogueof the fossil collections, known as “Palaeosaurus”.During this, renewed interest was triggered in thepresence of some 526 registered specimens of flintimplements along with the other palaeontologicalspecimens of Holocene age. By drawing attention tothem, we hope to stimulate archaeological interestand so gain a better understanding of theirsignificance.

Flint axe [collection number GSM 73313, scale in centimetres] fromKnight’s Pit, near Paine’s Field, Farnham: presented by H. Bury in1946 and described as a Late Acheulian hand axe from Pleistocene

river terrace gravels. © British Geological Survey (Natural Environment Research

Council), 2003.

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There is clear overlap between geological interest inHolocene sediments and history in the British Islesand that of archaeologists and historians. Forgeologists, the BGS fossil collection is a workingresource of fundamental importance inunderstanding palaeo-environments and establishingstratigraphic correlations. Worked flints and flintimplements can play an important role here inhelping to decipher palaeogeography andpalaeoclimates. In previous years, the centrallocation and importance of the Geological Museumhelped establish the collection as a nationalrepository for specimens of worked flint, most ofwhich were donated or submitted as enquiries. Therewas a body of archaeological expertise within theSurvey’s staff, and the museum provided excellentpublic display areas and general enquiries wereanswered.

This is less the case today, not least because the stressof moving such a venerable institution out ofLondon disrupted the continuity of record keeping,creating a hiatus that is only now being closed. Thespecimen records provide only limited insight intothe potential archaeological significance of theartefacts, which ought to be better known if only for

their educational value in the East Midlands. Re-examination by specialists in Palaeolithic, Mesolithicand later flint artefacts would be most welcome.

What are these samples? Among them are impressivePalaeolithic axes, some labelled as “Acheulian”, aswell as examples of Bronze Age tools including anexquisitely fashioned flint dagger. The artefacts comefrom a range of localities, many very well known.Most are within the south and southeast of England,but the range extends to northern England andsouthern Scotland.

The following are selected highlights, withinformation taken from specimen labels andPalaeosaurus records:

46 Eolithic ‘worked flints’ from the Plateau Gravelsnear Ash and Ightham, Kent (donor B. Harrison,1896).

2 ‘Clactonian flakes’ from Hoxne, Suffolk (BritishAssociation, 1896, and unknown donor, 1938).

12 ‘Clactonian flakes and implements’ from LionsPoint, Clacton, Essex (donor S. HaggledeanWarren, 1938).

36 implements including an ‘Acheulian hand-axe’from Hoxnian Middle Gravel at Swanscombe,Kent (donor A. S. Kennard, 1940).

81 ‘Palaeolithic implements’ including ‘EarlyChellean pick’, ‘Levalloisian hand-axes’ and‘Acheulean hand-axes’ from Pleistocene riverterrace gravels around Farnham, Surrey (H. Bury,1946).

9 ‘flint implements’ from Wookey Hole ‘hyaena den’,Somerset, (donor uncertain).

12 ‘flint implements’ from Cissbury, Sussex,collected during BGS field work.

24 Early Bronze Age ‘flint flakes & cores’ from flintmines at Findon, Sussex, collected during BGS fieldwork.

17 ‘flint implements and flakes’ from BlackpatchFlint mines, Clapham, Sussex, collected duringBGS field work (referred to in The Times on 27October 1978).

14 implements including ‘stone rubbers, workedbone, flint flakes, flint scraper’ from PinholeCavern and Robin Hood’s Cave, Cresswell Crags,Derbyshire, collected during BGS field work.

9 implements of Pleistocene age and variouslyidentified as ‘Magdalenian’, ‘Proto-Solutrean’,‘Aurignacian’, ‘Mousterian’ and ‘Acheulean’ fromcaves near Torquay, Devon. These specimens weredonated by the Geological Society in 1911 andformed part of the collection of the Reverend J.MacEnery from before 1859.

9 ‘Middle Acheulian’ flint implements from FurzePlatt on the outskirts of Maidenhead, Berkshire(donated by Mrs. H. G. Dines, 1965).

22 ‘flint implements’ from fields at Elstead, Surrey(donated by Mrs. H. G. Dines, 1965).

Flint axe [collection number GSM 62836, scale in centimetres] fromMilton Street Pit, Swanscombe, Kent: presented by A. S. Kennard in

1940 and described as an Acheulian hand axe from Pleistocene(Hoxnian) middle gravel.

© British Geological Survey (Natural Environment ResearchCouncil), 2003.

17 ‘flint implements’ from Pleistocene terrace gravelsexposed in pits near Romsey, Hampshire (donatedby H. Dewey, 1965).

8 ‘Acheulian flint implements’ from Pleistoceneterrace gravel at Warsash, Hampshire (donated byH. Dewey, 1965).

12 ‘flint implements’ from Corfe Mullen, Wimborne,Dorset (donated by H. Dewey, 1965).

12 ‘flint implements’ from Cams hall, PortsmouthHarbour, Hampshire (donated by H. Dewey,1965).

10 ‘flint implements’ from Bolberry, Kingsbridge,South Devon (donated by H. Dewey, 1965).

11 ‘flint implements’ from near Bridlington, EastYorkshire (donated by H. Dewey, 1965).

24 ‘flint implements’ from Warren Hill, Mildenhall,Suffolk (donated by H. Dewey, 1965).

The collection of flint artefacts is held at the BGSoffices at Keyworth, near Nottingham. Examinationis by appointment which should be arranged bycontacting the Chief Curator, Dr Mike Howe([+]115 936 3105: [email protected]).

N. J. Fortey, M. Howe, R. Sparham, P. Taylor and S.Wheeler

AcknowledgementsThis paper is published by permission of the Directorof the British Geological Survey (NERC). Thecontribution made by the late Pauline Taylor isincorporated by kind permission of her family.

THE CROATIA STUDY TOUR

Between 12 and 19 September 2005, a group ofSociety members, led by Dr Preston Miracle(University of Cambridge), spent a very full weeklooking at the prehistory of Croatia for this year’soverseas study tour. The tour was organised by theSociety in conjunction with Andante Travels. RogerM. Thomas (English Heritage), who retired fromCouncil in June, represented the Society in place ofthe President, who was unfortunately unable to go.

The tour took in much of the Adriatic coast ofCroatia, starting in the north (at Pula) and workingsouth by coach and ferry to Dubrovnik. The groupthen flew to Zagreb (where the nationalarchaeological museum was opened specially for theSociety - it is normally closed on a Monday) andreturned from Zagreb to London.

Thanks to Preston Miracle’s extensive range ofcontacts in Croatia (he has been working there forover twenty years), it was possible to visit a widerange of sites, to see work in progress and to meet anumber of Croatian prehistorians.

Perhaps the centre-piece of the tour was a series ofvisits to cave sites, most of them reached by anarduous walk (or ‘leisurely hike’, as Prestonpreferred to put it) through dramatic scenery. Thefirst cave visited was Pupicina in Istria, the site ofPreston’s own excavations. This cave was occupiedfrom the Late Upper Palaeolithic onwards. Thesecond was Kopacina on the island of Brac, whereLate Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Bronze Ageremains have been found. The third was MujinaPecina near Split, a Late Mousterian site. This visitcaught the interest of the media, and an interviewwith Preston was filmed at the site and broadcast onCroatian TV later that day. The next was Vela Spila,on the island of Korcula – a huge cavern whererecent excavations have produced abundant LateUpper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and BronzeAge material. We were most fortunate to be given atour of the site by its excavator, Dinko Radic, whoalso showed us the museum where material from theexcavations is displayed, and gave members thechance to handle material from the site. The finalcave site which we visited was Nakovana, in thesouth of the country. Here, a previously undisturbedchamber was recently located by archaeologists whohad been excavating at the front of the cave. In thischamber, a large and very phallic stalagmite

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Flint dagger [collection number GSM 54121, scale in centimetres]from the surface of a ploughed field at Hardwick, near Cambridge:presented by R. J. Hodson in 1935 and described as “Early Bronze

Age”.© British Geological Survey (Natural Environment Research

Council), 2003.

(possibly not in its original position) had been thefocus of possibly ritual activity in the Hellenisticperiod.

Other sites visited included Neolithic sites on thepresent-day coastline of Istria (the sea-level has risensubstantially since prehistoric times), MonkodonjaBronze Age hillfort (where Professor Bernard Hänselof Berlin was excavating at the time of our visit),Bronze Age stone tumuli and fortifications on BracIsland, and the recently investigated Neolithic site ofDanilo, where excavations have been led by AndrewMoore, Tony Legge and Marko Mend–usic. The visitto the national museum in Zagreb allowed us to seethe excellent (and newly redisplayed) prehistoriccollections there.

Non-prehistoric diversions enjoyed by the groupincluded the Roman ‘arena’ (amphitheatre) andother monuments in Pula, the astonishing remains ofDiocletian’s palace in Split and the defended coastaltowns of Korcula and Dubrovnik. Much appreciatedtoo were the local food and wine, the beautifulscenery, the fine September weather and theopportunity to swim in the invitingly warm and blueAdriatic Sea.

Perhaps what impressed the group the most, though,was the energy, and enthusiasm of the Croatianarchaeologists who we met. We were warmlywelcomed everywhere, and our Croatian colleaguesgave generously of their time to make the tour thesuccess that it was. Much is being discovered inCroatia, and the area clearly has a huge potential forprehistoric archaeology.

Particular thanks are due to Preston Miracle, DarkoKomso (Archaeological Museum of Istria, Pula),Marko Mend–usic (Croatian Ministry of Culture,Sibenik), Damir Kliskic (Archaeological Museum,Split), Ivanka Kamenjarin (Kastel Museum), DinkoRadic (Cultural Centre, Vela Luka), Ivan Pamic

(Nakovana Village), and Sanjin Mihelic(Archaeological Museum, Zagreb).

Roger Thomas, Prehistoric Society Council member,2002-2005

SOCIETY NEWS

This year’s Sara Champion lecture was given by DrMelanie Giles of the University of Manchester. Herthought-provoking and enjoyable talk, entitledSeeing red: art, artefacts and colour in the Iron Ageof Britain and Ireland, explored the socialsignificance of aesthetics, focusing in particular onthe grave goods deposited with burials of the Arrasculture of East Yorkshire. Drawing on recentwritings in anthropology, Mel argued that the abilityof Iron Age art to entrance the viewer gave itparticular social efficacy. She considered thesymbolic and sometimes even magical qualities ofcoloured and decorated objects, and convincinglyexamined the role that these would have played inshaping inter-personal relationships and inmaintaining links between the living and the dead.The lecture was very much enjoyed by all presentand stimulated plenty of discussion afterwards!

PPS 71

PPS 71 for 2006 is nearly ready for printing.Unfortunately, a recent close family bereavementmeant that the Editor lost three crucial weeks in theproduction schedule. Every effort is being made toget the Proceedings out on time but members areasked, please, to bear with me - depending on how

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Society President, Professor Miranda Aldhouse-Green (left), with DrMelanie Giles (right).

Dinko Radic introduces the group to the site at Vela Spila.

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close to Christmas we get with the printing, you maynot actually receive your copy until the New Year.

Julie Gardiner, Editor, PPS

SOCIETY STUDY TOURS

Readers may be interested to know thatarrangements for the UK Study Tour to Caithnessand Sutherland in June 2006 are nearly complete;details and a booking form will be sent out with PPS71. Unfortunately, due to circumstances beyond thecontrol of the Society, the proposed Overseas StudyTour to Austria in September 2006 has beencancelled, but has been rearranged for September2007. Instead, it is hoped that the Society will visitDenmark in September 2006 – again, the bookingform and further information will be circulated withPPS.

Dave McOmish, Meetings Secretary

PREHISTORIC SOCIETYSTUDENT STUDY TOUR

Hidden Wessex - what you don’t see from the roadFri 28-Sun 30 April 2006

An affordable tour for students, with leadingprehistorians as guides, of some of the important butless frequently visited monuments of Wessex.Further details can be obtained from theAdministrative Assistant, The Prehistoric Society,Institute of Archaeology, 31-34 Gordon Square,London WC1H 0PY, UK

PREHISTORIC SOCIETYPRESENTS FOR CHRISTMAS

The Society still has merchandise for sale. Why nottreat those loved ones to our exclusive jewellery, tee-and sweatshirts or a tie? All can be purchased fromJulie Gardiner, Prehistoric Society, c/o WessexArchaeology, Portway House, Old Sarum Park,Salisbury SP4 6EB. Please make your cheque out toThe Prehistoric Society.

JewelleryPendant/brooch £28Earrings (stud) £26Cufflinks £32Enamel badges £1.50

TiesPolyester £ 7.95Silk £14.95

Teeshirts and sweatshirtsAll one size, choice of red, green, gold, light blue,green, grey (please state preference and alternative)Teeshirts £8Sweatshirts £18

Prices include VAT. Postage free in UK. OverseasP&P (t-shirts): £2 per order.Overseas P&P (sweatshirts): £5 per order. Overseaspostage for ties and jewellery is free.

CONFERENCE NEWS

Land and people: conference in honour of John GEvansPrehistoric Society and Cardiff Universityconference, Cardiff, March 24-26, 2006

The conference will explore a wide range of issuesdear to the interests and life-time research of John.Sessions will reflect those interests and will embracetopics such as Neolithic people and landscapes,

Current President, Professor Miranda Aldhouse-Green, presents herpredecessor, Professor Graeme Barker, with a token of the Society’s

appreciation for all his work during his term of office.

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Wessex chalklands, coastal sand dunes, northernEuropean wetlands, snails in archaeology, andPleistocene environments. Offers of papers on theseand other topics specific to John’s research interestsare welcome. Papers of 30 minutes length areinvited; colleagues who would prefer to offer aposter are also invited to contact the organisers. Theconference organisers include Niall Sharples, MikeAllen, Terry O’Connor, Paul Davies and AlasdairWhittle. Write c/o Niall Sharples, School of Historyand Archaeology, Cardiff University, PO Box 909,Cardiff, CF10 3XU.

Understanding monuments in their landscapeConference organised by Society of Antiquaries ofScotland in memory of Graham RitchieLecture Theatre, Royal Museum, Chambers Street,Edinburgh, EH1 1JF, April 29 2006

Programme and tickets will be available in February 2006 from the Society of Antiquaries ofScotland, Royal Museum, Chambers Street,Edinburgh EH1 1JF. Tel. 0131 247 4163; websitewww.socantscot.org; email [email protected]

Understanding the Scottish Iron Age?Edinburgh, June 6, 2006

Day seminar organised by the First Millennia StudiesGroup. For further information, contact Dr FraserHunter, National Museums of Scotland, Edinburgh,or email: [email protected]

A New Dawn for the Dark Age? Shifting Paradigmsin Mediterranean Iron Age ChronologyXV UISPP Congress, Lisbon, September 4-9, 2006Call for papers

Conventional chronologies for the first half of the last millennium BC in the Mediterranean are still based largely on ‘historical’ dates and sources, despite the fact that dendro-dates andcalibrated radiocarbon dates have come into increasing conflict with our establishedframework. In addition, recent discussions ofchronological issues in different parts of the Mediterranean have all too often taken place in isolation from each other, rarely addressing the underlying methodological issues in a coherent manner. This colloquium will address these problems by bringing together scholars fromall relevant areas of interest, be they experts inscience-based dating methods, in Biblical,Phoenician and Greek archaeology, or any other fieldof Mediterranean Iron Age archaeology. For furtherinformation, please contact Dr. Dirk Brandherm,Institut für Archäologische Wissenschaften, Fach Ur-und Frühgeschichte, Ruhr-Universität Bochum,Universitätsstrasse 150 (GA 6/56–60), D-44780

Bochum, or email [email protected]

LET US “HAVE A LITTLE CHAT”AROUND PEMBROKESHIRE:THE UK STUDY TOUR 2005

In July of this year, thirty members of the PrehistoricSociety journeyed to Pembrokeshire where Dr GeoffWainwright welcomed us to his home county and,together with Professor Tim Darvill, introduced us tosome of the work they have been doing over the pastfew years. During the tour they would share with ustheir finds and their thoughts.

On the first day, well ‘booted and suited’, the twomini-buses set off across the Pembrokeshirecountryside towards the Preseli hills. Our first stopwas at Gors Fawr stone circle, an almost perfect ringof sixteen pillars, which lies on low ground withCarn Menyn in the distance. Nearby is a pair ofstanding stones, perhaps defining a place oftransition between different land types. Other pairsof standing stones sweep across the terrain.

After a steep climb to Moel Trigarn hillfort, wetravelled on to Carn Menyn, a landscape of fingersof dolerite appealing skywards, to the spot where thebluestones for Stonehenge were quarried. Eagle eyesare needed in this landscape of stone surrounded bystone with stone scatters! Although many havevisited this site, it was only recently noticed that alow wall joins one dolerite outcrop to another -enclosing the platform of this very special place. Tostand on the highest point is an experience in itself,revelling in its conjunction of people over so muchtime whilst experiencing the breathtaking views.Within the same landscape lies Carn Menynchambered tomb, and across the valley is BeddArthur, a bluestone ‘horseshoe’ oval - the blueprintfor Stonehenge, perhaps?

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To accompany a splendid day, we enjoyed an aerialdisplay by red kites. In true Prehistoric Society style,we arrived back at the hotel with just 15 minutes tospare before an excellent presentation by KenMurphy about St David’s Head where he was toescort us the following afternoon. For anyone whowas tired and maybe thinking of having a day off,Ken’s talk inspired most to an early night to be readyupon the morrow.

Next day, first stop was Carreg Samson, Mathry, amost excellent dolmen. Discussion ensuedencouraging us to think about these monuments asthree-dimensional - the great capstone seeminghardly to touch the fingers of the orthostatssupporting it. Perhaps this could inspire a researchproject (with apologies to Richard Bradley)“Floating above the Earth”?

A visit to St David’s Cathedral followed. Mostunusually, it is built some 100 feet below sea level.We were personally guided by Dean Wyn Evans,who first came to the cathedral in 1971 on anexcavation. He returned in 1975 as Dean and hasenjoyed the cathedral ever since, looking after thiswonderful idiosyncratic building as if it were hisown.

On St David’s Head, a wonderful landscape on theedge of the Atlantic, Ken Murphy showed us a rangeof monuments including boundary walls, enclosures,hut circles and a 2m thick defensive wall. There arealso field systems - some well-defined by aerialphotography - but currently hidden under gorse andbracken. The site also doubled as a field hospitalwhere plasters were provided to those who had goneto war with the gorse and lost! Finally, we visited thepromontory fort and its inner hut circles - awonderfully peaceful spot and today an idyllic placeto be.

The next morning was overcast and misty which inmany ways was appropriate, as approaching a rangeof tombs and propped stones through the mist was arather mystical experience - the mist seemed onlyslowly to give up the treasures we had come to see.In the afternoon the mist cleared; we could enjoy the

views and a visit to Garn Fawr hillfort and DinasMawr promontory fort where, alongside thearchaeology, we saw choughs and a colony ofseagulls with the last of the chicks just leaving thenest. On our last evening, we enjoyed an entertainingand witty presentation by Harold Mytum on his‘short term’ project at Castell Henllys which haslasted for the past 25 years.

Our final day saw a stiff climb to our firstmonument, the hillfort Carn Ingli where the westernentrance of stone would certainly have deterred anyinvaders! Down on the lower slopes of the hill, Geofftalked of the five identified villages that inhabit theslopes. One enclosure was full of waist high ferns,and our challenge before lunch was to the find theroundhouse within it! Geoff and Tim had alsodiscovered a linear ditch and bank of unknown dateand of unknown useage: was it finished, and whywas it cutting through this part of the landscape?There is still lots of research to do in the area andvolunteers are welcome - apply to Dr G. Wainwright.

Our last upstanding monument of the tour wasPentre Ifan cromlech, the iconic seven foot highportal dolmen with its classic ‘H’-shaped stonearrangement, including some stones of spotteddolerite. After this, we travelled to Castell HenllysIron Age fort, where the party were greeted with tea,for which Harold Mytum was viewed as a god bymany of the party who craved this very Englishritual. A partially reconstructed promontory fort,Castell Henlys has undergone, and is stillundergoing, excavation and we were privileged tohave our own tour of the site lead by the everenthusiastic Harold. Castell Henllys is also a visitorattraction with its rebuilt houses and demonstrationsof Iron Age crafts, but don’t let that put you off - itis an excellent place to visit. A very rare feature is thecheveaux de frise outside the main entrance. Or is itso rare: have they just not been noticed in otherlocations? Another research project perhaps?

As we came to the end of the prehistoric era andmoved into the Romano-British period, so the touralso started to come to an end. Some faded away tocatch trains, others went back to the hotel to collectcars and with cheery goodbyes returned to the 21stcentury. Finally, my thanks (and the thanks of all ofthose who enjoyed the tour) goes to the organisorsand leaders, Tim Darvill and Geoff Wainwright, toFrances Healy, our drivers Nick and John, and all thespeakers who made waiting for dinner worthwhile!Oh - and the reason for the title of this piece, Let us‘have a little chat’ round Pembrokeshire? That wasone of Geoff’s favourite sayings as he called us all toorder to impart yet another piece of thoughtfulwisdom.

Val Moore FIBA ACMI

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THE PALAEOLITHIC RIVERS OFSOUTH-WEST BRITAIN

The Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britainproject was designed to explore the Lower andMiddle Palaeolithic occupation of south-west Britain(defined as the region to the west of the headwatersof the Frome and Piddle rivers, and to the south ofthe Bristol Avon). In particular, the project isexamining the distribution of ‘open landscape’archaeology: the artefacts and findspots associatedwith river terrace deposits (typically gravels), otherQuaternary deposits (e.g. head), and pre-Quaternarysurfaces (e.g. the Palaeozoic rocks of Devon). Asdocumented by the Southern Rivers PalaeolithicProject carried out in the early 1990s by WessexArchaeology, the Palaeolithic record suggests asignificant decline in the quantity of archaeology tothe west of the River Axe and to the south of theBristol Avon. One of the key goals of the currentproject was therefore to assess whether this patternwas due to genuine landscape preferences of MiddlePleistocene hominins, or to other factors, such as anabsence of research or a failure to document and/orpublicise all of the findings that have been made(resulting in an ‘invisible’ resource). This assessmentwill also permit an exploration of how homininsaccessed the south-west region (e.g. whether it wasfrom the Channel River and its tributaries, via the

Bristol Avon, or through the western headwaters ofthe Solent River). A second goal was to contextualisethe findspot and artefact record in terms of ageochronological framework, to revealchronological trends in the Lower and MiddlePalaeolithic occupation of the region, and tointegrate the ‘open landscape’ archaeology with themore well known cave sites of the south-west.

In the first phase of the project (undertaken betweenMarch and August 2005), emphasis was placed upondesktop assessments of the Lower and MiddlePalaeolithic archaeological resource and thePleistocene river terrace resource in the south-westregion. The desktop assessment of the archaeologicalresource comprised the collation and synthesis of therecords from the Southern Rivers PalaeolithicProject (SRPP) and the regional HistoricEnvironment Records of Cornwall, Devon, Dorsetand Somerset. This enabled the ‘invisible’ resource tobe identified, and the initial analysis has suggested61 ‘new’ findspots which were not included withinthe SRPP records. Although the majority of thesefindspots lie in areas of well-documentedPalaeolithic activity (e.g. the Axe valley), several ofthe ‘new’ findspots lie further west and south of thisarea, strengthening the evidence for occupationbeyond the Axe valley ‘boundary’. These findspotsinclude the recent discovery of a handaxe atMarazion Beach, Penwith, in Cornwall in 1997, and

The south-west region as defined for the Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain project.

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the Levallois flake from Otterford, Somerset. Anartefact sampling programme was also undertakenin the regional museums of the south-west. Thisprogramme indicated that there is a significant bodyof non-diagnostic artefacts (e.g. debitage flakes) ofPalaeolithic or possible Palaeolithic age that arecurrently unclassified (dating of such material isunderstandably difficult) and also poorlyprovenanced. Further analysis and synthesis of thefindspots and artefacts and their implications for thePalaeolithic occupation of the region will beundertaken in phases two and three project (pendingfunding).

The desktop and limited field-based assessment ofthe Pleistocene river terrace resource indicated thatthe resource was of considerable scope and potential,especially for the rivers Exe and Otter (althoughpotential was also identified in Cornwall andSomerset). Examination of the British Geological

Survey (BGS) mapping has indicated variability inmapping quality, with the most recently re-mappedsheets (inevitably) providing the most up-to-dateinterpretations and greatest detail. It is possible thattraditional perceptions of a limited river terraceresource in the region partially reflect this mappingvariability. However, it was also clear that whileterrace landforms and deposits are present across theentire region, the largest exposures are located inDevon, where there is also the greatest degree ofdifferentiation between the individual terracelandforms. Differential GPS mapping of the Exe andCulm (a tributary of the Exe) terraces also indicatedthat while the river terrace sequences of the south-west are different to the classic sequences of thesouth-east, the terraces can be defined as distinct,altitudinally-separate entities, in-keeping with DavidBridgland’s evolving models of terrace formation.Initial OSL dating (by Jenny Bennett, University ofExeter) has also highlighted the potential antiquityof the higher terraces (Devensian dates have beengenerated for terrace 3). It had previously beenassumed that because the majority of the south-westwas not glaciated, the Exe catchment would havepersisted throughout the Pleistocene. However, theshape (planform) of the Exe basin, the existence ofhigh-level terraces on internal interfluves, and themismatch between terrace distribution and presentriver size all suggest that at some point in thePleistocene the Exe catchment has alteredsignificantly, probably by capturing a northerlydrainage and by loosing easterly drainage areas.Developing understanding of the palaeo-drainages ofthe south-west is clearly critical to the furtherinvestigation of the environment and ‘routeways’ ofearly hominins in the region. Finally, the assessmentalso identified paired terraces (i.e. where terracedeposits that correspond in terms of altitude abovethe floodplain are found on either side of the currentriver) on many of the rivers in the south-west region(e.g. the River Axe). These are especially importantas they indicate that a particular section of the riverhas not shifted laterally by any great amount sincethe terraces were formed (as otherwise the landformsand deposits would have been eroded). These areastherefore effectively represent fluvial landscaperemnants (potentially of great antiquity), providingevidence regarding the size of the river and itsfloodplain, past drainage patterns, and the potentialfor recovering Palaeolithic artefacts from minimally-disturbed secondary contexts.

A key further goal of the overall project is theengagement of the public with the project, withparticular emphasis upon the identification andreporting of privately-held collections. Informationabout the project (including contact details forproject staff) can be found at the project website:http://www.rdg.ac.uk/archaeology/HORG/projects/PalaeoRivers/arch-intro.htm

A fluvial terrace gravel exposure at Broom (Pratt’s New Pit), on theDevon/Dorset border.

The first phase of the project has therefore providedan up-to-date assessment of the archaeological andgeological resource of the south-west region, withreference to the Lower and Middle Palaeolithicoccupation. The proposed second and third phasesof the project will seek to build on this assessment toaddress the key questions of the nature of theoccupation in terms of its chronology, landscapepreferences, and the probable routes of access intoand around this region at the north-westernextremes of the earlier Palaeolithic world.

Dr Robert Hosfield (University of Reading),Professor Tony Brown (University of Exeter), LauraBasell (University of Exeter), and Dr SimonHounsell (University of Reading)

ROCK ART FROM A BRONZEAGE CAIRN AT BALBLAIR, NEARINVERNESS

Excavations by Headland Archaeology on behalf ofAggregate Industries (UK) Ltd have recently

provided an opportunity to fully excavate theremains of a large funerary cairn at Balblair nearInverness. The cairn was sub-circular, approximately20m diameter and was situated on the western edgeof a natural gravel terrace. It covered a single centralburial, a slab lined cist that had been robbed inantiquity. The cist was composed of mainlysandstone slabs, although the headstone and acapstone were of schist. Three of the slabs weredecorated, one in particular with a complex andunusual design. The cairn itself never appears tohave had its edges formalised in any way; there wasno evidence for any kerb and the monument,although impressive in its own way, never seems tohave amounted to more than a large pile of rocks.

The evidence from the excavation strongly suggeststhat the cist itself was damaged and subsequentlyrepaired during the construction process. The longthin slab on the north side (labelled b on the plan)was fractured, presumably by the weight of materialplaced against it or over it, but it had been madegood by placing edge-set cobbles along the inner faceof the cist and supporting these with a further

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Plan and elevations of the central cist (© Headland Archaeology).

sandstone slab. This significantly reduced theoriginal internal dimensions of the cist, although theresultant space is of average size for cists in north-eastern Scotland. Penetrating ground waters and thenatural acidity of the glacial gravels precluded thesurvival of any skeletal remains, and as the survivinggrave goods were recovered from secondarycontexts, they tell us little about the original positionof the burial. The complete absence of any crematedbone would suggest that the burial may have been aninhumation.

A number of conjoining rim sherds of Food Vesseltype pottery and a single flint scraper were recoveredfrom secondary contexts and provided the onlydating evidence; no other finds were recovered.Although the modification of the cist could be seenas indicative of multi-episode burial practice, therewas no evidence from its construction to suggest thatthe decoration on any of the cist slabs was notalready present at the time the cist was firstconstructed. In fact, given the floor levels within thecist and the later insertion of the cobbles and slab

along the north side, much of the finer decorationwould not have been visible until revealed throughexcavation.

Decorated stonesThe extent of the decoration on the internal faces of the side slabs was only revealed when the cistwas fully excavated. Slab (a) formed the south sideof the cist and was the largest and most strikingly decorated stone. It is described hereviewed lengthways, with the curvilinear motif to thebottom.

The slab, some 150mm thick, bore a singleperforation worked from both faces. This was oneof three similar-sized sub-circular designs adorningthe western end of the slab, including a cup mark ofsimilar radius and a probable third cup marksurviving at one edge of what was presumably oncea larger stone. All three were of peckedworkmanship. Off-centre on the slab was a striking,deeply scored, but asymmetrical linear decoration. Asimilar, albeit inverted design comprised of four light

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The decorated cist slabs. The different execution techniques on slab (a) are highlighted. The likely juxtaposition of a corpse to the decoratedfaces within the cist is shown to right (© Headland Archaeology).

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but confident incisions can be seen running awayfrom (or perhaps into?) the perforation, and therewas clear evidence of smaller cup marks and lighterpecking around it. Scoring was used to create the line decorationimmediately below the perforation, and similarmarks identified in some Irish and Orcadianmegalithic tombs are regarded as preliminarysketches before more complex designs wereexecuted. It is possible that a similar technique wasused on the Balblair slab. Only one definite area ofsuperimposition has been observed on the slab:slight pecking over the third ‘rib’ to the right on thelower part of the decoration. The decorated face ofthe stone was uneven and all surfaces were clearlyweathered suggesting reuse. The striated surfacevisible on the opposite face of the slab suggests thatit may have been quarried from a surface exposure.

Slab (b) formed the opposite northern side of the cistand was at no point thicker than 90mm. It bore twosmall but distinct pecked cup marks and a singleperforation of similar dimensions. These weresituated in close proximity at the eastern end of theslab and were diagonally opposed to the cup marksand perforation on slab (a). Like slab (a), both facesof the stone appeared to be weathered. The squatwest-end slab (c) was composed of schist and hadevidence of slight pecking and one shallow but well-defined cup mark which was located centrally andclose to its base. There was no evidence of anydecoration on the east-end slab (d) or on the insertedslab (e), neither was there decoration on the reverseside or edges of any of the other decorated stones.Likewise, there was no evidence of any form ofdecoration on the putative capstone, slab (f), nor onany of the other slab fragments recovered andexamined during the course of the excavation. Likeslab (a), the cupmarks and perforation on slab (b)were pecked and the internal surface of theperforation polished. The cupmarks on slab (c) weresmaller and less distinct, probably because they werepecked into a harder surface.

In the context of ‘single grave art’, the cup-marks onthe Balblair slabs are typical Early Bronze Agemotifs. However, the complex curvilinear design hasmore in common with Neolithic passage-grave art,although no direct parallels have as yet beenidentified. The reuse of decorated slabs in EarlyBronze Age cist burials, procured either from open-air sites or from earlier monuments, is a commonphenomenon. Circumstantially, it is more thanlikely that the slabs in the Balblair cist and especiallyslab (a) were procured from an earlier tomb; aruined chambered cairn, still containing similar butundecorated sandstone slabs, lies within 200m of theBalblair site. Although no definite origin for theBalblair slabs can be determined, it can confidentlybe asserted that the weathering patterns, style of

design and truncation of the upper cup-markindicate that the stone has been reused.

The position of decorated slabs within cists followssome deliberate patterns; where skeletal remainssurvive, the more complex face of the slab is usuallyturned in towards the corpse. Although no skeletalremains survived at Balblair, burials of the periodtend to be on an east-west alignment, with the headto the west. This suggests that the head of any corpsein the Balblair cist would have rested below the largeperforation and cup-mark on slab (a). All othercupmarked faces on the Balblair slabs were alsoturned inward. Similarly, the occurrence ofdecoration that is partly or even wholly obscured bythe stones of a cist or burial matrix is anothercommon phenomenon, one that occurs at Balblair,where the constructed floor level of the cist obscuredthe majority of the curvilinear design and cup marks.

Unlike a number of other excavated examples, thereis little evidence for reworking of the Balblair slabsalthough the smaller cup-marks may be a lateraddition and it is possible that the light areas ofpecking around the scored lines and the curvilineardesign indicate unfinished reworking. No otherpositive assertions can be made, however.

ConclusionsDespite the unusual nature of the curvilinear motifdecoration on the principal Balblair slab, themonument as a whole and the evidence it providesfor burial practice during the Early Bronze Age fitcomfortably with other known examples andtraditional interpretations. The style of the carvings,however, provide their own problems, for as noparallels exist, no confident comparisons can bemade.

Andrew Dutton & Kelly Clapperton, HeadlandArchaeology Ltd

Slab (a) in situ after removal of floor deposits (© Headland Archaeology).