PASSION POWER AND PROFIT ECOTOURISM S ROLE ......PASSION, POWER, AND PROFIT: ECOTOURISM’S ROLE IN CORAL REEF CONSERVATION ON BONAIRE Samantha C. Dowdell Dartmouth College Environmental

PASSION, POWER, AND PROFIT: ECOTOURISM’S ROLE IN CORAL REEF

CONSERVATION ON BONAIRE

Samantha C. Dowdell

Dartmouth College Environmental Studies

May 2014

Michael E. Cox

Dartmouth College Assistant Professor of Environmental Studies

[email protected]

Coleen A. Fox, Ph.D. Dartmouth College

Visiting Assistant Professor of Geography [email protected]

Ecotourism’s Role in Coral Reef Conservation on Bonaire 2014

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Abstract II. List of Figures III. List of Tables IV. Introduction

A. Tourism in the Caribbean V. Case Study

A. Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean VI. Literature Review VII. Methods

A. Hypotheses 1. Defining “Ecotourism” and “Success” 2. Challenges to the Ecotourism Industry 3. Economic Conditions

B. Data Collection C. Data Analysis

VIII. Results A. Univariate Analysis

1. Definition of “Ecotourism” 2. Definition of “Success” 3. Challenges to the Ecotourism Industry 4. Economic Conditions

B. Bivariate Analysis 1. Definition of “Ecotourism” by Respondent Type 2. Definition of “Success” by Respondent Type 3. Identification of Threats to Ecotourism by Respondent Type 4. Description of Economic Conditions by Respondent Type

IX. Discussion A. Defining “Ecotourism” B. Defining “Success” C. Challenges to Ecotourism D. Economic Conditions E. Ecotourism vs. Nature-Based Tourism

X. Conclusions XI. Limitations XII. Recommendations

A. For Citizens B. For Scientists C. For Policymakers

XIII. Acknowledgements XIV. References XV. Appendix

Passion, Power, and Profit Dowdell

2


3

ABSTRACT

Coral reefs worldwide are severely threatened by a combination of global climate change

and local damage. One of the most widespread human threats at the local scale is the

impact of coastal development. Ecotourism, a form of environmentally conscious

tourism, is often proposed as a solution to the conservation-development conflict in

ecologically sensitive developing regions, such as the Caribbean.

This study investigates ecotourism’s potential to promote coral reef conservation

on Bonaire, a small island in the Dutch Caribbean. In order to assess ecotourism’s role in

conservation, I conducted semi-structured interviews with Bonairean tourists, tour

operators, and prominent social figures. I investigated how individuals on Bonaire define

the term “ecotourism,” as well as how they measure success, what environmental

challenges they believe pose a threat to the industry, and how they describe the economic

climate of the tourism industry.

I found that the definitions of “ecotourism” and “success” did not vary with

respondent type (tour operator, tourist, or other). Identification of challenges to Bonaire’s

environment and ecotourism industry did vary with respondent type, as tour operators

were less likely to identify human activities as environmental challenges to Bonaire’s

environment. Those not directly involved in the tourism industry were more likely to

identify human activities as threats to the ecotourism industry. This led me to conclude

that the main drivers of ecotourism’s role in coral reef conservation on Bonaire are

passion for environmental conservation, the power of the government to enforce

environmental legislature, and tour operators’ pursuit of profit.


4


5

II. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of Caribbean Islands and Bonaire

Figure 2 Respondent’s definition of the term “ecotourism” by affiliation with the tourism industry

Figure 3 Respondent’s metric of “success” by affiliation with the tourism industry

Figure 4 Percent of respondents that identified each challenge by affiliation with the tourism industry

Figure 5 Description of economic conditions affecting the tourism by affiliation with the industry

III. LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Informant information for interviews used in analysis

Table 2 Data sources

Table 3 Information collected during semi-structured interviews

Table 4 The belief in and definition of “ecotourism”

Table 5 The definition of the “success” of an ecotourism operation

Table 6 Factors threatening the ecotourism industry

Table 7 Economic conditions on Bonaire

Table S1 General interview template

Table S2 Summary of interview results by question category


6


7

IV. INTRODUCTION

In a rapidly changing global climate, conservation of biodiversity is more important than

ever. Ecosystems around the world are vulnerable to rising temperatures, sea levels, and

carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, among other factors. These global risks

compound local ecosystem threats, such as pollution, the impacts of development, and

overharvesting of natural resources.

Coral reefs are as some of the most fragile and at-risk ecosystems on the planet, as

well as some of the most biologically productive and diverse. Anthropogenic pressures in

specific regions have damaged local coral systems past the point of recovery, while

climate change threatens reefs worldwide. The Caribbean is a poignant example of coral

reefs under human-induced stress, as nearly two-thirds of the region’s reefs are

threatened by human activities including overfishing, development, and pollution (Burke

et al. 2012). Coastal development alone threatens at least one-third of Caribbean reefs

(Burke and Maidens 2004). This is especially problematic because many small island

economies depend directly on ecosystem services, especially marine resources, for

livelihoods.

Ecotourism, a form of environmentally conscious tourism, is often proposed as a

solution to the conservation-development conflict in ecologically sensitive developing

regions, such as the Caribbean. This study investigates ecotourism’s potential to promote

coral reef conservation on Bonaire, a small island in the Dutch Caribbean. In order to

assess ecotourism’s role in conservation, I conducted semi-structured interviews with

Bonairean tourists, tour operators, and prominent social figures. I investigated how

individuals on Bonaire define the term “ecotourism,” as well as how they gauge success,


8

what environmental challenges they believe pose a threat to the industry, and how they

describe the economic climate of the tourism industry.

A. Tourism in the Caribbean A large proportion of coastal development in the Caribbean can be attributed to the

expansion of tourism infrastructure (Weaver et al. 1993). The tourism industry is one of

the largest contributors to GDP, foreign exchange, and employment in the Caribbean.

Income generation in the travel, accommodation, leisure and entertainment, and sports

and recreation sectors are is completely dependent on island visitors. International

tourism is also often promoted as a vessel for improved international understanding and

global interconnectedness (Grandoit 2005). While these benefits are extremely valuable

in terms of economic development and fostering a global understanding, tourism can be

highly controversial from a local environmental and socio-political standpoint.

Mass tourism can be especially detrimental coastal ecosystems because of the

inherent interconnectedness between land and sea. Infrastructural development increases

sedimentation, pollution, and waste. Increases in visitor numbers to small island nations

requires the import of food and other resources while simultaneously jeopardizing local

resource bases. Environmental pressures may then lead to social disruption by negatively

impacting livelihoods, threatening subsistence lifestyles, and increasing tensions

surrounding resource use (UNEP 2001). In the Caribbean, the impacts of mass coastal

tourism can be directly observed in the pollution of waters, loss of reef and seagrass

habitats, erosion, sedimentation, and reduction in potable water (Grandiot 2005).

“Ecotourism” first took hold as a branch of nature tourism in the mid-1980’s as

technology improved and the international community became increasingly concerned


9

with environmental issues. Gradually, nature-based tourism operators began to sponsor

local communities and organizations to intensify conservation efforts (Wood 2001).

In the mid-1990’s, the negative impacts of mass tourism, especially in fragile

coastal regions, became apparent, and the worldwide ecotourism movement was born

(Vaughan 2000). Ecotourism was quickly adopted as the ultimate strategy for

“sustainable development” in the Caribbean, a means of protecting delicate ecosystems

and strengthening socio-cultural ties to the environment without sacrificing economic

growth. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) asserts that,

“Ecotourism operations have developed worldwide in an effort to protect delicate

ecosystems and the communities that depend on them. These businesses aim to increase

sustainable tourism, thereby promoting environmental recovery and protection while

stimulating local economies” (UNEP 2001).

It is generally agreed upon in the literature that ecotourism operations must provide

both socioeconomic and environmental benefits to a specific location (Krüger 2005).

However, the general lack of clarity regarding ecotourism has resulted in a broad range of

success in terms of both economic prosperity and conservation efforts. Unfortunately, not

all ecotourism operations are successful in promoting environmental awareness and may

even open doors to ecological degradation (Krüger 2005).


10

V. CASE STUDY

Figure 1. Maps of Caribbean Islands and Bonaire.

A. Bonaire, Dutch Caribbean

Bonaire is a small island (288 km2) situated about 100 km north of Venezuela in the

Dutch Caribbean (Figure 1). It is home to about 13,000 people (Central Bureau of

Statistics 2009) and is surrounded by narrow fringing coral reef. The island’s mangroves

and reefs are protected as part of the Bonaire Marine Park, which extends from shoreline

to a depth of 60 meters. Bonaire’s economy is largely undiversified and heavily

dependent on the tourism sector, particularly SCUBA diving. The dive industry indirectly

supports island hotels, restaurants, shops, and a modest number of casinos and nightclubs

(Dixon et. al. 1993).

A majority of native Bonaireans are descendants of enslaved Africans. During

colonial times, Bonaire served as a slave market for the neighboring island of Curacao, as

both islands were under Spanish, then Dutch colonial control. Descendants of Caribbean

Indians, Spanish, and Dutch settlers comprise the remainder of the national citizenry

(Bonaire 2014).


11

In October 2010, Bonaire, along with the islands of St. Eustatius and Saba, was

reclaimed by the Netherlands as a special municipality by a new constitutional order. As

a result, the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved, Dutch legislature has been introduced to

the island in stages, and all Bonairean citizens now have the same rights as all Dutch

citizens (Government of the Netherlands). Bonaire is also home to a large contingent of

“resident aliens” of Dutch and American descent (Dixon et al. 1993).

The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire, a 2010 study

commissioned by the Netherlands government, estimated the total economic value (TEV)

of nature on Bonaire. The study’s combination of contingent valuation and economic

expenditure placed a value of $105 million per year on Bonaire’s environment, about one

third which is captured in the total financial value (TFV) of the island, estimated to be

$37 million/yr. Nearly 83% of the TFV is attributed to the tourism industry, evidence of

Bonaire’s dramatic dependence on tourism and of the industry’s heavy reliance on

healthy ecosystems. TEEB included an array of ecological-economic models concluding

that the small costs of protection now are worth the huge benefit of avoided damages and

lost profit in the long run (Van Beek et. al. 2012). For this reason, it is vital to Bonaire’s

ecological and economic health that tourism operators and tourists alike are informed of

sustainable practices in order to prevent further environmental degradation. This study

attempts to unpack the variables contributing to the sustainability of ecotourism practices

on Bonaire in an effort to promote awareness and critical thinking about marine

conservation in the Caribbean.

Bonaire was selected for study because of its protected status and well-preserved

reefs. The island has not developed into a mass tourist destination for beach or cruise


12

tourists. Rather, it remains a relatively niche tourist destination, as a majority of visitors

are SCUBA-oriented. While Bonaire lacks the beaches and infrastructure of neighboring

Aruba and Curacao, it’s healthy reefs and abundant microfauna attract a returning

clientele interested in the natural environment (Dixon et al. 1993). Bonaire’s heavy

dependence on the health of its natural environment for subsistence and tourism, as well

as its comparative success in preserving its marine resources, makes it an attractive study

locale. What are the determinants in the success of the island’s ecotourism industry?

This study investigates the factors influencing the role of ecotourism in Caribbean

environmental conservation. In order to assess these factors, I hypothesize that a highly

interconnected combination of ecological, social, and economic variables determines the

role of ecotourism in Bonairean conservation. The results of this study will point towards

the qualities necessary to establish and support a sustainable marine-based ecotourism

operation.


13

VI. LITERATURE REVIEW

Large-scale ecological evaluations of the Caribbean have found that coral reefs are highly

threatened by human activity (Burke and Maidens 2004). These threats include coastal

development, sedimentation, marine-based pollution, and overfishing, and are

compounded by global threats such as climate change. While about 20% of Caribbean

reefs are within Marine Protected Areas, 48% of Caribbean reefs are listed under

inadequate management, and 33% are listed under an “unknown” level of management.

Humans are actively degrading Caribbean reefs and are not committed to conservation

efforts, even though many local economies depend on healthy reefs (Burke and Maidens

2004).

Many studies have investigated tourism’s contribution to environmental

degradation in the Caribbean at large (Grandoit 2005, Krüger 2005, Abel 2003, Wood

2001, Vaughan 2000). One of the most pressing issues is the mislabeling of tourism

operations as “eco” or “green” (Wood 2001) in order to diversify and draw nature-

oriented clientele without any commitment to environmental stewardship or local

communities. A dramatic emphasis on economic growth with little regard for ecosystem

conservation has produced a superficial ecotourism industry that merely continues to

contribute to the environmental degradation that accompanies mass tourism. These

“nature-based” operations do not satisfy the three criterion of an “ecotourism” operation

as defined by Weaver and Lawton (2007): (1) attractions are nature-based, (2) visitor

interaction is focused on learning or education, and (3) operations follow ecological,

socio-cultural, and economically sustainable guidelines. One of the main determinants in

the successful implementation of conservation-oriented ecotourism operations is


14

government policy. Stakeholder involvement has also proven necessary in order to ensure

local commitment to sustainable practices (Wood 2001).

Studies focusing specifically on Bonaire have concluded that the ecotourism

industry may have serious negative social and ecological consequences if it continues on

its current trajectory. Dixon et al. (1993) and Dixon et al. (2000) investigated the

relationship between diver visitation levels and stress thresholds in Bonairean coral reefs.

The studies demonstrated that Bonairean tourist activity has a threshold, as intensive

diver use results in reef degradation. Both studies suggested that the carrying capacity of

dive sites could be increased through improved park management and diver education.

Abel (2003) concluded that the introduction of ecotourism and the accompanying

infrastructure has exacerbated social and ecological problems initiated in the 1950’s with

the overall economic development of the island. Socio-political pressures may be a result

of top-down growth; because Bonaire does not posses fossil fuel or mineral resources, the

island must import a majority of its energy. This results in non-local and government

growth before benefits are able to trickle down to local businesses. Abel (2003) reaffirms

the need for a national ecotourism strategy in order to ensure that the entire island

including government officials, resident business owners, and native Bonaireans are

committed to ecosystem conservation.


15

VII. METHODS

A. Hypotheses

1. Defining “Ecotourism” and “Success”

I hypothesize that the definitions of “ecotourism” and “success” will vary based on

profession. Some respondents may identify the term “ecotourism” as an industry term

that is often misused to target a larger tourist audience. I believe that respondents are

likely to be divided into “ecotourism” operations and general “nature-based” tourism

operations. “Ecotourism” operations will define “ecotourism” as more than merely being

in nature. These operations are more likely to incorporate a visitor education component

into their definition and mention reducing environmental impact. Community

involvement, education, and environmental indicators will be important to “ecotourism”

operators. General “nature-based” tourism operators will likely define “ecotourism” as a

form of tourism that involves enjoying the natural environment. Such operators will be

less likely to incorporate visitor education and environmental indicators into their

definitions of success and are more likely to focus on revenue and number of visitors

(UNEP 2001).

2. Challenges to the Ecotourism Industry

I hypothesize that informants will identify coastal development, overfishing, invasive

species, climate change, and tourism as the primary challenges to Bonaire’s

environmental health and the ecotourism industry (Burke and Maidens 2004).

I anticipate that sociocultural, governmental, and economic challenges may also

be identified as threats to the environment and ecotourism industry. Development,


16

especially in coastal regions, leads to environmental degradation. Therefore, conflict

between those seeking to expand tourism and conservationists is likely. This may be due

to a disconnect in cultural values rooted in nationality and/or profession (Grandoit 2005).

Government enforcement of environmental law is crucial in regulating the ecotourism

industry, as well as development in general. I hypothesize that the colonial governance

structure on Bonaire likely stimulates intergovernmental conflict in regulation, especially

with regard to national park management. This may include staff conflicts, budgeting,

and distribution of information to the public.

3. Economic Conditions

Bonaire is largely economically dependent on the tourism industry, which is inherently

dependent on reef health. Therefore, I anticipate that tension between development and

environmental protection will be apparent. Some respondents may view ecotourism as a

solution to this conflict, especially the development-minded portion of population.

However, others may view ecotourism as merely another segment of an expanding

tourism industry on an island that has surpassed its capacity for growth.

B. Data Collection

In order to determine what factors determine ecotourism’s role on Bonaire, I conducted

semi-structured interviews. I used individual interviews as the unit of observation for

sampling, with the island of Bonaire as the unit of analysis. I used a convenience

sampling of key informants. This sampling approach often lead to further interviews,

resulting in a combination convenience-snowball sampling procedure. I conducted 19


17

interviews (23 individuals) over the span of four weeks in July 2013, 18 of which I used

in analysis (Table 1). Key informants included ecotourism operators, tourists, reporters,

native Bonaireans, American and Dutch immigrants, conservationists, and government

officials. Many informants were met by chance or through connections; others were met

through internet research and contacts. Informants ranged in age from approximately 21

to 70.

Table 1. Informant information for interviews used in analysis. Age identified by “age class” (1 = 20-35, 2 = 36-50, 3 = 50+).

Respondent Age Class Nationality Profession Company 1 1 Netherlands Tourism – 2 1 Netherlands Tourism Glass Bottom Kayak

3, 4 2 Finland Tourism Woodwind Snorkel

5 2 Netherlands Tourism Bonaire Tours 6, 7 2 USA Tourist Trinity College, Wesleyan

University

8 3 USA Business Bonaire Reporter

9 2 Caribbean Conservation Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance (DCNA)

10 3 USA Tourism Carib Inn

11 2 USA Tourism Dive Friends Bonaire

12, 13 2 Netherlands Tourism Blue Bay Rentals

14 2 England Conservation Sea Turtle Conservation Bonaire (STCB)

15 1 Caribbean Tourism Tourism Corporation Bonaire (TCB)

16 2 Netherlands Tourism Bonaire Vista Tours

17 3 USA Business Chat n' Browse

18 2 USA Tourist –

19, 20 1 England, USA Tourist – 21 3 USA Tourist – 22 2 Netherlands Tourism Flow, Bon Photo


18

Interviews were either unstructured or semi-structured, depending on the degree

of comfort with the informant. Conversations ranged in time from approximately 20

minutes to four hours and were held in work places, Internet cafes, restaurants, the gym,

and homes. Some interviews were initiated via invitation, as significant social

relationships were developed. Sessions lasted as long as the interviewee(s) continued to

provide new information and once all questions were answered. The interview plan was

modified depending on the interviewee’s profession (tourist, ecotourism operator,

government worker). When the question was not answered to satisfaction, I probed the

interviewee with clarifying/additional questions. When the interviewee diverged from the

interview plan, we continued with conversation. I took notes using pen and paper on all

relevant information.

I also collected data regarding the tourism industry in the Caribbean, and

specifically on Bonaire, whenever possible (Table 2). This was to ensure that I had

enough background knowledge of the system to ask appropriate questions and to increase

my anecdotal evidence base when possible. I collected this data through a variety of

methods, including direct and participant observational practices. For instance, I directly

observed tourist and operator interactions while sitting in a dive shop and a local Internet

café. I also participated in some tourist activities, including touring and diving with some

of the operators I interviewed. Additionally, many informants provided me with website

information and literature to increase my understanding of Bonaire’s environment and

economy.


19

Table 2. Data sources.

Interviews

Case-study interviews about ecotourism on Bonaire

18 used for analysis; some conducted as joint interviews

1 used only for background on island

Direct Observation

Fishing

Diving operations

Tourists

Cruise ships (Curaçao)

Salt Pier

Participant Observation

Diving

Boat trips

Sea Turtle Conservation

Documents

Administrative: proposals, progress reports

Formal studies and evaluations

News clippings

Archival Records

Organizational records: budget

Maps and charts

Survey data produced by others

Literature

Peer-reviewed journal articles

Government publications

Commissioned reports

Website Information

Buddy Dive

Bon Tuk

Tourism Corp. Bonaire

Other

Worldwide Travel Guide

Bonaire Reporter (newspaper)

Reef Windows (by Captain Don)

Experience Bonaire

Curacao Island Activity Guide

Residing Magazine


20

C. Data Analysis

I grouped interview notes into four broad categories: definition of “ecotourism,”

definition of “success,” challenges to ecotourism, and economic conditions (Table 3).

Within each category, I coded the binary variables of each interview based on the

qualitative interview notes I originally recorded. I used the categorical variables to

calculate univariate and bivariate descriptive statistics in each of the four broad

categories.

Table 3. Information collected during semi-structured interviews.

Personal Information

Name First (and last if provided) name of interviewee.

Age Class Age of interviewee; 1 = 20-35 yrs, 2 = 35-50 yrs, 3 = 50+ yrs.

Nationality Country of origin (if immigrant) or residence (if tourist).

Profession Occupation (on Bonaire if resident, at home if tourist).

Company Name of interviewee's employer or company owned (on Bonaire if resident, at home if tourist).

Ecotourism Information provided in response to "How do would you define the term 'ecotourism'?"

Believes in "ecotourism"

Indicated that "ecotourism" is existent; did not indicate disbelief in "ecotourism."

"Ecotourism" exists on Bonaire Explicitly stated that "ecotourism" does not exist.

Semantics Expressed difficulty in defining ecotourism; indicated that definition is highly variable, term is used for marketing.

Only about being in nature

Indicated that "ecotourism" is defined by interaction with environment.

More than being in nature

Indicated that "ecotourism" is comprised of multiple factors; being in natural environment is only one portion.


21

Educational component Indicated that "ecotourism" incorporates education of tourists.

"Leave no footprint” Indicated that "ecotourism" must include decreasing waste, minimizing impact on environment.

Success

Information provided when asked about indicators of "success" in the ecotourism industry and/or business (if not involved in industry).

Revenue Stated that annual income was indicator of success.

Number of Visitors Stated that occupancy rates (often including return rates) was indicator of success.

Satisfaction Indicated that customer/visitor satisfaction was indicator of success (e.g. through online reviews, return rates, etc.).

Education Indicated that visitor education was an indicator of success.

Environment Indicated that the environment (e.g. health, protection, quality, resource management, etc.) was an indicator of success.

Challenges Information provided when asked about challenges to the "ecotourism" industry on Bonaire.

Overfishing Indicated that overfishing was an ecological problem on Bonaire.

Economic conditions

Indicated that economic conditions (e.g. recession, poverty) contributed to environmental problems on the island and/or the tourism industry.

Lack of Awareness

Indicated that education/awareness (of island residents) was necessary in order to promote a healthy ecotourism industry and environment.

Government enforcement of regulation/Management

Indicated that government enforcement of environmental regulations and/or park management need to be stricter in order to promote a healthy environment and ecotourism industry.

Cruise Industry Indicated that the cruise industry is a cause for enviromental (and/or sociopoitical) concern on the island.

Storms Indicated that storms (especially hurricanes) damage the environment, posing a threat to the ecotouris industry.


22

Development

Indicated that island development (e.g. coastal construction, increase in operators, etc.) is a cause for concern and/or poses a threat to the environment and/or tourism industry.

Climate Change Indicated that climate change is affecting the environment and/or may impact the tourism industry.

Lionfish Indicated that lionfish invasion is an ecological problem and/or may impact the tourism industry.

Sewage Indicated that the sewage system has caused ecological problems and may pose a threat to the tourism industry.

Goats/ Donkeys Indicated that roaming animals have degraded the environment and/or pose a threat to the tourism industry.

Tourism Indicated that tourism poses a threat to the environment.

Economic Conditions Descriptions of the economic climate on Bonaire offered throughout interviews.

Reef is island's main draw

Indicated that island's economy and/or tourism industry is dependent on reef (and/or reef health).

Undiversified/ niche market

Indicated that Bonaire's economy is heavily dependent on tourism, especially dive tourism.

Dependent on Cruise Industry

Indicated that Bonaire's economy and/or tourism industry is depedent on income from cruise tourism.


23

VIII. RESULTS

A. Descriptive Statistics

1. Definition of “Ecotourism”

When asked to provide their own definition for the term “ecotourism”, 89% of

respondents stated that they believed ecotourism existed on Bonaire (Table 4). One

respondent expressed skepticism regarding the existence of “true ecotourism” as an

industry, claiming all forms of tourism are detrimental to the environment. One set of

respondents expressed belief in ecotourism, but stated that the tourism industry on

Bonaire did not include ecotourism.

Almost 67% indicated that “ecotourism” is a form of tourism that actively works

to minimize waste and reduce tourism’s “footprint,” 39% described “ecotourism” as

involving some aspect of visitor education. About 28% of respondents stated that

“ecotourism” is a semantic argument and is difficult to define concretely, while 11%

identified “ecotourism” as merely a form of tourism that utilizes natural resources.

Table 4. The belief in and definition of “ecotourism.”

Response Percent of Respondents

Believes in "ecotourism" 94.44

"Ecotourism" exists on Bonaire 88.89

More than being in nature 83.33

"Leave no footprint” 66.67

Educational component 38.89

Semantics 27.78

Only about being in nature 11.11


24

2. Definition of “Success”

When asked how they would measure the “success” of an ecotourism operation, 44% of

respondents individually mentioned revenue, visitor satisfaction, environmental

indicators (Table 5). Additionally, 39% of respondents stated they would measure

number of visitors, especially return rates, and about 28% discussed using visitor

education as a means for gauging ecotourism “success.”

Table 5. The definition of the “success” of an ecotourism operation.


Revenue 44.44

Visitor satisfaction 44.44

Environmental indicators 44.44

Number of visitors 38.89

Visitor education 27.78 3. Challenges to the Ecotourism Industry

When asked what external factors may negatively impact the ecotourism industry,

interviewees provided a wide array of responses. The most frequently identified

challenge was a lack of government regulation of environmental laws in terms of park

management and development, mentioned by 67% of interviewees (Table 6). Exactly half

of informants attributed some environmental degradation to a deficiency of local

environmental education and awareness, and 44% separately identified the cruise

industry, storms, and tourism as a whole as threats.

While only 39% of respondents listed development as a threat to the ecotourism,

33% indicated that the sewage system was extremely detrimental to environmental


25

health, and therefore coral attractiveness to tourists. Additionally, 17% mentioned that

present economic conditions on the island are jeopardizing to the ecotourism industry.

To my surprise, overfishing was not identified as an ecological threat on Bonaire.

In fact, two respondents mentioned that Bonaire is renowned for its practice of

sustainably harvesting reef fish, an uncommon characteristic for a Caribbean island

(Burke and Maidens 2004). However, many unanticipated challenges to Bonaire’s

environmental health and ecotourism industry were identified. Invasive species were

identified by numerous respondents, as 17% listed lionfish as a serious threat to the reef,

and 11% identified roaming goats and donkeys as detrimental to the island’s interior.

While interior damage is not directly linked to marine-based ecotourism, removal of

vegetation contributes to coastal erosion and sediment deposition on the reef (Burke and

Maidens 2004). Finally, climate change was mentioned by 11% of informants as a

serious concern.

Table 6. Factors threatening the ecotourism industry.


Gov't enforcement of environmental regulations/Management 66.67

Lack of awareness 50.00

Cruise industry 44.44

Storms 44.44

Tourism 44.44

Development 38.89

Sewage 33.33

Economic conditions 16.67


26

Lionfish 16.67

Climate change 11.11

Goats/Donkeys 11.11

Overfishing 0.00 4. Economic Conditions

When prompted to consider challenges to Bonaire’s ecotourism industry, many

informants discussed Bonaire’s undiversified economy and dependencies (Table 7).

Almost 39% of respondents discussed the island’s reliance on a healthy reef ecosystem.

The cruise industry was listed as an essential share of the tourism industry and/or island’s

economy by 33% of respondents, and same share of informants also described Bonaire as

a niche tourism destination catering almost exclusively to divers.

Table 7. Economic conditions on Bonaire.


Reef is island's main draw 38.89

Undiversified/ niche market 33.33

Dependent on Cruise Industry 33.33

B. Comparative Analysis

1. Definition of “Ecotourism” by Respondent Type

Respondents own definitions of the term “ecotourism” varied by their type of

involvement with the ecotourism industry (Figure 2). Tourists and “other” (a category

that included a variety of informants not directly linked to the tourism industry) were


27

slightly stricter with their definition of “ecotourism,” as 100% of respondents in both

categories stated that “ecotourism” is about more than tourist activities in a natural

setting. Tourists and “other” were also more likely to indicate that “ecotourism” should

involve a visitor education component.

Figure 2. Respondent’s definition of the term “ecotourism” varied depending on their affiliation with the tourism industry.

2. Definition of “Success” by Respondent Type

Respondents’ metrics for gauging the success of an ecotourism operation also varied by

affiliation with the tourism industry (Figure 3). Those involved in the operation of the

industry were more likely to gauge success by revenue than any other measure. Tourists

were equally as likely as tourism operators to state that success should be measured by

the number of clients an operation services and by visitor satisfaction standards, such as

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Believes in"Ecotourism"

Ecostourismexists onBonaire

Semantics Only aboutbeing innature

More thanbeing innature

Educationalcomponent

Leave nofootprint/ Noenv. damage

Per

cen

t o

f R

esp

on

den

ts

Definition of "Ecotourism"

Tourism Tourist Other


28

reviews on TripAdvisor. Those in the “other” category largely believed that

environmental indicators should be considered when measuring the “success” of an

ecotourism operation. Only 25-30% of respondents in each category indicated that visitor

education could indicate the success of an operation.

Figure 3. Respondent’s metric of “success” varied with their involvement in the tourism industry. 3. Identification of Threats to Ecotourism by Respondent Type

Identification of challenges to a healthy environment varied by industry (Figure 4). In

general, those involved in the tourism industry were the least likely to identify individual

concerns as threats, while those in the “other” category most frequently identified threats.

Those not affiliated with the tourism industry were most likely to name development,

government regulation and management, the cruise industry, and a lack of awareness as

threats to Bonaire’s environment and ecotourism businesses. Tourists also frequently

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Revenue Number of Visitors Visitor Satisfaction Education Environment

Per

cen

t o

f R

esp

on

den

ts

Definition of "Success"



29

identified a lack of government regulation and the cruise industry as ecological

challenges, but were also aware of non-human threats such as storms and invasive

lionfish. Tourism operators were least likely to identify most threats, especially those

associated with human activity.

Figure 4. Percent of respondents that identified each challenge to a healthy environment varied professional industry.

3. Description of Economic Conditions by Respondent Type

Description of Bonaire’s economic climate varied somewhat by industry (Figure 5).

About half of respondents discussed the island’s dependence on a healthy reef to attract

tourists, as well as the undiversified economy. However, few identified economic

conditions as a threat to the environment or to ecotourism. Those involved in the tourism

industry were the only respondents to describe the island’s dependence on cruise tourism.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Per

cen

t o

f R

esp

on

den

ts

Challenges to Ecotourism



30

Figure 5. Respondents’ descriptions of economic conditions affecting the tourism industry on Bonaire varied depending on involvement in the tourism industry.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Reef is island's main draw Undiversified/ nichemarket

Dependent on CruiseIndustry

Economic conditionspose a threat to the

environment/ecotourism

Per

cen

t o

f R

esp

on

den

ts

Description of Economic Conditions



31

IX. DISCUSSION

1. Defining “Ecotourism”

To my surprise, all informants were familiar with the term “ecotourism,” and a large

majority indicated that it is more than simply outdoor tourism. Most respondents

emphasized minimizing environmental impact, which I believe reflects the general

recognition that the island is dependent on healthy ecosystems in order to continue

attracting tourists.

One the most intense interviews I conducted was with a tour operator who owns a

small inn and SCUBA company. He stated that ecotourism, as he understands the

concept, does not exist. He told me that all tourism is environmentally destructive, that it

shouldn’t be presented as sustainable behavior. This informant spent over an hour

criticizing Bonaire’s recent expansion of the tourism industry, the cruise industry in

general, and the government’s lack of environmental management. While this was among

the most extreme interviews I conducted, it represents a critical attitude that is vital to

Bonaire’s ecotourism industry. It is important that individuals within the industry

recognize its flaws and potential to be detrimental to the environment, especially with

continued expansion.

2. Defining “Success”

When I asked the critical inn owner how he could justify running a tour operation when

he was so disparaging of tourism, he stated that his business was sustainable because he

refused to expand. While revenue was important to him, visitor satisfaction was even

more important; he prided himself on a month of exclusively return guests. While this


32

informant was a particularly dramatic case, the value he placed on customer satisfaction

was exceptionally common. Numerous tour operators mentioned reviews on TripAdvisor

as one of their tools for measuring “success,” and many stated that return rates were very

important to them. This reflects tour operators’ recognition of the island’s status as a

niche tourism destination. As reflected in my interviews with tourists, Bonaire caters to a

certain type of client, and those that are satisfied are likely to return for five, ten, even

fifteen plus years. Their motivation to return over and over was a combination of

Bonaire’s small community atmosphere and pristine environment, justifying the inn

owner’s views on development and environmental protection.

3. Challenges to Ecotourism

The most frequently identified threat to ecotourism was a lack of government regulation

regarding environmental legislation and management of protected areas. It was clear that

most island respondents felt that it is the government’s responsibility to ensure that

Bonaire’s environment is safeguarded. Without adequate enforcement of environmental

legislation, the government is largely assuming that the tourism industry will self-

regulate. While this may be the case with ecotourism operations, nature-based tour

operators are much less likely to regulate themselves, as they are more concerned with

profit than environmental health.

American ex-patriots were extremely concerned about the state of the

environment. Three respondents in particular were extremely alarmed by the

development of the tourism industry on the island over the past few decades. While one

individual’s inn and dive shop was not necessarily an ecotourism operation, he blamed


33

ecological problems on island development in general, not businesses similar to his own.

All three informants indicated that most ecological issues over the past 30 years have

been related to population growth, and they expressed concern about future development

plans. They were also concerned with a lack of Bonairean integration in the tourism

industry and felt that Dutch operations were exploiting the Bonairean environment with

little concern for the local population. All three individuals were involved in political

committees and media circulation, attempting to raise awareness of these issues on

Bonaire.

4. Economic Conditions

Another set of challenges to Bonaire’s environment relate directly to the economic

climate of the island. The economy, as indicated by numerous respondents, is extremely

undiversified and largely dependent on the tourism industry. Tourism, and ecotourism in

particular, are in turn reliant upon healthy ecosystems in order to attract clientele.

Without thriving coral, a magnificent array of reef fish, and highly productive mangrove

nurseries, the island would not be able to support the successful coastal tourism industry

it boasts today. This is the paradox of ecotourism: should Bonaire allow expansion of a

successful industry at the risk of environmental degradation?

One respondent, a staunch conservationist and advocate for the Dutch Caribbean

Nature Alliance, is concerned about Bonaire’s potential to follow in Aruba’s footsteps.

Born and raised on Bonaire’s neighbor island, she witnessed the deterioration of Aruba’s

reefs with the construction of mammoth luxury resorts and cruise ports. Profit-hungry


34

developers and subsistence Bonaireans alike may be tempted by the seemingly

enchanting economic development and bustling tourism industry next door.

This respondent also lamented about the Bonairean ignorance about

environmental issues. She believes this has lead to an under-appreciation of ecological

beauty and a vicious cycle of economic exploitation. The island’s population is unaware

of how industrial activity, such as expansion of waterfront activities catering to tourists,

destroys the natural world. This has lead to accidental destruction of precious ecosystems,

the very backbone of the industry under expansion. She is particularly wary of Tourism

Corp. Bonaire (TCB)’s wooing of the cruise industry; rather than dedicating time, money,

and energy to a destructive, selfish sector, TCB should be redistributing efforts

elsewhere. She believes that a combination of education and economic diversification

could save Bonaire from becoming the next Aruba.

Her vision is to expand Bonaire’s ecotourism industry to incorporate native

Bonaireans, but to shift focus away from the delicate coast. She would like to see the

establishment of a “hiking” Bonaire. The terrestrial protected area offers ample

opportunity to explore the island’s rocky hills and cactus jungles, offering spectacular

views of the coast. Additional economic diversification would also help relieve pressure

on the reefs. This informant suggested that the roaming animal problem could be reduced

through goat farming, which would allow the island to export a variety of goat skin and

milk products. Her dreams for the island represent Bonairean’s creative ability to solve

environmental problems.


35

5. Ecotourism vs. Nature-Based Tourism

The distinction between ecotourism and nature-based tourism on Bonaire is critical in

order to think about island dynamics. There were two distinct types of tourism operations

on the island. Ecotourism and nature-based tourism operators placed different values on

visitor education and the environment. Ecotourism operators, such as snorkel tour

companies, were more concerned with visitor education and indicators of environmental

health. Nature-based operators, such as water sports rental businesses, placed higher

value on revenue and number of visitors. While ecotourism operations voluntarily abide

by environmental law and work to protect the environment, there is currently little

incentive for nature-based operations to do the same. Many ecotourism operators

lamented that one of the major challenges to the industry was that their “neighbors [were]

destroying their backyard.” This is further evidence that government enforcement of

environmental law is crucial to protecting both Bonaire’s nature and the ecotourism

industry.


36


37

X. CONCLUSIONS

I concluded that there are three main drivers behind ecotourism’s role in coral reef

conservation in the Caribbean: passion, power, and profit.

1. Passion

Passion refers to the deep appreciation for the environment and intense fight to protect it

initiated by a handful of individuals on Bonaire. These individuals (largely represented

by the “other” category in analysis) span a variety of professions and levels of

involvement in the tourism industry. They did not hesitate to criticize development, the

cruise industry, and any activity that threatened the ecological health of the island. It is

this population that is responsible for regulating coastal development and the tourism

industry, as Bonaire’s government has been largely absent in terms of enforcing

environmental legislature. These are the individuals fighting the construction of

additional waterfront piers, the extension of the cruise season, and building on Klein

Bonaire. It is volunteer protection of the marine park that ensures guests pay marine park

fees, do not enter protected sites, and minimize pollution. Without this industry self-

regulation, Bonaire’s ecotourism industry would likely not exist.

2. Power

The power is associated with the government’s ability to regulate the tourism industry.

One of the island’s challenges lies in the interconnectedness of politics and development.

Due partly to the island’s small size, many powerful players in industry also sit as chairs

of political committees and are responsible for serious decision-making. This conflict of


38

interest has manifested in ecologically threatening ways: the government often overlooks

development plans that violate environmental legislature unless plans are directly

protested. For this reason, power refers to a lack of government action, as well as the

influence of big industry, in ecological protection.

3. Profit

Ecotourism is a potentially self-destructing business venture- expansion past

environmental thresholds results in collapse. The pursuit of profit both supports

ecotourism’s existence and has the potential to completely decimate the environment, and

therefore the ecotourism industry and Bonaire’s economy.

Bonaire is a small island, and therefore could realistically have already reached its

carrying capacity for tourism activity and development. Therefore, the dramatic alarm

and passionate activism is warranted, especially in order to prevent profit-hungry

businessmen from threatening the island’s ecological health. Without strong government

enforcement of environmental law, this passion has become the sole protector of

Bonaire’s nature. While it is widely recognized that the island relies on its environment

both culturally and economically, it is continuously endangered by industry activity.

This is where ecotourism can find its niche. The ecotourism industry can serve to

stabilize conflict between development and environment, between profit and passion. But

it must be “ecotourism,” not “nature-based” tourism. Visitor education of local

environmental issues and community involvement are critical aspects of promoting

ecological preservation and must be incorporated into the tourism industry.


39

XI. LIMITATIONS

I worked on an extremely small Caribbean island with a unique government structure and

population, thereby limiting the external validity of my study. Additionally, I spoke

mainly to individuals exceptionally concerned with the environment and/or involved

directly in the ecotourism industry. By snowball sampling key informants, I spoke to a

contingent of interviewees with similar opinions regarding environmental legislation and

development. Bonaire’s population is not representative of the Caribbean as a whole, and

my interviews only represent a handful of voices, ideas, and perceptions on Bonaire.

The coding process challenges the concept validity of my study. While

conducting interviews, I ensured that informants were comfortable with my presence and

that I asked questions clearly. I feel that interviews accurately reflect respondents’

opinions regarding the industry. However, the small sample size of my study made

coding and running descriptive statistics difficult. Interviewees provided a diverse array

of responses that were not easily categorized. Therefore, my quantitative results should

be interpreted as support for anecdotal evidence. It is important to recognize that the bulk

of my evidence is anecdotal- the stories I heard and opinions I was exposed to do not lend

themselves to tables and figures.

I am confident that my data collection methods, results, and conclusions are

reliable. A majority of the individuals I interviewed expressed their opinions with

certainty, many with a great deal of enthusiasm regarding economic or conservation

opportunities in the ecotourism industry. I believe that I was able to gather an accurate

understanding of my informants’ ideas concerning ecotourism, development, and

conservation on Bonaire.


40


41

XII. RECOMMENDATIONS

1. For Citizens

Bonaire has the potential to be an ecotourism paradise, if proper management is

established and environmental legislation is enforced. I recommend that those involved in

the conservation practices of the island, the forces behind the “passion,” consolidate

efforts. The individuals I interviewed come from positions in society on the island where

they have the capacity to affect real change. One respondent, for instance, publishes the

Bonaire Reporter, one of the island’s top publications. Another owns the Internet café

Chat n’ Browse and has been on the island for over 20 years. He has fostered countless

social and political relationships with individuals from all portions of Bonairean society.

Native Bonaireans and tourists alike frequent his shop every day they’re on the island for

a quick chat and to pick up the Bonaire Reporter. The owner of the Carib Inn spoke

passionately about safeguarding the environment through political activism. Finally, an

active worker for the Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance described her work with the

marine park regulatory body STINAPA and her vision for Bonaire’s economic

diversification, as well as her deep understanding of ecological challenges facing the

island.

These four individuals possess an amazing depth of knowledge about Bonaire’s

history, ecology, government, and social structure. While there is some exchange of

ideas, I believe formal collaboration is necessary in order to capture the attention of the

island government. These examples alone represent a diverse set of backgrounds and

professions, giving them the ability to develop a large support base. Their passionate

environmentalism, social connections, links to the press, and alternative economic


42

scheme could create the perfect storm of fiery discontent with the status quo backed by

feasible solutions to current problems. Collaboration to effect political change is

absolutely necessary in order to ensure ecotourism has a sustainable future.

2. For Scientists

Ecological studies should be commissioned in order to re-evaluate coral health, especially

at sites that have been visited heavily by divers. Dixon et al. (1993) measured reef

carrying capacity and the impact of protective management and diver education,

providing a framework for a long-term ecological monitoring system. This data could

assist policymakers in determining which sites are at risk of degradation due to high

diving traffic and if management strategies, such as increasing diver awareness, could

help elevate threshold reef stress levels, effectively increasing dive site carrying capacity.

Additionally, socioeconomic studies could investigate how revenue from

ecotourism is distributed on the island and how to better engage the native Bonairean

population in the industry. I was unable to speak to native Bonaireans and therefore do

not have primary data on their perceptions of ecotourism. Many of my respondents

identified a lack of native environmental awareness as a threat to the island’s ecological

health, a possible sign that the native population is disengaged from conservation efforts.

Involvement in ecotourism could increase native Bonaireans’ quality of life, promote

cultural exchange with the Dutch and American populations, and encourage

environmental stewardship.


43

3. For Policymakers

Newly commissioned scientific studies will only be useful if applied to effective

management practices. One of the major issues with government enforcement of

environmental legislation on Bonaire is the government’s tendency to ignore

development plans infringing on protected areas. Policymakers must understand that,

while short-term profit may be enticing, Bonaire’s economy will collapse if the reef is not

protected first and foremost in the long run.


44


45

XIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Professor Michael Cox for his endless support and assistance with

experimental design, analysis, and interpretation. His contributions every step of the way

made this project a reality.

I would also like to thank Professor Coleen Fox, Tyler Pavlowich, and Molly

Wilson for their edits, suggestions, and inspiration for my project.

I would have been completely unable to execute my interview plans without the

help of Emily Goodwin, Michael Gaynor, and Dive Friends Bonaire. Emily put a roof

over my head, while Michael and Dive Friends showed me around the island and

introduced me to valuable informants.

I would like to acknowledge Dartmouth Undergraduate Research Funding for the

financial aid that made this all possible.

Finally, I would like to thank all of my family members and friends, specifically

my parents and Jacob Ebersole, for the financial and emotional support that carried me

through the past year.


46


47

XIV. REFERENCES Abel, T. 2003. Understanding complex human ecosystems: The case of ecotourism on

Bonaire. Ecology and Society 7: 10. Amis Lacle, F., Wolfs, E., van Beukering, P., and Brander, L. 2012. Recreational and

cultural value of Bonaire’s nature to its inhabitants. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-12/10.

Bonaire 2014. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/

EBchecked/topic/72671/Bonaire. Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., and Perry, A. 2011. Reefs at risk: Revisited. World

Resources Institute. Burke, L. and Maidens, J. 2004. Reefs at risk in the Caribbean. World Resources

Institute. Cado van der Lely, J., van Beukering, P., Muresan, L., Zambrano Cortes, D., Wolfs, E.,

and Schep, S. 2013. The total economic value of nature on Bonaire: Exploring the future with an ecological-economic simulation model. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-13/01.

Central Bureau of Statistics. 2009. Statistical Yearbook Netherlands Antilles 2009.

Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles. Dehoorne and Tatar. 2013. Ecotourism strategies for Caribbean tourism destinations.

Tourismos 8: 283-299. Dixon, J., Scura, L, and van’t Hof, T. 1993. Meeting ecological and economic goals:

Marine parks in the Caribbean. Ambio 22: 117-125. Dixon, J., Scura, L, and van’t Hof. 2000. An economic and ecological analysis of the

Bonaire Marine Park. In Collected Essays on the Economics of Coral Reefs. Edited by H.S.J. Cesar. CORDIO, Kalmar University, Sweden. pp. 40-54.

Government of the Netherlands. Caribbean parts of the Kingdom: Bonaire, St. Eustatius

and Saba. Ministry of General Affairs. Grandoit, J. 2005. Tourism as a development tool in the Caribbean and the environmental

by-products: the stresses on small island resources and viable remedies. Journal of Development and Social Transformation 2: 89-97.


48

IPCC, 2007: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp.

Krüger, O. 2005. The role of ecotourism in conservation: panacea or Pandora’s box?

Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 579-600. Kushner, Benjamin, R. Waite, M. Jungwiwattanaporn, and L. Burke. 2012. Influence of

coastal economic valuations in the Caribbean: Enabling conditions and lessons learned. World Resources Institute.

[Map of Bonaire]. Graphic Maps. Retrieved from http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/

countrys/namerica/caribb/bonaire.htm. [Map of Caribbean]. Graphic Maps. Retrieved from http://www.worldatlas.com/web

image/countrys/namerica/caribb/bonaire.htm. Mora, Camilo. 2008. A clear human footprint in the coral reefs of the Caribbean. The

Royal Society: Biological Sciences 2008: 767-773. Schep, S., Johnson, A., van Beukering, P., and Wolfs, E. 2012. The fishery value of coral

reefs in Bonaire: Applying various valuation techniques. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-12/08.

Schep, S., van Beukering, P., Brander, L., and Wolfs, E. 2013. The tourism value of

nature on Bonaire : Using choice modelling and value mapping. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-13/02.

United Nations Environment Programme. 2001. Ecotourism: Facts and figures. Industry

and Environment 24: 5-9. Van Beek, I., van Beukering, P., Botzen, W., Brander, L., Lacié, F., Cado van der Lely,

J., Meesters, E., Schep, S., Wolfs, E., and van Zanten, B. 2012. What’s Bonaire’s nature worth? The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam, and WKICS BV. Bonaire, Netherlands Antilles.

Van Beukering, P., Botzen, W., and Wolfs, E. 2012. The non-use value of nature in the

Netherlands and the Caribbean Netherlands: Applying and comparing contingent valuation and choice modelling approaches. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-12/07.


49

Van Zanten, B., and van Beukering, P. 2012. Coastal Protection services of coral reefs in Bonaire: Economic values and spatial maps. Institute for Environmental Studies, University Amsterdam. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity on Bonaire. Report R-12/11.

Vaughan, D. 2000. Tourism and biodiversity: a convergence of interests? International

Affairs 76: 283-297. Weaver, D.B, and Lawton, L.J. 2007. Twenty years on: The state of contempoarary

ecotourism research. Tourism Management 28: 1168-1179. Wood, M.E. 2001. Ecotourism and sustainable development. Industry and Environment

24: 10-15.


50

XV. APPENDIX

Project Information Sheet

Hello, my name is Sammi Dowdell, and I am an undergraduate student, class of 2014 at

Dartmouth College. I am conducting this project with supervision by faculty advisors

from Dartmouth College in Hanover, NH, USA. I am studying the features necessary for

the establishment and longevity of sustainable marine-based ecotourism operations in the

Caribbean.

Your participation is voluntary. Participation involves a 15-minute interview

and/or completion of a survey. You may choose to not answer any or all questions. If

applicable: With your permission, the interview will be audio recorded. You may request

that the recording be stopped at any time. The audiotapes will be transcribed and

destroyed at the end of the project.

The information collected will be maintained confidentially. With your

permission, your name or other identifying information will be included in presentations

and papers concerning this project.

Questions about this project may be directed to myself or to my advisors.


51

Table S1. General interview template. Main Questions Additional Questions

Can you tell me about what you do for a living?

How long have you worked for [X]?

What does your organization do on Bonaire?

What are your responsibilities?

Can you tell me about your residency on the island?

How long have you lived on Bonaire?

What jobs have you worked in your time on the island?

Are you familiar with the term “ecotourism”?

If yes, what does this term mean to you?

If no, what do you think this term means?

What characteristics determine whether or not a company is an ecotourism operation?

Can you tell me about Bonaire’s ecotourism operations?

What makes an ecotourism operation successful or unsuccessful? (ie biophysical, cultural, economic indicators)

What factors determine the success of an ecotourism operation?

How does your job relate to Bonaire’s ecotourism industry?

Can you tell me about your opinion of the industry in general?

Can you tell me about your relationship with STINAPA?


52

Table S2. Summary of interview results by question category. Asterisks indicate that one respondent did not believe in the existence of “ecotourism,” and therefore percents were

calculated as “percent of respondents that believe in the existence of ecotourism.”

Total Percent

Definition of "Ecotourism"

Believes in "ecotourism" 17 94.44

"Ecotourism" exists on Bonaire 16 94.12*

Semantics 5 29.41*

Only about being in nature 2 11.76*

More than being in nature 15 88.24*

Educational component 7 41.18*

"Leave no footprint" 12 70.59

Definition of "Success"

Revenue 8 44.44

Number of visitors 7 38.89

Visitor satisfaction 8 44.44

Visitor education 5 27.78

Environmental indicators 8 44.44

Challenges to Ecotourism

Overfishing 0 0

Economic conditions 3 16.67

Lack of awareness 9 50 Gov't enforcement of environmental regulation/Management 12 66.67

Cruise Industry 8 44.44

Storms 8 44.44

Development 7 38.89

Climate Change 2 11.11

Lionfish 3 16.67

Sewage 6 33.33

Goats/ Donkeys 2 11.11

Tourism 8 44.44

Economic Conditions

Reef is island's main draw 7 38.89

Undiversified/ niche market 6 33.33

Dependent on cruise industry 6 33.33