Nouns Nouns are naming words. They may name persons, animals,
plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas Bart,
armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud, love, ghost, music,
virtue
Slide 4
Noun Indicators The, A, and An signal that a noun is
ahead.
Slide 5
Pronoun A word used in place of a noun
Slide 6
Some pronouns may represent specific persons or things:
Ishethey you meherthem yourself myself herself themselves
yourselves ithewewho itselfhimuswhom thathimselfourselves
Slide 7
Indefinite Pronouns Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in
a general way: each everyone nobody somebody
Slide 8
Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things SINGULAR this that
PLURAL these those
Slide 9
Pronouns that Introduce Questions Who Which What
Slide 10
Verbs Show action or express being in relation to the subject
of a sentence.
Slide 11
Types of Verbs Action verbs: ate, washed Being verbs: is, as,
were, are, am Helping verbs are used with main verbs to form other
tenses to form verb phrases: had sung, will be singing Main helping
verbs: has, have, had, is, was, were, are, am Helpers: will, shall,
should, could
Slide 12
Adjectives Modify nouns and pronouns and answer the questions
What kind? Which one? How many?
Slide 13
Adjectives What kind are descriptive words red, dirty, noisy,
gentle, tired Which one narrows or restricts meaning my, our,
other, this, these How many are numbering words some, three, each,
one, few Articles are noun indicators a, an, the
Slide 14
Adverbs Modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs Answer the
questions How? Where? When? To what degree?
Slide 15
Adverbs that answer HOW? show manner or way WHERE? show
location WHEN? indicate time TO WHAT DEGREE? express extent
Hungrily, noisily Downtown, behind, upstairs Yesterday, soon
Entirely, somewhat
Slide 16
Adverbs Most words ending in ly are adverbs. Skillfully
Courteously Exceptions are adjectives like lovely and ugly
Slide 17
Prepositions Are words or groups of words that function as a
connective The preposition connects its object(s) to some other
word(s) in the sentence. A preposition and its objectusually a noun
and a pronounwith modifiers make up a prepositional phrase, which
will function as an adjective or an adverb.
Slide 18
Common Prepositions about beforebutinto past above behindby
liketoacrossbelow afterdespiteneartoward afterbeneathdownof under
againstbesidefor offuntilamongbetween fromonuponaround
beyondinoverwith
Slide 19
Prepositions Composed of More Than One Word According to As far
as Because of In spite of Ahead of As well as In back of Instead of
Along with Aside from In front of Together with
Slide 20
Conjunctions A conjunction shows a relationship between words,
phrases, or clauses
Slide 21
Coordinating Conjunctions For And Nor But Or Yet So
Slide 22
Subordinating Conjunctions Afterbecauseprovidedwhenever
Althoughbeforesincewhere Asbut thatso thatwhereas As
ififtillwherever As long asin order thatuntil As soon
asnotwithstandingwhen
Slide 23
Interjection Conveys strong emotion or surprise Punctuated with
an exclamation mark Awesome! Curses! Cowabunga! Yaba dabba doo!
When appearing as part of a sentence, interjections are usually
followed by a comma Oh, I did not consider that problem. Seldom
appropriate for college writing.
Slide 24
Subjects and Verbs
Slide 25
The subject is who or what causes the action or expresses a
state of being. The verb indicates what the subject is doing or is
being.
Slide 26
Simple Subject Usually a single noun or pronoun The restaurants
soup of the day is clam chowder. simple subject
Slide 27
Complete Subject The simple subject with all its modifiers The
restaurants soup of the day is clam chowder. complete subject
Slide 28
Nouns Nouns are naming words. They may name persons, animals,
plants, places, things, substances, qualities, or ideas Bart,
armadillo, Mayberry, tree, rock, cloud, love, ghost, music,
virtue
Slide 29
Pronoun A word used in place of a noun
Slide 30
Personal Pronouns Ishethey you meherthem yourself myself
herself themselves yourselves ithewewho itselfhimuswhom
thathimselfourselves
Slide 31
Indefinite Pronouns Refer to nouns (persons, places, things) in
a general way: each everyone nobody somebody
Slide 32
Pronouns that Point Out Particular Things SINGULAR this that
PLURAL these those
Slide 33
Pronouns that Introduce Questions Who Which What
Slide 34
The simple subject can be single or compound: My friend and I
have much in common. [compound subject] My friend brought a
present. [single subject]
Slide 35
Implied Subjects The command, or imperative, sentence has a you
as the implied subject and no stated subject. (You) Read the
notes.
Slide 36
The object of a preposition cannot be a subject. The
chairperson [subject] of the department [object of the preposition]
directs the discussion.
Slide 37
Verbs Show action or express being in relation to the subject
of a sentence.
Slide 38
Action Verbs Suggest movement or accomplishment of an idea or a
deed He dropped the book. [movement] He read the book.
[accomplishment]
Slide 39
Being Verbs Indicate existence They were concerned.
Slide 40
Verbs may occur as single words or phrases. He led the charge.
[single word] She is leading the charge. [phrase]
Slide 41
Compound verbs are joined by a word such as and or or. She
worked for twenty-five years and retired.
Slide 42
Verbals are not verbs; verbals are verblike words that function
as other parts of speech. Singing [gerund acting as a noun] is fun.
I want to sing. [infinitive acting as a noun object] Singing
[participle acting as a modifier], he walked in the rain.
Slide 43
Words such as never, not, and hardly are not verbs; they modify
verbs.
Slide 44
Locations of Subjects and Verbs Although the subject usually
appears before the verb, it may follow the verb. There was justice
in the verdict.
Slide 45
A verb phrase may be separated into a question. Where had the
defendant gone on that fateful night?
Slide 46
Kinds of Sentences
Slide 47
Types of Sentences On the basis of number and kinds of clauses,
sentences may be classified as Simple Compound Complex
Compound-Complex
Slide 48
Clauses Clause: a group of words with a subject and a verb that
functions as a part or all of a complete sentence. There are two
kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent
(subordinate).
Slide 49
Independent Clauses An independent (main) clause is a group of
words with a subject and a very that can stand alone and make
sense. An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself
and can be written as a separate sentence. I have the money.
Slide 50
Dependent Clauses A dependent clause is a group of words with a
subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning.
Functions in a sentence as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When
you are ready.
Slide 51
Relative Clauses A type of dependent clause Begins with a
relative pronoun, such as that, which, or who The player who
answers the most questions correctly wins the game.
Slide 52
Phrases Groups of words that go together Do not have a subject
and verb Types: prepositional phrases and verbal phrases
(infinitive phrases, participial phrases, gerund phrases)
Slide 53
Types of Sentences SIMPLE: One independent clause Susan was
having trouble with her spelling. COMPOUND: Two or more independent
clauses Susan was having trouble with her spelling, and she
purchased a computer with a spell checker.
Slide 54
Types of Sentences COMPLEX: One independent clause and one or
more dependent clauses. Because Susan was having trouble with her
spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX: Two or more independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses. Because Susan was having trouble with her
spelling, she purchased a computer with a spell checker, and the
results made her expenditure worthwhile.
Slide 55
Punctuation Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS) between two independent clauses. The movie was good, but
the tickets were expensive.
Slide 56
Punctuation Use a comma after a dependent clause that appears
before the main clause. When the bus arrived, we quickly
boarded.
Slide 57
Punctuation Use a semicolon between two independent clauses in
one sentence if there is no coordinating conjunction. The bus
arrived; we quickly boarded.
Slide 58
Punctuation Use a semicolon before and usually a comma after a
conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore, on the
other hand, and in fact), and between two independent clauses (no
comma after then, also, now, thus, and soon). The Dodgers have not
played well this year; however, the Giants have won ten games in a
row. Spring training went well; then the regular baseball season
began.
Slide 59
Combining Sentences
Slide 60
Coordination If you want to communicate two equally important
and closely related ideas, place them close together, probably in a
compound sentence (two or more independent clauses).
Slide 61
FANBOYS Coordinating Conjunctions For shows a reason And shows
equal ideas Nor indicates a negative choice or alternative But
shows contrast Or indicates a choice or an alternative Yet
indicates contrast So points to a result
Slide 62
Combining Sentences by Using a Coordinating Conjunction When
you combine two sentences by using a coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS), drop the first period, change the capital letter of the
second sentence to a small letter, and insert a commabefore the
coordinating conjunction. I like your home. I can visit for only
three months. I like your home, but I can visit for only three
months.
Slide 63
Combining Sentences by Using a Semicolon When you combine two
sentences by using a semicolon, replace the first period with a
semicolon and change the capital letter that begins the second
sentence to a small letter. If you wish to use a conjunctive
adverb, insert it after the semicolon and usually follow it witha
comma. I like your home. I can visit for only three months. I like
your home; I can visit for only three months. I like your home;
however, I can visit for only three months.
Slide 64
Subordination If you have two ideas that are closely related,
but one is secondary or dependent on the other, you may want to use
a complex sentence. My neighbors are considerate. They never play
loud music. Because my neighbors are considerate, they never play
loud music.
Slide 65
Punctuating Complex Sentences If the dependent clause comes
first, set it off with a comma. Because the dog has no hands or
words, he licks me to show affection.
Slide 66
Punctuating Complex Sentences If the dependent clause comes
after the main clause, set it off with a comma only if you use some
form of the word though or if the words are not necessary to convey
the basic meaning of the sentence. Edmund Hillary was knighted by
Queen Elizabeth II because he was one of the first two men to climb
Mt. Everest. Other mountain climbers soon duplicated his feat,
though they received less recognition.
Slide 67
Punctuation of Relative Clauses A relative clause should be set
off with commas when it is not necessary to the sentence. Do no set
the clause off if it is necessary for the meaning of the sentence.
Necessary: No one who failed the eye test will get a drivers
license. Unnecessary: Mr. McGoo, who failed his eye test, did not
get a drivers license.
Slide 68
Coordination and Subordination At times you may want to show
the relationship of three or more ideas within one sentence. If
that relationship involves two or more main ideas and one or more
supporting ideas, the combination can be stated in a
compound-complex sentence (two or more independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses.)
Slide 69
Punctuating Compound and Complex Sentences Use punctuation
consistent with that of the compound and complex sentences. Kafka
produced illegible handwritten papers. At that time he had not
learned how to operate a word processor. Now he hands in clean,
attractive pages. Before Kafka learned how to operate a word
processor, he produced illegible handwritten papers, but now he
hands in clean, attractive pages.
Slide 70
Other Methods of Combining Ideas Use an appositive phrase, a
group of words that immediately follows a noun or pronoun and
renames it. Garth Brooks claims Yukon, Oklahoma, as his hometown.
He is a famous singer. Garth Brooks, a famous singer, claims Yukon,
Oklahoma as his hometown. Use a prepositional phrase, a preposition
followed by a noun or pronoun object. John Elway lead the Denver
Broncos to two Super Bowl victories. Both triumphs occurred in the
1990s. John Elway lead the Denver Broncos to two Super Bowl
victories in the 1990s.
Slide 71
Drop the subject in the sentence that follows and combine the
sentences. Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly unpublished during
her lifetime. It was finally discovered and celebrated more than
half a century later. Emily Dickinsons poetry went mostly
unpublished during her lifetime but was finally discovered and
celebrated more than half a century later. Use a participial
phrase, a group of words that includes a participle, which is a
verbal that usually ends in ing or ed. The turtle plodded without
rest stops. It won the race against the rabbit. Plodding without
rest stops, the turtle one the race against the rabbit.
Slide 72
Common Omissions Subjects Verbs That as a conjunction
Prepositions
Slide 73
Techniques for Achieving Variety in Sentences Types Order
Length Beginnings
Slide 74
Correcting Fragments, Comma Splices, and Run-Ons
Slide 75
Complete Sentences Each complete sentence musthave an
independent clause, a group of words that contains a subject and a
verb, and can stand alone. He enrolled for the fall semester.
Slide 76
Fragments Fragment: a word or group of words without a subject,
without a verb, or without both A correct sentence signals
completeness; a fragment signals incompleteness You expect the
speaker or writer of a fragment to go on and finish the idea.
Common unacceptable fragments: Dependent clause only: When she
came. Phrase(s) only: Waiting there for some help. No subject in
main clause: Went to the library. No verb in main clause: She being
the only person there.
Slide 77
Dependent Clause Fragments A dependent clause cannot stand by
itself because it begins with a subordinating word. Because he
left. When she worked. Although they slept.
Slide 78
Relative Clauses as Fragments A relative clause is a type of
dependent clause. If it is punctuated as a sentence by itself, it
is incorrect. Who dont clean up after themselves.
Slide 79
Phrase Fragments A verbal phrase, a prepositional phrase, and
an appositive phrase may carry ideas, but each is incomplete
because it lacks a subject and verb. Verbal Phrase: having
completed his initial research Having completed his initial
research, he refined his outline. Prepositional Phrase: in the
store She worked in the store. Appositive Phrase: a successful
business Marks Brothers, a successful business, sells
clothing.
Slide 80
Fragments as Word Groups Without Subjects or Without Verbs Each
conventional sentence must have an independent clause, meaning a
word or a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and
that can stand alone.
Slide 81
Acceptable Fragments Interjections: Great! Hooray! Whoa!
Exclamations: What a day! How terrible! What a bother! Greetings:
Hello. Good morning. Good night. Good evening. Questions: What for?
Why not? Where to? Informal conversation: (What time is it?) Eight
oclock. Really.
Slide 82
Comma Splices A comma splice consists of two independent
clauses with only a comma between them. Maria exceeded her sales
quota, she received a bonus. [A comma by itself cannot join two
independent clauses.]
Slide 83
Run-ons The run-on differs from the comma splice in only one
respect: It has no comma between the independent clauses. Maria
exceeded her sales quota she received a bonus. [Independent clauses
must be properly connected.]
Slide 84
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a comma and a
coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to
correct the comma splice or run-on. Maria exceeded her sales quota,
and she received a bonus.
Slide 85
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a subordinating
conjunction(such as because, after, that, when, although, since,
how, till, unless, before) to make one clause dependent and correct
the comma splice or run-on. Because Maria exceeded her sales quota,
she received a bonus.
Slide 86
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a semicolon(with or
without a conjunctive adverb such as however, otherwise, therefore,
similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently, also,
thus) to correct the comma splice or run-on. Maria exceeded her
sales quota; therefore, she received a bonus. Maria exceeded her
sales quota; she received a bonus.
Slide 87
Correcting Comma Splices and Run-ons Use a period to replace a
comma and add a capital letter (to correct a comma splice), or use
a period between two independent clauses and add a capital
letter(to correct a run-on). Maria exceeded her sales quota. She
received a bonus.
Slide 88
Balancing Sentence Parts
Slide 89
Parallelism Parallelism is a balance of one structure with
another of the same kindnouns with nouns, verbs with verbs,
adjectives with adjectives, phrases with phrases, and clauses with
clauses. Goats, chickens, and cows [nouns] roamed the yard and
caused [verbs] considerable confusion. Tanya walked into the room
and out of the room with grace. [prepositional phrases] Tanya
walked into the room, and she walked out of the room with grace.
[independent clauses]
Slide 90
Faulty Parallel Structure Faulty parallel structure is awkward
and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said. Hitting home
runs and to catch balls in the outfield were his main concerns.
should be Hittingand catching or To hitand to catch.
Slide 91
Words that Signal Parallel Structure All coordinating
conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) can give
such signals. My car is inexpensive and plain. My dog is ugly, but
it is a good companion.
Slide 92
Combination Words that Signal Parallelism The most common ones
are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and
whether/or. Patsy decided that propagating plants could be either a
hobby or a business but not both. [A noun follows each of the
combination words.]
Slide 93
Verbs
Slide 94
Standard Usage Standard usage is appropriate for the kind of
writing and speaking you are likely to do in your college work and
future career.
Slide 95
Regular and Irregular Verbs Whereas regular verbs are
predictablehaving an ed ending for past and past participle forms
irregular verbs, as the term suggests, follow no definite pattern.
raise, raised, raised [regular] see, saw, seen [irregular]
Slide 96
Present Tense Present tense verbs show an action or a state of
being that is occurring at the present time. For he, she, and it,
regular verbs in the present tense add an -s or an -es to the base
word. If the verb ends in -y, you might have to drop the -y and add
-ies for he, she, and it.
Slide 97
Past Tense Past tense verbs show an action or a state of being
that occurred in the past. For regular verbs in the past tense, add
-ed to the base form. If the base form already ends in -e, add just
d. If the base form ends in a consonant followed by -y, drop the -y
and add -ied.
Slide 98
Past Participles The past participle uses the helping verbs
has, have, or had along with the past tense of the verb. For
regular verbs, whose past tense ends in -ed, the past participle
form of the verb is the same as the past tense.
Slide 99
Problem Verbs Certain verbs (present tense here) can be
troublesome and should be studied with care. lie, lay sit, set
rise, raise
Slide 100
Twelve Verb Tenses SIMPLE TENSES present past future PERFECT
TENSES present perfect past perfect future perfect PROGRESSIVE
TENSES present progressive past progressive future progressive
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES present perfect progressive past perfect
progressive future perfect progressive
Slide 101
Community Dialects Expressive and colorful May not adhere to
the rules for standard usage Often not appropriate for college and
professional writing
Slide 102
If the subject is singular, the verb should be singular, and if
the subject is plural, the verb should be plural. The price of the
shoes is high. The advantages of that shoe are obvious.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Slide 103
Consistency in Tense There are no inflexible rules about
selecting a tense for a certain kind of writing, but you should be
consistent, changing tense only for a good reason. The present
tense is customarily used in writing about literature. The past
tense is likely to serve you best in writing about your personal
experiences and about historical events.
Slide 104
Voice The active voice expression (subject, active verb, and
sometimes object) is usually preferred over the passive voice
expression (subject as the receiver of action, with doer unstated
or at the end of a prepositional phrase.) She read the book.
[active] The book was read by her. [passive]
Slide 105
Strong Verbs In your revision, replace weak verbs with strong
ones. He was the first to leave. [weak verb] He left first. [strong
verb]
Slide 106
Pronouns
Slide 107
Pronouns and Pronoun Case A pronoun is a word that is used in
place of a noun. Case is the form a pronoun takes as it fills a
position in a sentence.
Slide 108
Subjective Pronouns Subjective-case pronouns are I, he, and she
(singular) and we and they (plural). Who can be either singular or
plural. Subjective case pronouns can fill subject positions. We
dance in the park. It was she who spoke. [referring back to and
meaning the same as the subject] Others are in incompletely stated
clauses (signaled by than or as)
Slide 109
Objective Pronouns Objective-case pronouns are me, him, and her
(singular) and us and them (plural). Whom can be either singular or
plural. Objective-case pronouns fill object positions. We saw her
in the library. [object of a verb] They gave the results to us.
[object of a preposition]
Slide 110
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use If you
have a compound element (such as a subject or an object of a
preposition), consider only the pronoun part. They will visit you
and (I, me). [Consider: They will visit me.]
Slide 111
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use If the
next important word after who or whom in a statement is a noun or
pronoun, the word choice will be whom; otherwise, it will be who.
Disregard qualifier clauses such as It seems and I feel. The person
whom judges like will win. The person who works hardest will win.
The person who, we think, worked hardest won. [ignoring the
qualifier clause]
Slide 112
Three Techniques for Deciding Which Pronoun Case to Use Lets is
made up of the words let and us and means You let us; therefore,
when you select a pronoun to follow it, consider the two original
words and select another object wordme. Lets you and me go to
town.
Slide 113
Pronoun Agreement A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
person, number, and gender.
Slide 114
Pronoun Agreement Avoid needless shifting in person, which
means shifting in point of view, such as from I to you. I was
having trouble. You could see disaster ahead. Change to I was
having trouble. I could see disaster ahead.
Slide 115
Pronoun Agreement Most problems with pronoun-antecedent
agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the
antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a
singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural
pronoun. Roger forgot his notebook. Many students cast their votes.
Someone lost his or her [not their] book.
Slide 116
Pronoun Agreement The pronoun should agree with its antecedent
in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine
and feminine pronouns are gender- specific: he, him, she, her.
Others are neuter: I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that,
which.
Slide 117
Pronoun Agreement The words who and whom refer to people. That
can refer to ideas, things, and people but usually does not refer
to individuals. Which refers to ideas and things but not to people.
To avoid a perceived sex bias, you can use he or she or his or her
instead of just he or his; however, many writers simply make
antecedents and pronouns plural. Everyone should revise his or her
composition carefully. Students should revise their compositions
carefully.
Slide 118
Pronoun Reference A pronoun must refer clearly to its
antecedent. Because a pronoun is a substitute word, it can express
meaning clearly and definitely only if its antecedent is easily
identified.
Slide 119
Adjectives and Adverbs
Slide 120
Adjectives Adjectives modify (describe) nouns and pronouns and
answer the questions Which one? What kind? How many?
Slide 121
Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs and
answer the questions Where? When? Why? How? To what degree? Most
words ending in ly are adverbs.
Slide 122
Making Comparisons with Adjectives Some adjectives follow a
regular pattern. nice, nicer, nicest lonely, more lonely, most
lonely
Slide 123
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms a. Add er
to short adjectives (one or two syllables) to rank units of two.
Jethro is shorter than Cy. b. Add est to short adjectives (one or
two syllables) to rank units of more than two. Senator Goodyear is
the brightest person in Congress. c. Add the word more to long
adjectives (three or more syllables) to rank units of two. Your
state is more prosperous than mine.
Slide 124
More Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adjective Forms d.
Add the word most to long adjectives (three or more syllables) to
rank units of three or more. Your state is the most prosperous
state in the West. e. Some adjectives are irregular in the way they
change to show comparison. good, better, best bad, worse,
worst
Slide 125
Making Comparisons with Adverbs Some adverbs follow a regular
pattern. sadly, more sadly, most sadly carefully, more carefully,
most carefully
Slide 126
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms Add er to
the comparative form and est to the superlative form. Pierre works
hard. [positive] Pierre works harder than Simon. [comparative]
Pierre works hardest of all students in the class.
[superlative]
Slide 127
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverbs Forms Add the
word more to adverbs of two or more syllables for the comparative
form and the word most to adverbs of two or more syllables for the
superlative form. Sultana proofread carefully. [positive] Sultana
proofread more carefully than Venny. [comparative] Sultana
proofread most carefully in all the class. [superlative]
Slide 128
Rules for Comparative and Superlative Adverb Forms In some
cases the word less may be substituted for more and the word least
for most. Martelle examined the contract less carefully during her
second reading. [comparative] Martelle examined the contract most
carefully during her third reading. [superlative]
Slide 129
Double Negatives Avoid double negatives. Words such as no, not,
none, nothing, never, hardly, barely, and scarcely should not be
combined.
Slide 130
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs Do not confuse adjectives with
adverbs. Among the most commonly confused adjectives and adverbs
are good / well bad / badly real / really
Slide 131
Confusing Adjectives and Adverbs The words good, bad, and real
are always adjectives. The words badly and really are always
adverbs. Well is usually an adverb. Well is sometimes an
adjective.
Slide 132
Incorrect: Clint did good. [Good is not an adverb] Correct:
Joline felt good. [Good does not address the matter of feeling; it
indicates the condition of the subject, Joline.] Correct: Clint did
well. [Used here as an adverb, well modifies the verb did.]
Correct: Sigmund said, Carl, you are not a well person. [Used here
as an adjective, well modifies the noun person.]
Slide 133
Incorrect: Elvis was real happy with his new disguise. [Happy
is an adjective modifying the noun Elvis, and real modifies that
adjective. Because only adverbs modify adjectives, we need the word
really.] Correct: Elvis was really happy with his new
disguise.
Slide 134
Incorrect: I feel badly. [Badly is an adverb but here indicates
the condition of the subject; therefore, it modifies the pronoun
I.] Correct: I feel bad. [Bad is an adjective modifying the pronoun
I.] Correct: I explained that badly. [Badly, an adverb, modifies
the verb explained.]
Slide 135
Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier gives information but
fails to make clear which word or group of words it refers to.
Incorrect: Ignoring the traffic signals, the car crashed into a
truck. [The car is not ignoring; the driver is.] Correct: Ignoring
the traffic signals, the driver crashed his car into a truck.
Slide 136
Misplaced Modifiers A misplaced modifier is placed so that it
modifies the wrong word or words. Incorrect: The monkeys attracted
the attention of the elegant women who picked fleas off one
another. Correct: The monkeys who picked fleas off one another
attracted the attention of the elegant women.
Slide 137
Punctuation and Capitalization
Slide 138
Three Marks of End Punctuation. Periods use after a statement
or common abbreviations. Questions marks use at the end of a direct
question, not indirect questions. She asked me what caused the
slide. Exclamation points use after a word or group of words that
expresses strong feeling. Dont overwork it or use double
exclamation points.
Slide 139
Commas The comma is used to separate and set off sentence
elements. Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the
coordinating conjunctionsfor, and, nor, but, or, yet, so We went to
the game, but it was cancelled. Use a comma after long introductory
modifiers. The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses.
Before she and I arrived, the meeting was called to order.
Slide 140
Commas Use a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a
series. He ran down the street, across the park, and into the
forest. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives not joined by
and that modify the same noun. I need a sturdy, reliable
truck.
Slide 141
Commas Use a comma to separate sentence elements that might be
misread. Outside, the thunder rolled. Use commas to set off
nonessential (unnecessary for the meaning of the sentence) words,
phrases, and clauses. Maria, who studied hard, will pass.
Slide 142
Commas Use commas to set off nouns used as direct address. What
do you intend to do, Hamlet? Use commas to separate the numbers in
a date. November 11, 1918, is a day worth remembering. Use commas
to separate the city from the state. No comma is used between the
state and the ZIP code. Boston, MA 02110
Slide 143
Semicolons The semicolon indicates a longer pause and stronger
emphasis than the comma. It is used principally to separate main
clauses within a sentence.
Slide 144
Semicolons Use a semicolon to separate main clauses not joined
by a coordinating conjunction. You must buy that car today;
tomorrow will be too late.
Slide 145
Semicolons Use a semicolon between two main clauses joined by a
conjunctive adverb (such as however, otherwise, therefore,
similarly, hence, on the other hand, then, consequently,
accordingly, thus). It was very late; therefore, I remained at the
hotel.
Slide 146
Quotation Marks Quotation marks are used principally to set off
direct quotations. A direct quotation consists of material taken
from the written work or the direct speech of others; it is set off
by double quotation marks. Single quotation marks are used to set
off a quotation within a quotation. He said, I dont remember if she
said, Wait for me.
Slide 147
Quotation Marks Use quotation marks to set off slang, technical
terms, and special words. The platoon system changed the game of
football. [technical term]
Slide 148
Italics Italics (slanting type) are also used to call special
attention to certain words of groups of words. In handwriting or
typing, such words are underlined.
Slide 149
Italics Italicize (underline) foreign words and phrases that
are still listed in the dictionary as foreign. modus operandi
perestroika
Slide 150
Italics Italicize titles of books; long poems; plays;
magazines; motion pictures; musical compositions, newspapers; works
of art; names of aircraft and ships; and letters, numbers, and
words referred to by their own name. War and Peace Apollo 12
Leaving the second o out of sophomore.
Slide 151
The Dash The dash is used when a stronger pause than a comma is
needed. It can also be used to indicate a break in the flow of
thought and to emphasize words (less formal than the colon in this
situation.) I cant remember the townnow I doits Tupelo.
Slide 152
The Colon The colon is a formal mark of punctuation used
chiefly to introduce something that is to follow, such as a list, a
quotation, or an explanation. These cars are my favorites:
Cadillac, Chevrolet, Toyota, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac.
Slide 153
Parentheses Parentheses are used to set off material that is of
relatively little importance to the main thought of the sentence.
Such material numbers, parenthetical material, figures,
supplementary material, and sometimes explanatory detailsmerely
amplifies the main thought. The years of the era (1961-1973) were
full of action. I paid twenty dollars ($20) for that mousepad.
Slide 154
Brackets Brackets are used within a quotation to set off
editorial additions or corrections made by the person who is
quoting. It [the Yalta Agreement] contained many mistakes.
Slide 155
The Apostrophe The apostrophe is used with nouns and indefinite
pronouns to show possession, to show the omission of letters and
figures in contractions, and to form the plurals of letters,
figures, and words referred to as words. mans coat girls clothes
cant five ands its [contraction]
Slide 156
The Hyphen The hyphen is used to link two or more words
together into a single compound word. Hyphenation, therefore, is
essentially a spelling problem rather than a punctuation problem.
Because the hyphen is not used with any degree of consistency, it
is best to consult your dictionary to learn current usage.
Slide 157
Uses of the Hyphen Use a hyphen to separate the parts of many
compound words. about-facego-between Use a hyphen between prefixes
and proper names. all-Americanmid-July Use a hyphen with
spelled-out compound numbers up to ninety-nine and with fractions.
Twenty-sixone hundredtwo-thirds Use a hyphen to join two or more
words used as a single-adjective modifier before a noun.
First-class servicehard-fought game sad-looking mother
Slide 158
Use English Conventions for Capital Letters Capitalize the
first word of a sentence Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives
derived from proper nouns such as the names of persons, countries,
nationalities and races, days of the week, months, and titles of
books Capitalize words denoting family relationships when they are
used before a name or substituted for a name. The minister greeted
Aunt May, my grandfather, and Mother.
Slide 159
Spelling and Commonly Confused Words
Slide 160
Spelling Tips Do not omit letters. Incorrect: libaryCorrect:
library Do not add letters. Incorrect: athaleteCorrect: athlete Do
not substitute incorrect letters for correct letters. Incorrect:
technacalCorrect: technical Do not transpose letters. Incorrect:
perferCorrect: prefer
Slide 161
Spelling Tips Apply the spelling rules for spelling ei and ie
words correctly. Use i before e Except after c Or when sounded like
a As in neighbor and weigh Exceptions: either, financier, height,
leisure, neither, seize, species, weird
Slide 162
Spelling Tips Apply the rules for dropping the final e or
retaining the final e when a suffix is added. Correct: come
coming
Slide 163
Spelling Tips Apply the rules for doubling a final consonant
before a suffix beginning with a vowel if the final syllable is
accented. Correct: transfertransferred
Slide 164
Spelling Tips Study the list of frequently misspelled
words.
Slide 165
Confused Spelling/Confusing Words Some words are sometimes
misspelled because they are mispronounced or share a pronunciation
with another word. Incorrect: alright Correct: all right Two words
with the same sound and different meanings : hear here
Slide 166
Avoiding Wordy Phrases At the present time Due to the fact that
Until such time as I personally feel that At that point in time In
this day and age
Slide 167
The Writing Process: Paragraphs and Essays
Slide 168
The Paragraph A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate
to a single idea. The controlling idea is stated in the topic
sentence. All of the other sentences explain or support the topic
sentence.
Slide 169
The Essay The essay contains multiple paragraphs. It begins
with an introductory paragraph that presents the main idea
(thesis). The main idea is developed in several paragraphs that
make up the body of the essay. An essay usually ends with a
concluding paragraph that gives a feeling of finality.
Slide 170
The Writing Process Using prewriting techniques to explore a
topic Limiting and then developing the topic, usually with an
outline Writing a first draft Revising the draft as often as
necessary Editing the material
Slide 171
Prewriting Prewriting includes activities you do before writing
your first draft or whenever you need new ideas. These strategies
help you get started and develop your ideas. Prewriting strategies:
freewriting, brainstorming, clustering, defining a topic, and
outlining
Slide 172
Freewriting Write without stopping, letting your ideas tumble
forth. Helps you get your project underway and deal with writers
block.
Slide 173
Generating key words and phrases related to the topic Begin by
asking Who? What? Where? When? Why? and How? questions about your
subject or by merely listing ideas concerning your subject.
Brainstorming
Slide 174
Clustering Start by double-bubbling your topic. Then ask What
comes to mind? and single- bubble other ideas on spokes radiating
out from the double bubble.
Slide 175
The Topic Sentence An effective topic sentence has both a
subject and a focus. The subject is what you intend to write about.
The focus is what you intend to do with your subject. Example:
Wilson High School subject offers a well-balanced academic program.
focus
Slide 176
Outlining Pattern for showing the relationship of ideas
Slide 177
Topic sentence I. Major support A. Minor support B. Minor
support 1. Details or examples 2. Details or examples II. Major
support A. Minor support B. Minor support
Slide 178
Writing Your First Draft First (or rough) draft = your initial
writing As you write, pay close attention to your outline But do
not get caught up in correcting and polishing your writing during
this stage
Slide 179
Revising Your Writing Rearrange and polish the writing Put
sentences in the best possible order and come up with the best
possible words The main points of revision are contained in the
acronym CLUESS.
Slide 180
CLUESS Coherence: Does the material flow smoothly, with each
idea leading logically to the next? Language: Are the words
appropriate for the message, occasion, and audience? Unity: Are all
ideas related to and subordinate to the topic sentence? Emphasis:
Have you used techniques such as repetition and placement of ideas
to emphasize your main point(s)? Support: Have you presented
material to back up, justify, or prove your topic sentence?
Sentences: Have you used some variety of structure and avoided
fragments, comma splices, and run-ons?
Slide 181
Editing: Examine your work carefully. Look for problems in
Capitalization, Omissions, Punctuation, and Spelling. (COPS)
Slide 182
Using the Writing Process Worksheet Explore your topic,
organize your ideas, and write your paragraphs using the Writing
Process Worksheet as your guide. Photocopy the blank form in the
book or print it from the Student Companion site.
Slide 183
Combined and Specific Patterns of Writing and Writing
Topics
Slide 184
Combined Patterns of Writing Patterns can help you organize
your thoughts so that your audience can easily understand your
message. A well-written essay is usually a combination of different
patterns: Descriptive Narration, Exemplification, Analysis by
Division, Process Analysis, Cause and Effect, Comparison and
Contrast, Definition, Argument
Slide 185
Descriptive Narration Include these points: Situation Conflict
Struggle Outcome Meaning
Slide 186
As appropriate, use the following in narratives: Images that
appeal to the senses (sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch) and
other details to advance action Dialogue Transitional devices to
indicate chronological order
Slide 187
Transitional Words for Narratives FOR DESCRIPTION: Place:
above, over, under, below, nearby, near, across, beyond, among, to
the right, to the left, in the background, in the foreground,
further, beside, opposite, within sight, out of sight FOR
NARRATION: Time: after, before, later, earlier, initially, soon,
recently, next, today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, until,
currently, when, finally, not long after, immediately, (at) first,
(at) last, third, previously, in the meantime, meanwhile
Slide 188
In narration, Give details concerning action Be consistent with
point of view and verb tense Keep in mind that most narratives
written as college assignments will have an expository purpose;
that is, they explain a specific idea
Slide 189
Exemplification Using examples to Explain Convince Amuse
Slide 190
Characteristics of Good Examples Vivid examples attract
attention Specific examples are identifiable Representative
examples are typical and therefore the basis for
generalization
Slide 191
In exemplification Tie your examples clearly to your thesis
Draw your examples from what you have read, heard, and experienced
Brainstorm a list or cluster of possible examples before you
write
Slide 192
Transitional Words for Exemplification For example, as an
example, another example, for instance, such as, including,
specifically, especially, in particular, to illustrate, as an
illustration, that is, i.e. (meaning that is), e.g. (meaning for
example)
Slide 193
Analysis by Division Almost anything can be analyzed by
division: How parts of the ear work in hearing How parts of the eye
work in seeing How parts of the heart work in pumping blood
throughout the body
Slide 194
Procedure for Analysis by Division Step 1 begin with something
that is a unit Step 2 state the principle by which that unit
functions Step 3 divide the unit into parts according to the
principle Step 4 Discuss each of the parts in relation to the
unit
Slide 195
To apply that procedure to a new boss: Unit Manager Principle
of function Effective as a leader Parts based on the Fair,
intelligent, stable, principle competent in the field Discussion
Consider each part in relation to the persons effectiveness as a
manager
Slide 196
Transition Words for Analysis by Division Time or numbering:
first, second, third, another, last, finally, soon, later,
currently, before, along with, another part (section, component)
Space: above, below, to the left, to the right, near, beyond,
under, next to, in the background, split, divide Emphasis: most
important, equally important, central to the, to this end, as a
result, taken collectively, with this purpose in mind, working with
the, in fact, of course, above all, most of all, especially,
primarily, without question
Slide 197
Two Types of Process Analysis Directive process analysis
explains how to do something; it usually addresses the reader as
you Informative process analysis explains how something was (is)
done by giving data; does not use the words you or your
Slide 198
Basic Forms for Process Analysis Directive I. Preparation A. B.
II. Steps A. B. C. Informative I. Background/context A. B. II.
Sequence A. B. C.
Slide 199
Transitional Words for Process Analysis Order will usually be
chronological (time-based) in some sense: first, second, third,
then, soon, now, next, finally, at last, therefore, consequently
Words used to show the passage of time such as hours, days of the
week, and so on (especially for informative process analysis)
Slide 200
Cause and Effect Determine whether your topic should mainly
inform or mainly persuade Use the right tone for your purpose and
audience
Slide 201
Using Listing to Develop Cause and Effect Event, Situation, or
Trend Causes 1. 2. 3. 4. Effects 1. 2. 3. 4.
Slide 202
Decide whether to concentrate on Causes Effects Combination of
Causes and Effects
Slide 203
Basic Structure for Paragraph A typical outline might look like
this: I. Cause or Effect 1 II. Cause or Effect 2 III. Cause or
Effect 3
Slide 204
Emphasis in Cause and Effect Lend emphasis to your main
concern(s) causes, effects, or a combinationby repeating key words,
such as Cause Reason Effect Result Consequence Outcome
Slide 205
Kinds of Causes and Effects Primary (main) Secondary
(contributing) Immediate Remote
Slide 206
Order Time Space Emphasis
Slide 207
Transitional Words for Cause and Effect Cause: as, because,
because of, due to, for, for the reason that, since, bring about,
another cause, for this reason, one cause, a second cause, another
cause, a final cause Effect: accordingly, finally, consequently,
hence, so, therefore, thus, as a consequence, as a result,
resulting
Slide 208
Comparison and Contrast Use the 4 Ps: Purpose Points Pattern
Presentation
Slide 209
Purpose Decide whether you are writing a work that is primarily
comparison, primarily contrast, or balanced. During the exploration
of your topic, define your purpose (inform or persuade)
clearly.
Slide 210
Points Indicate your points of comparison or contrast, perhaps
by listing Eliminate irrelevant points
Slide 211
Pattern After considering your topic and the planned focus,
select the Subject-by-subject pattern Point-by-point pattern
Compose an outline reflecting the pattern you select.
Slide 212
Basic Subject-by-Subject Pattern I. Subject X A. Point 1 B.
Point 2 II. Subject Y A. Point 1 B. Point 2
Slide 213
Basic Point-by-Point Pattern I. Point 1 A. Subject X B. Subject
Y II. Point 2 A.Subject X B.Subject Y
Slide 214
Presentation Give each point more or less equal treatment.
Attention to each part of the outline will usually ensure balanced
development. Use a carefully stated topic sentence for a paragraph
and a clear thesis for an essay.
Slide 215
Transitional Words for Comparison and Contrast Comparison: in
the same way, similarly, likewise, also, by comparison, in a like
manner, as, with, as though, both, like, just as Contrast: but, by
contrast, in contrast, despite, however, instead, nevertheless, on
(to) the contrary, in spite of, still, yet, unlike, even so, rather
than, otherwise
Slide 216
Definition Simple Definition Extended Definition
Slide 217
Simple Definition No two words have the same meaning. Forms of
simple definitions: basic dictionary definitions, synonyms, direct
explanations, indirect explanations, and analytical definitions.
For formal or analytical definition, specify the term, class, and
characteristic(s). Avoid is where and is when definitions, circular
definitions, and the use of words in the definition that are more
difficult than the word being defined.
Slide 218
Capitalism is an economic system termclass characterized by
investment of characteristics money, private ownership, and free
enterprise.
Slide 219
Extended Definition Use clustering to consider other patterns
of development that may be used to define your term Narration
Description Exemplification Analysis by Division Process Analysis
Cause and Effect Classification Comparison and Contrast
Slide 220
Extended Definition Use clustering to consider other patterns
of development that may be used to define your term Narration
Description Exemplification Analysis by Division Process Analysis
Cause and Effect Classification Comparison and Contrast
Slide 221
Order The organization of your extended definition is likely to
be one of emphasis, but it may be space or time, depending on
subject material. You may use just one pattern of development for
the overall sequence.
Slide 222
Ways to Introduce a Definition Question Statement of what it is
not Statement of what it originally meant Discussion of why a clear
definition is important Combination of these ways
Slide 223
Developing a Definition Development is likely to represent one
or more of the patterns of narration, description, exposition, and
argumentation. Whether or not you personalize depends on purpose
and audience.
Slide 224
Transitional Words for Definition originates from, means,
derives from, refers to, for example, as a term, as a concept,
label, similar to, different from, in a particular context, in
common usage, in historical context
Slide 225
Questions to Ask When Developing Ideas for Argument Background:
What is the historical or social context for this controversial
issue? Proposition (the thesis of the essay): What do I want my
audience to believe or to do? Qualification of proposition: Can I
limit my proposition so that those who disagree cannot easily
challenge me with expectations? Refutation (taking the opposing
view into account, mainly to point out its fundamental weakness):
What is the view on the other side, and why is it flawed in
reasoning or evidence? Support: in addition to sound reasoning, can
I use appropriate facts, examples, statistics, and opinions of
authorities?
Slide 226
Basic Form for Paragraph of Argument Proposition (topic
sentence or thesis) I. Support 1 II. Support 2 III. Support 3
Slide 227
Transitional Words for Argument it follows that, as a result,
causes taken collectively, as a concession, even though, of course,
in the context of, in the light of, in the final analysis,
following this, further, as additional support, moreover,
consequently, according to, in support of, contrary to, therefore,
naturally