PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND - Welcome to Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)nilebasin.org/nileis/system/files/PARTICIPATORY OPERATION... · 2021. 1. 18. · PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

TRAINING MANUAL No.10

Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)Regional Agricultural Trade and Productivity Project (RATP)

By:

Bancy M. Mati

2012

CitationMati, B.M. 2012. Participatory Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Schemes. Training Manual 10. Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Prograeme (NELSAP) - Re-gional Agricultural and Trade Programme (RATP), Bujumbura, Burundi.

Contacts:NELSAP/Regional Agricultural Trade and Productivity ProjectQuartier Kigobe Sud, Kigobe Main Road, Plot No: 7532/CP.O Box: 4949 Bujumbura- BURUNDI

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP

iiPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

About this Training Manual

The Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) is a partnership of the riparian states (Burundi, Democratic Re-public of Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda, Eritrea is partic-ipating actively in the NBI as an observer) that seeks to develop the river in a cooperative manner, share substantial socioeconomic benefits, and promote regional peace and security through its shared vision of “sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable utilisation of, and benefit from, the common Nile Basin water resources”. NBI’s Strategic Action Programme is made up of the Shared Vision Programme (SVP) and Subsidiary Action Programmes (SAPs). The SAPs are man-dated to initiate concrete investments and action on the ground in the Eastern Nile (ENSAP) and Nile Equatorial Lakes sub-basins (NELSAP).

NELSAP through its sub basin programmes implements pre-investment programmes in the areas of power, trade and development and natural resources management. As part of its pre-investment framework, the Regional Agricultural Trade and productivity Project (RATP), in concert with the NELSAP, intends to promote and disseminate best practices on water harvesting and small scale irrigation development as a contribution towards agricultural development in the NEL (Nile Equa-torial Lakes) region. NELSAP has previously implemented completed a project called Efficient Water Use for Agriculture Project (EWUAP). One of the recommendations of EWUAP was the need to develop Training/Dissemination materials on “adoption of low cost technologies for water storage, conveyance, distribution, treatment and use for agriculture that can be adapted by communities and households of the rural and peri-urban poor”. This Training Manual is the initiative of NELSAP, for that purpose.

This Training Manual summarises some guidelines on participatory approaches for the planning, development, operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes, focusing on smallholder group schemes. The manual describes how communities could be mobilised into strong water user groups to manage irrigation systems sustainably. It is a general manual and should be used in conjunction with respective designs and tailored to realities of specific irrigation schemes and stakeholders. However, major technical issues require the resolution of qualified engineers or other profession-als. This Training Manual is meant to inform, educate, enhance knowledge and practice targeting smallholder irrigation in the NEL region. The information contained here may not be exhaustive and thus, readers are encouraged to seek further information from references cited in this publica-tion and elsewhere.

AcknowledgementsThe publication of this booklet was supported by the Nile Basin Initiative’s NELSAP-RATP. RATP is a technical assistance project financed by the Canadian International Development Agen-cy (CIDA). The author wishes to thank all the institutions and individuals who provided data/information for the publication of this manual. Special thanks to Evangeline Mbatia, Faith Liv-ingstone, Lydia Guido, Jean Jacques Muhinda, Innocent Ntabana, Gabriel Ndikumana and Felix Karimba. The views expressed here are not necessarily those of CIDA or NBI, as the content is solely the responsibility of the author.

Training Manual 10

iiiPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

Table of Contents

About this Training Manual ............................................................................................................ iii

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii

Glossary of Key Terms .................................................................................................................... vii

1. PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES IN IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT ......................................................11.1 The need for participatory irrigation development.......................................................................11.2 What is participatory technology development? ..........................................................................11.3 Participatory and strategic change process ...................................................................................21.4 Identification of stakeholders ........................................................................................................2

1.4.1 Upholding inclusivity ............................................................................................................21.4.2 Roles of stakeholders ............................................................................................................31.4.3 Categories of WUA stakeholders .........................................................................................31.5 Participation of farmers in irrigation planning and design ......................................................31.6 Role of planners in irrigation development .............................................................................41.7 Farmer participation in the implementation of an irrigation scheme .....................................41.8 Operation and maintenance responsibilities...........................................................................51.9 Monitoring and evaluation of smallholder irrigation schemes ...............................................51.10 Indicators of sustainability.....................................................................................................5

2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES .........................................................72.1 Operational services required in an irrigation scheme ..................................................................7

2.1.1 Project operation service .....................................................................................................72.1.2 System operation service .....................................................................................................72.1.3 System maintenance service ................................................................................................7

2.2. Operational activities ....................................................................................................................72.2.1 Types of O&M .......................................................................................................................82.2.2 Operation and maintenance procedures ..............................................................................82.2.3 Operating the Technical Components ..................................................................................8

2.3 Maintenance activities ................................................................................................................10

3.0. ORGANASATIONAL STRUCTURE IN IRRIGATION SCHEMES .......................................................123.1. Scheme organisation ..................................................................................................................123.2 Functions of the various stakeholders.........................................................................................123.3 Responsibilities for Water Management .....................................................................................133.4. Monitoring of operation and maintenance ................................................................................14

3.4.1. Materials and equipment ...................................................................................................153.4.2 Daily schedule .....................................................................................................................153.4.3 Seasonal schedules .............................................................................................................153.4.4 Annual schedules ................................................................................................................16

4. WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS .................................................................................................... 174.1 What is a Water Users’ Association? ...........................................................................................17

4.1.1 What is an IWUA? ...............................................................................................................174.1.2 Roles of WUAs in Irrigation and Drainage ...........................................................................17

4.2 Formation of a Water Users’ Association....................................................................................184.3 WUA Composition and Structure ................................................................................................204.4 Legal and Administrative structure .............................................................................................214.5 WUA By-laws ...............................................................................................................................214.6 Beneficiaries of WUAs.................................................................................................................224.7 Desirable qualities of a sustainable WUA ...................................................................................23

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP

ivPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

5. COMMUNITY MOBILISATION ..................................................................................................... 245.1 What is community mobilisation? ..............................................................................................245.2 Advantages of community mobilisation .....................................................................................245.3 Community mobilisation approaches .........................................................................................245.4 Implementing community mobilisation ......................................................................................25

5.4.1 Participatory community mobilisation process ..................................................................255.4.2 Areas of community participation .....................................................................................255.4.3 Roles and functions of the community organiser ..............................................................265.4.4 Qualities of a good community mobiliser ..........................................................................26

5.5 Environmental issues in WUAs ...................................................................................................275.5.1 Environmental impacts of concern to WUAs ....................................................................275.5.2 Approaches to Environmental management .....................................................................27

5.6 Gender mainstreaming in WUAs ................................................................................................275.6.1 Relevance of gender issues ................................................................................................275.6.2 Gender analysis ..................................................................................................................285.6.3 Strategies to ensure effective gender participation ...........................................................28

6. CAPACITY BUILDING FOR WUAs ................................................................................................. 296.1 What is capacity building? ..........................................................................................................296.2 Purpose of capacity building ......................................................................................................296.3 Areas of capacity building ..........................................................................................................29

6.3.1 Access to information and services ....................................................................................296.3.2 Financial Empowerment ....................................................................................................296.3.3 Networking with interest groups .......................................................................................296.3.4 Legalisation ........................................................................................................................30

6.4 Basic Training Programmes for WUAs .........................................................................................306.4.1 Introduction to participatory development .......................................................................306.4.2 Scheme Leadership and management ...............................................................................306.4.3 Scheme operation, maintenance and water management ................................................306.4.4 Financial Management.......................................................................................................316.4.5 Monitoring & Evaluation skills ...........................................................................................31

6.5 Team building..............................................................................................................................316.5.1 Team Effectiveness .............................................................................................................31

7. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN WUAs ...........................................................................................327.1 What is conflict management? ...................................................................................................327.2 Types of conflicts ........................................................................................................................327.3 Causes of conflicts in WUAs ........................................................................................................327.4 Effects of conflicts on WUAs .......................................................................................................347.5 Methods of managing conflicts ..................................................................................................34

8. PARTICIPATORY MONITORING AND EVALUATION .......................................................................368.1 What is participatory monitoring and evaluation? .....................................................................368.2 Importance of PM&E...................................................................................................................368.3 Steps in participatory monitoring and evaluation ......................................................................368.4 Steps in Monitoring .....................................................................................................................378.5 Steps in evaluation .....................................................................................................................378.6 Progress towards self-reliance ....................................................................................................37

9. SELECTED REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 38

ANNEX 1: SAMPLE WUA PROTOTYPE BY-LAWS ..............................................................................40

Training Manual 10

vPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

Glossary of Key TermsTerm Definition/Brief description

Agricultural (crop) production

Actual harvested production from fields, orchards or gardens, excluding harvesting and threshing losses and the part of crop not harvested for any reason

Agricultural wa-ter management (AWM)

The holistic management of water for agriculture (crops, trees, live-stock) in the continuum from rain fed systems to irrigated agriculture. It includes irrigation and drainage, soil and water conservation, rainwater harvesting, agronomy, in-field water management, integrated watershed management and all relevant aspects of the management of water and land.

Agriculture Production, processing and marketing of crops and livestock from pro-ducer to consumer.

Agro biodiversity The diversity of plants, animals, insects, and soil biota found in agricul-tural systemsAgro-ecological zones

Land classification based on the average annual length or growing period for crops, which depends on, inter alia, precipitation and temperature.

Aquaculture

The farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants with some sort of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators

Basin Governance The sum of river basin essential water management functions carried out by various actors

Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability among living organisms. It includes diversity within and among species and diversity within and among ecosystems

Biological resourcesBiological resources includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity

BiotechnologyTechnological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or to modify products or processes for specific use

Blue water

The proportion of rainfall which flows on or beneath soil surface to ac-cumulate in rivers, streams, springs, swamps, lakes, ground water, aquifers or into storage structures such as dam, ponds and tanks, and which is extractable as liquid fresh water.

Capacity buildingThe long-term investment in people and their institutions to enable them to effectively and efficiently carry out specific activities to achieve their development objectives.

Committed water Water reserved for use by the environment, downstream countries, or other downstream uses that have a right to the water.

Community mobili-sation

A facilitative process of strengthening the organisational and manage-ment capacities of people in such a way that they become self reliant in solving their own problems and/or initiating and managing their devel-opmental issues.

ConflictA disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in atti-tudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from part rivalries and personality differences.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP

viPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

Term Definition/Brief description

Conflict Resolution The art of solving or settling a problem, dispute.

Conjunctive use

The coordinated and planned management of both surface and ground-water resources in order to maximise the efficient use of the resource; that is, water is stored in the groundwater basin for later and planned use by intentionally recharging the basin during years of above-average surface water supply.

Crop water deple-tion

The amount of water depleted for the process of crop production by transpiration (T), evaporation from soils, and field ponds or channels (E).

Crop yield The harvested production per unit of harvested area for crop products.

Decision-maker A person whose decision and actions can influence a condition, process, or issue under consideration.Degradation (of land/water)

The sum of the processes that render land or water economically less valuable for agricultural production or for other ecosystem services.

Drainage

The diversion or orderly removal of excess water from the surface of the land by means of improved natural or constructed channels, supple-mented when necessary by the shaping and grading of land surfaces to such channels.

Economic efficiencyThe allocation of resources in the economy that yields an overall net gain to society as measured through valuation in terms of the benefits of each use minus its costs

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit

Ecosystem Ap-proach

A strategy for the integrated management of land, water, and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way

Ecosystem Services The benefits people obtain from ecosystems

Empowerment

An ongoing process that strengthens the self-confidence of disadvan-taged sections of the population, enables them to articulate their inter-ests and participate in the community, and provides them with access to and control over resources

EnvironmentThe complex set of physical, geographic, biological, social, cultural and political conditions that surround an individual or organism and that ultimately determines its form and nature of its survival

Environmental flows

The minimum flows of water (by volume and season) necessary to main-tain aquatic biota and ecosystem processes

Equity The fairness, the standard by which each person and group is able to maximise the development of their latent capacities.

Extension

A series of professional communicative interventions amid related inter-actions that is meant, among others, to develop and/or induce novel pat-terns of co-ordination and adjustment between people, technical devices and natural phenomena, in a direction that supposedly helps to resolve problematic situations.

Externalities Effects of a person’s or firm’s activities on others which are not compen-sated.

Training Manual 10

viiPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES


Farming System

A population of individual farm systems that have broadly similar re-source bases, enterprise patterns, household livelihoods and constraints, and for which similar development strategies and interventions would be appropriate.

Food securityA situation whereby all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

Freshwater resourc-es

Water available in rivers and aquifers of sufficient quality to be used for human purposes.

Gender The attributes and opportunities associated to being a man or a woman and the relations with each other

Gender approachSocio-political and systemic development which directs attention to the different roles allocated to men and women in society, which are reflect-ed in shared resources and responsibilities.

Gender equalityEqual visibility, empowerment and participation of both sexes in all spheres of public and private life. It means that rights, responsibilities, and opportunities cannot depend on having been born a man or woman

Gender Equity The elimination of economic, political, legal, and social barriers so that men and women may enjoy equal opportunities and equitable benefitsGender mainstream-ing in water manage-ment

The process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels.

Governance The framework of social and economic systems and legal and political structures through which humanity manages itselfGravity-fed irriga-tion

Irrigation in which water is available or made available at a higher level so as to enable supply to the land by gravity flow.

Green revolutionA significant increase in agricultural productivity resulting from the introduction of high-yield varieties of grains, the use of pesticides, and improved management techniques.

Green water

The proportion of infiltrated rainfall stored in the soil profile that is available for root water uptake by plants. It includes evaporation, inter-ception and transpiration and is the main water resource used in rain fed agriculture.

Groundwater Water that exists beneath the earth’s surface in underground streams and aquifers.

Household All the persons, kin and non-kin, who live in the same dwelling and share income, expenses and daily subsistence tasks.

Hunger A condition in which people lack the basic food intake to provide them with the energy and nutrients for fully productive, active lives

ImpactImpacts are changes in a situation brought about by an intervention. They may be intended or unintended, expected or unexpected, positive or negative.

Indigenous (local) knowledge The knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP

viiiPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES


InstitutionSocial arrangements that shape and regulate human behaviour and have some degree of permanency and purpose transcending individual human lives and intentions

Integrated natural resources manage-ment (INRM)

A conscious process of incorporating multiple aspects of natural re-source use into a system of sustainable management to meet explicit production goals of farmers and other uses (e.g., profitability, risk reduc-tion) as well as goals of the wider community (sustainability).

Integrated Water Resource Manage-ment (IWRM)

A process which promotes the co-ordinated development and man-agement of water, land and related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems

Irrigation Any process, other than by natural precipitation, which supplies water to crops or any other cultivated plants.

Land A spatial unit containing all natural resources – i.e. minerals, soils, water, flora and fauna – as well as to all the land use types occurring on it

Land degradation The reduction in the capability of the land to produce benefits from a particular land use under a specific form of land management

Land tenureThe relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among peo-ple, as individuals or groups, with respect to land and associated natural resources (water, trees, minerals, wildlife, and so on).

Livelihood Comprises people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets.Livestock-water pro-ductivity (LWP)

The ration of sum of beneficial livestock products and services to the water depleted in producing them and animal keeping

Managers Persons who, collectively or individually, are responsible for running a business, farm or organisation.Marginal-quality water

Includes urban wastewater, agricultural drainage water, and saline/sodic surface water and groundwater

Model A simplified representation of reality used to simulate a process, under-stand a situation, predict an outcome or analyze a problemMulti-stakeholder processes

Processes which aim to bring together all major stakeholders for commu-nication, decision-finding (or decision-making) on a particular issues

O & M Operations and maintenance

Organisation Groups of people with shared goals and some formalised pattern of interaction, often defined in terms of roles.

Participatory devel-opment

Participatory development is a process that involves people (population groups, organisations, associations, political parties) actively and signifi-cantly in all decisions affecting their lives.

PolicyA concise, formal statement of principles which indicates how a sector‘s objectives and rational outcomes will be achieved. A Policy provides the ‘roadmap’ for sector development.

Policy making The sequential steps from problem formulation, to evaluation of alterna-tives, to implementation in the process of creating a policy

Policy-maker A person with power to influence or determine policies and practices at an international, national, regional, or local level.PPP Public Private Partnership

Training Manual 10

ixPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES


Productivity Output per unit of input, where ‘input’ can be land, labour and / or cap-ital, and ‘output’ is agricultural produce

Protected area A geographically defined area which is designated or regulated and man-aged to achieve specific conservation objectives

Public good Where individuals may benefit from the existence of some good or ser-vice without reducing the benefit that others can receive from the same good or service

Recycled water Water that has already been diverted and used at least once. Recycling takes place, for example, by reusing drainage water or urban waste water.

ResilienceThe amount of change a system can undergo and still remain within the same state (producing essentially the same ecosystem services), or capa-ble of self-organisation, and can adapt to changing conditions.

River basinThe geographical area defined by the watershed limits of a system of streams converging towards the same terminus, generally the sea or sometimes an inland water body (a sink).

River basin develop-ment

Constructing water control infrastructure on a river for multiple purpos-es (navigation, power, irrigation, flood control) and to having a central planning and development for the whole basin

Spate irrigation

An irrigation practice that uses the floodwaters of ephemeral streams (wadi or lugga) and channels guided through short, steep canals to bunded basins where cropping takes place (also referred to as floodwater harvesting).

StakeholderAn actor having a stake or interest in a physical resource, ecosystem ser-vice, institution, or social system, or someone who is or may be affected by a public policy.

StrategicAction, plan or reform that deals with fundamental issues and is for-ward-looking, politically feasible and integrated with the external envi-ronment.

Supplemental irri-gation

Providing additional water to stabilise or increase yields where a rainfall is insufficient for crop growth

SustainabilityA characteristic or state whereby the needs of the present and local pop-ulation can be met without compromising the ability of future genera-tions or populations in other locations to meet their needs

Sustainable develop-ment

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Sustainable land management (SLM)

A system of technologies and/or planning that aims to integrate ecolog-ical with socio-economic and political principles in the management of land for agricultural and other purposes to achieve intra- and intergener-ational equity.

Sustainable Liveli-hoods Approach

A holistic approach that tries to provide a means of understanding, the fundamental causes and dimensions of poverty and sketch out the rela-tionships between the different aspects (causes, manifestations) of pov-erty, allowing for effective prioritisation of action at an operational level.

Total water with-drawals The amount of water diverted from its natural courses to various uses.

Trade-off Management choices that intentionally or otherwise change the type, magnitude, and relative mix of services provided by ecosystems

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP

xPARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES


Uncertainty An expression of the degree to which a future condition (e.g. an assess-ment) is unknown.Utilisable water resources

The part of water resources which is considered to be available for de-velopment.

Vector control Process of controlling a (water-borne) disease, parasite or infection by control of the carrier

Virtual Water An economic concept defined as the water used to grow exported food. It is normally expressed in litres of water per kilogram of produce.

Vulnerability The propensity of social or ecological systems to suffer harm from ex-ternal stresses and/or perturbations

Waste water The water which is of no further immediate value to the purpose for which it was used or in the pursuit of which it was produced because of its quality, quantity or time of occurrence.

Waste water treat-ment

Process to render waste water fit to meet applicable environmental stan-dards or other quality norms for recycling or reuse and irrigation.

Water budget (Water balance)

Balance of inflow and outflow of water per unit area or unit volume and unit time taking into account net changes of storage

Water controlThe physical control of water by measures such as conservation practic-es on the land, channel improvements, and installation of structures for reducing water velocity and trapping sediments.

Water diversion The interception of surface runoff using a permanent or temporary structure to divert it to another outlet

Water harvesting Activities where water from rainfall and/or surface runoff is collected, diverted, stored and utilised.

Water pricing A charge levied on the beneficiaries for supplying irrigation water. It may be based on or cover one or more of the following

Water productivity (WP)

An efficiency term quantified as the ratio of product output (goods and services) to water input. It is expressed in term of yields (physical WP), income (economic WP) or environmental services (environmental WP).

Water resources management

The decision-making, manipulative, and non-manipulative processes by which water is protected, allocated, or developed.

Water rights A legal system for allocating water from a water source to water usersWater use efficiency The ratio of water used in crop evapotranspiration (ETo) to crop yield

Water users associa-tion (WUA)

A group of land users (farmers, pastoralists, urban dwellers) within a given geographical location who come together for the collective interest of utilisation and sustainable management of a common water resource.

Water withdrawalThe gross amount of water extracted from any source, either perma-nently or temporarily, for a given use, including irrigation. It can be either diverted towards distribution networks or directly used.

Waterborne diseases Disease that arises from infected water and is transmitted when the water is used for drinking or cookingWatershed manage-ment

Use, regulation and treatment of water and land resources of a water-shed to accomplish stated objectives

Training Manual 10

1PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

1. PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES IN IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT1.1 The need for participatory irrigation developmentThe sustainability of an irrigation scheme refers to the proper functioning of the infrastructure, the people, agricultural enterprises, management and social systems in the long run. This happens if all factors are considered at planning and design of the scheme, but require regular updating with changing circumstances. Generally, the social and institutional context of irrigation development has immense bearing on the ultimate performance of irrigation schemes. Over the years, the pro-cess of implementation of irrigation projects, especially those spearheaded by governments and some donors, followed a top-down approaches. However, experience has shown that if farmers are not involved in all the development stages of a project, they lose the sense of ownership and hence do not feel obliged to facilitate its functions. Consequently, long-term performance and sustain-ability of the scheme is negatively affected. Thus, projects planned with beneficiaries, rather than for them, have proved more sustainable and less costly. Problems of farmer participation are rarely encountered in privately owned schemes or those initiated by the farmers themselves. However, for schemes initiated by donors or governments, there is a need for close consultation between farmers and implementing agencies in all stages of development. This can be achieved through participato-ry planning, designing, construction and management of irrigation schemes. The following factors are taken into consideration:The importance of participatory planning in management irrigation systems.Indicators of sustainability of irrigation systems,Concepts of operation, function and maintenance of an irrigation system,Principles of establishing the organisation structure of an irrigation scheme and initiate prepa-

ration of an action plan from each participant,Interrelationships of the biophysical, social, economic and policy dimensions in sustaining an

irrigation system.

1.2 What is participatory technology development?Participatory technology development (PTD) refers to collaboration between farmers, develop-ment agents and scientists in a manner that combines their knowledge and skills. The heart of PTD is farmer-led experimentation to find better ways of using available resources to improve the well-being of families and communities. The purpose of supporting farmer experimentation is to strengthen farmers’ capacities to seek and try out new ideas so that they are better able to experiment and to adjust to changing conditions. The idea is not to convince farmers to adopt a new technology, but rather to encourage them to test new possibilities and choose what is right for their circumstances or adapt new ways of doing things suited to their conditions. This kind of interaction between farmers and ‘outsiders’ reveals a com-mon pattern, which consists of six main clusters of activity:

(i) Getting started: establishing contact between farmers and ‘outsiders’ and agreeing to take this approach to improved land husbandry.

(ii) Analysing the situation: farmers and ‘outsiders’ seek a joint understanding of local problems, resources and opportunities, often using tools of participatory rural appraisal (PRA).

(iii) Looking for things to try: joint identification of possible solutions or new opportunities for improving land husbandry and agreeing on what to try out first.

(iv) Trying things out: experimenting with and adapting the new idea(s) in trials planned and implemented by farmers, with the support of development agents and scientists, and moni-tored and evaluated jointly according to agreed criteria.

(v) Sharing the results: letting other farmers, development agents and scientists know what came out of the experiments and how they were done.

(vi) Sustaining the process: helping farmers to organise themselves to continue this kind of inter-action and to obtain new ideas and inputs with which to experiment, and creating a political and institutional environment that foster PTD.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


1.3 Participatory and strategic change processTo be effective, reform should be both participatory and strategic. A reform is participatory when it includes all stakeholders in the process of assessment, policy making, programme formulation and implementation. A stakeholder is any person or group which has an important interest in the prospective reforms. Reform is strategic when it deals with fundamental issues and is forward-look-ing, politically feasible and integrated with the external environment. Strategic change is difficult. It requires a methodology and coordination with stakeholders, in order to mobilise diverse inputs and build consensus. Participatory and strategic reform generally involves the following elements:• Representational involvement of stakeholders;• Setting objectives;• Assessing management gaps and options for change;• Developing a shared vision of the future;• Developing policies and programmes;• Facilitating teams to work on the process;• Analysis, negotiation and possibly experimentation;• Organisational restructuring; and• Performance assessment.

1.4 Identification of stakeholdersStakeholders are individuals, groups or organisations who have an interest in a particular proj-ect. For irrigation projects, these are normally farmers, persons displaced by the project, lending institutions, government, donors, input suppliers, service suppliers and buyers. The purpose of stakeholder participation in project development is to give planners and the parties involved an overview of the persons, groups, organisations and institutions involved in or connected with the project. Participation is expected to result in the incorporation of the interests and expectations of all parties significant to the project. It also provides opportunity for resolving potential conflicts.

1.4.1 Upholding inclusivityTo encourage inclusive participation of stakeholders in irrigation involves: o Identifying the persons, groups and organisations connected with, influencing or influenced

by the project,o Identifying their level of influence on the project performance, e.g. persons who provide

more labour, local leaders and displaced persons rank higher than middlemeno Sensitising and involving them in all decision-making processes and characterize their influ-

ence on the projecto Assuring them and making them feel that they have the power to influence the course of de-

velopment and their own welfare and lletting them take over and be the prime movers of the project.

During project identification, stakeholders of an irrigation scheme should be identified first. Irriga-tion projects should ideally be developed on farmers’ requests in order to ensure that development is demand-driven. However, government, donors, NGOs or other agencies may identify a need for them and sensitise them to initiate the process. In this case it is incumbent upon the institution spearheading the development to mobilise farmers and other stakeholders so that they appreciate the benefits of irrigation. Meetings and continuous dialogue throughout the development process are necessary for the stakeholders to make contributions as well as to identify and defuse potential conflicts. There should also be agreements, preferably written and signed, that each party will exe-cute its function throughout the planning, design, implementation, operation and maintenance of the scheme.

Training Manual 10


1.4.2 Roles of stakeholdersSmallholder irrigation supports livelihoods through crop production, food security and income generation. It is important to consider stakeholders in a water user association (WUA) value chain for so as to ensure coordination hence avoid duplication of roles and to waste of resources. In addition, it is important to recognise the capacities existing in the various actors and how these can be utilised for WUA activities. This helps to safeguard the interests of all stakeholders to ensure effective collaboration and sustainability of their operations. In this respect, stakeholders are indi-viduals and institutions with an interest in WUA activities, who affect WUAs; and are themselves affected in one way or another by activities of WUAs.

1.4.3 Categories of WUA stakeholders There are seven different categories of stakeholders in any irrigation scheme, clustered as fol-lows:

a) Government institutions: These provide; (i) policy and guidelines, (ii) extension services, (iii) coordination of programmes, (iv) quality control (feasibility studies, survey, construc-tion), and (v) monitoring and evaluation of performance.

b) NGOs - provision of credit, extension services, linking to financiers,c) Suppliers - Provision of inputs, information provisiond) Consumers - End users of farm productse) Marketing Agencies - Provision of market outlets, provision of market information, quality

control f) Financiers - Provision of credit and related information, provision of extension services on

credit issues g) Competitors - These may include large-scale horticultural growers, other WUAs, importers

of similar products and manufacturers of various synthetic alternatives.

1.5 Participation of farmers in irrigation planning and designTo improve on the performance of the irrigation scheme and the productivity of water, it is im-portant to instil best practice at planning, through detailed analysis of physical as well as social assets and limitations. This is because implementations of the identified technical solutions depend on the extent of understanding and addressing socio-economic issues first, followed by policy and biophysical constraints. Therefore, planners, engineers, technicians, managers and social workers charged with the responsibility of irrigation should initiate the process of participatory planning for harmonious working and ultimate improvement of the efficiency of the whole system. This should include the following:o The farmers should be involved in the selection of lands to be irrigated and the irrigation

agency should assist farmers by assessing the suitability of those lands o The communities within the area to be developed should participate in the technical as well

as the environmental impact assessment (EIA)o Where possible, farmers should provide labour for topographic, soil and socio-economic

surveys. They should, through their committees, decide who should do which activityo Farmers could provide information on past experience with floods, point out areas with

potential for flooding, and suggest to the planners locations for structures such as water abstraction from the river, hence preventing the pumping station from being flooded

o The farmers should be fully involved in the selection of crops to be grown and the agency should guide them on the technical, environmental and socio-economic matters related to the suitability of such crops including returns on investment, storage, processing and mar-keting potential.

o The irrigation agency should facilitate extension and training on various irrigation methods and enterprises pointing out the advantages and disadvantages of each. The farmers then

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


should propose the irrigation methods they prefer for the design.o After completing the designs, the irrigation agency should explain the alternative designs to

farmers and the implications of each vis-à-vis land redistribution, water resources potential, plot sizes and total area to be irrigated, cropping programmes, labour requirements, capital costs, operation and maintenance costs, environmental aspects, land use patterns and other considerations

o Finally, the farmers should decide which option to adopt, preferably one which serves the majority and has least risks.

1.6 Role of planners in irrigation developmentIrrigation development includes both technical and socio-economic plans for which technically competent planers are needed. Planners should take into account the fact that new developments tend to alter traditional land use patterns and are a potential source of conflict. Potential conflict areas should be identified and addressed from the outset. Therefore, there is a need to actively in-volve the affected communities in the decision-making process right from the outset. Appropriate policies should guide the processes. In order to capture the determinant issues for farmer partici-pation, planners should understand:

a) The characteristics of the farmer groups they are dealing with:– Social background, religion and cultural aspects,– Status of groups in society, formal or informal,– Organisational and leadership structures, and – Current constraints and farmers’ priorities.

b) Farmers’ interests, motives and attitudes:– Needs and aspirations, – Openly expressed, hidden and vested interests,– Hopes, expectations and fears related to the project, and– Attitudes, friendly or hostile, towards implementing agencies and other groups

c) The farmers’ potentials:– Strengths of groups with regard to skills, resources, knowledge, rights, – Weaknesses and constraints, e.g. knowledge of benefits of project or otherwise,– What the group can contribute to or withhold from the project, and– The role of water user groups and other subsidiary actors in the project.

d) The implications of farmers’ roles and responsibilities on the planning, design and construc-tion of the project. This includes such issues as to how the project should be designed and implemented in order to address the concerns and needs of the farmers or farmer groups.

In this respect the use of the participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tool can facilitate the understand-ing of existing opportunities and constraints as well as farmers’ perceptions of how irrigation can be used to remove some of the constraints in crop production. During the same process, and in order to avoid interference by individuals or groups that may have vested interests, farmers should identify the stakeholders that will be involved with the participatory planning. Also, right from the outset not only the advantages but also the responsibilities that come hand-in-hand with a new scheme should be made clear to all involved.

1.7 Farmer participation in the implementation of an irrigation schemeThe implementation of an irrigation project involves preparing tender documents for construc-tion, evaluating the tenders, selecting the contractor and supervising construction. The farmers should be involved in all these processes, especially if they are contributing part of the finance, in cash or kind, for the project. The irrigation agency should provide technical information to assist

Training Manual 10


the farmers in reaching decisions. The farmers should contribute their own labour for certain con-struction activities, such as trenching, back-filling, pipe fitting, land levelling and concrete mixing. This will also assist them gain some experience needed later in the maintenance of the project. In this respect it is advisable to use labour-intensive methods, wherever possible. The supervision of construction still remains the responsibility of the irrigation agency. Where the farmers contribute money for the project, they should also sign certificates authorising payments to service providers.

1.8 Operation and maintenance responsibilitiesThe responsibilities of operation and maintenance (O&M) of an irrigation scheme should be clear to all parties from the outset. To assist farmers in selecting a design alternative, planners should estimate the O&M requirements at the planning stage and discuss them with farmers. If the irriga-tion agency is to pay for O&M for a specified time before hand-over to farmers, the farmers should be organised and prepared for take-over well in advance. While the experience gained by the farm-ers during the course of planning and development is a valuable tool for the O&M of the irrigation scheme, farmers would still require assistance from the irrigation agency and the extension service in the form of training in the following areas:Crop production and protectionIrrigation scheduling and in-field water managementSchedule of scheme maintenanceBookkeeping and accountingAccess to markets and market informationSustainability of water user groups and other management structures

Such training should be practical, in order to provide the hands-on experience needed and should take into consideration that the background of most smallholders in Eastern and Southern Afri-ca is in rain fed crop production. It is necessary to have appropriate guidelines, procedures and relevant material for the development of a participatory training and extension programme for technical staff, extension workers and other stakeholders. This helps farmers take charge of water management at field and scheme levels. The programme is particularly relevant to irrigation man-agement transfer programmes, assisting water users associations in the operation and maintenance of irrigation systems, and in providing guidance on efficient water use techniques.

1.9 Monitoring and evaluation of smallholder irrigation schemesOnce an irrigation scheme has been implemented, there is need to continuously monitor its perfor-mance, in order to identify constraints and opportunities for improved performance. There are a number of parameters that can be measured or assessed as performance indicators. These include; technical system performance, which looks at performance in terms of water use efficiencies and other related parameters; economic analyses, which evaluates economic and financial performance; as well as socio-economic analyses, which evaluate the impact of economic performance on the social well-being of the people. Success resulting from irrigation development as associated with farmer participation, is reflected by the socio-economic benefits accrued to the beneficiaries.

1.10 Indicators of sustainabilityThe indicators of the sustainability of an irrigation scheme should be holistic and encompassing all the important dimensions, since they will be used in monitoring and evaluating the impacts of irri-gation on environment and livelihoods. In carrying out the field study for the development of the new irrigation scheme or improving the existing ones, it is important to identify these indicators, based on the observed biophysical, technical and social constraints. These include:o Biophysical/environmental indicatorso Economic indicators

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


o Social indicatorso Policy indicators

Most of the biophysical/environmental and economic indicators can be measured directly, while social and policy indicators are difficult to measure. The main challenge for the irrigating techni-cians, engineers, managers and farmers is the need to:o Identify and map out the biophysical constraintso Define the critical limits of the indicators below or above which the impacts of irrigation

would be negativeo Define the mechanisms for monitoring the changes in these indicators

Sustainable agricultural productivity and improved water use efficiency requires integrated ap-proaches that may include; (i) new knowledge, (ii) training, (iii) educational levels, iv) investment of financial capital, (v) cost sharing and loans, (vi) markets, (vii) facilitation, (viii) involving gov-ernment institutions, (ix) infrastructure (roads, mobile phones), (x) involvement of youth, (xi) land tenure, and (xii) water availability. In addition, mapping and differentiating of the irrigated area should be based on detailed survey and laboratory analysis of soil, in addition to physical and hy-draulic characterisation. Full water and fertility management packages for each production system along with irrigation scheduling, based on the hydraulic conditions of the soil, can lead to sustain-able irrigated agriculture.

Training Manual 10


2. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IRRIGATION SCHEMES

2.1 Operational services required in an irrigation schemeIrrigation operation and maintenance services require data for proper planning which can be ob-tained through regular monitoring of the system. Monitoring the operations and maintenance of the irrigation system is extremely important with two main purposes:

Short term: means of management control, comparing the actual flow with designed flow Long term: uses information on performance, supply and demand as a guide to planning and

implementation.For proper functioning and good performance of the system, frequent observations, measure-ments and checks should be carried out frequently on the irrigation system. Only relevant infor-mation should be included and accuracy of the data should be checked not only on equipment but also on the staff who do the recording. There are several types of operational services required in an irrigation scheme.

2.1.1 Project operation serviceThe operation service takes care of the physical system, staffing and management. The various components of the system from capture to application must be run as per the design and the op-eration manuals to ensure timely and adequate delivery of water to satisfy crop water requirements.

2.1.2 System operation serviceThe water level at the intake, flow rates, opening and closing of valves, checking of leaks in the system and precipitation pattern of sprinklers requires right skills to ensure that quality operations are carried out for satisfactory service. The management team plans and implements the operation schedules of both the staff and water supply in the scheme. The operations of the scheme should be such that the supply and demand matches as closely as possible.

Depending on the system the operator provide the quality and matching rate of working to re-quirements while the management provides direction and control. An efficient management is therefore critical in running of irrigation scheme.

2.1.3 System maintenance serviceTo ensure that the irrigation system adequately serves the users and for a longer life, maintenance of the system is a must i.e. replacement of worn out or defective parts of the system. It is prudent for the management of any system to; plan, implement and monitor the maintenance activities. The most critical types of maintenance include; routine or the normal maintenance (preventive), special maintenance (corrective) and deferred maintenance (rehabilitation).

2.2. Operational activitiesOperational activities are the periodic or day-to-day activities that keep an irrigation scheme func-tioning properly. These relate to the technical, administrative and socio-economic components of the scheme.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


2.2.1 Types of O&MThere are several O&M management systems based on the institutions responsible. Some of the more common ones include:

a) O&M by a Central Body

This is applicable in centrally managed large schemes where farmers may be tenants and an au-thority does all the O&M activities. The farmers are left to carry out operations at the farm level. The O&M costs are recovered by the authority from farmers’ produce.

b) O&M by WUAsWUAs should be fully responsible for operation and maintenance of the irrigation or drainage system with some technical advice and occasional assistance from a government agency or any other stakeholder or collaborator. The advantages include:

(i) The approach facilitates self-determination, internal capacity building and hence enhanced sustainability

(ii) Afford WUAs an opportunity to participate in decision on O&M function(iii) It enhances group cohesion and strengthens WUAs.(iv) O&M issues are timely addressed.(v) O&M costs are substantially reduced because most activities are carried out by WUAs

c) O&M by WUAs through a water undertaker

A water undertaker refers to an agency contracted by the WUAs to operate and maintain major infrastructure on their behalf at a fee. This is recommended in large smallholder schemes under the following circumstances:

(i) When farmers are unable to handle the necessary technical requirements(ii) When their organisational capability is below that expected to efficiently run the scheme.(iii) When the structures are massive and need specialised operation and maintenance

2.2.2 Operation and maintenance proceduresa) Establish the O&M tasksb) Establish labour requirements to perform the tasksc) Determine and mobilise other resources requiredd) Prepare (with assistance of technicians) appropriate O&M schedules e) Implement the tasks as per the schedulesf) Monitor and evaluate the implementation

2.2.3 Operating the Technical Components Intake worksThe water intake works require the following services:

o Controlling of sluice gates and scour pipe valveso Checking the intake chamber cover conditions;o Checking all the screens positioning and functioning;o Check coarse and fine screens for blockage and clogging;o Regular inspection for silt accumulation, cracks, leakages, blockages;o Check obstruction of flow to or near the weir;o Check the water level at the intake; o Regular checking of flush/flood gates and scour pipes.o Check and adjust the sluice gates to the recommended depth.

Sedimentation Basin

Training Manual 10


o Check that covers are locked and there is no overtoppingo Check that fine screens are properly in place and free from clogging and blockage;o Regular inspection for silt accumulation, cracks, leakages;o Check obstruction of flow to or near the outlet chamber;o Check the scouring pipe and overflow/spill for blockage or malfunctioning.

Water Conveyance System

The water conveyance system could be piped or canal. In the case of canal system, more work is required to maintain canals in functional state and avoid water wastage. However, water convey-ance should adopt the same principles of care and management. The notes here refer to piped conveyance system.

Pipe network

o Opening and closing of sluice valves to be done gradually until fully closed or opened to prevent surges, water hammer and air pockets in the pipeline

o Pressure surveys inspection along all the line to determine any hydraulic problems;o Flushing: This is accomplished by opening washouts and end caps. Allow water to discharge

until discolouration or odour disappears; o Regular inspection for leakages (joints, couplers, bends) and bursts;o Check for any damages of the anchors/thrust blocks, pillars, culverts and marker posts regu-

larly.

Meterso Regular inspection of the meters for flow rates leakages or blockages;o Proper and accurate recording of the functioning conditions of the meters;o Check the meter chambers for damages, water logging and silt.

Valveso Mark and number all the valves and indicate the position/locations on the layout;o When filling the system all valves should be in the open position;o Operate valves in either direction and determine the number of turns to go fully closed or

fully opened positions; show on record card, it gives direction on the level of operation of the system and also when the valve is not properly functioning;

o Check valves for leakages through packing of rings, assembly joints;o Check air/vacuum valves for leakages past float.o Do not leave valve in fully opened or closed position, but back off 1-2 turns,o Regular inspection of pressure reducing valves for any malfunction (pressure range, leakages) o Check all valves, boxes for damage, leakages and silt accumulation.o Prepare record cards for each valve in the system.o Inspection of functioning of the valve should be done regularly.

Wash outso Regular inspection of all washouts for malfunction by opening of the gate valves;o Opening the valves to drain the system until discolouration and oduor disappear;o Check that the valves are positioned properly before opening.

Operation of in-field systemo Flushing:- Regular flushing of the system by removing the last sprinkler head and letting

water run for a few minutes;o Opening and closing of gate valves at the hydrant and off take and checking for any mal-

functioning;o Shifting of sprinklers/lateral position to the correct positions as recommended;

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


o The lateral should be placed such that it is at level as possible to avoid pressure difference along the laterals;

o Observe spray patterns for clogging, misaligned heads and spacing;o Check the precipitation of sprinklers and operation pressure regularly;o Regular inspection of gate valves junctions, bends, joints and pipes for leakages, blockages

and mal-functioning of sprinklers;o Adjusting of flow control and pressure regulators to the designed flows and pressures.

2.3 Maintenance activitiesMaintenance involves periodic activities that ensure proper functioning of the irrigation scheme in the long term. Regular maintenance reduces the chance of system breakdowns and results in sustainability of the system. Some of the activities involved include:Maintenance of the intakeo Flushing out the accumulated silt regularly by opening the valves for the scour pipes and

flush gate;o Stir up the accumulated silt until all the silt is washed downstream through the provided

gates;o Clean the flush screens and sluice gates;o Replace the damaged stop logs and screenso Grease the movable metal parts;o All the concrete and steel parts with defects should be repaired;

Sedimentation Basino Daily cleaning of the fine screens; o Open the wash outs regularly until clear water comes out of the basin. Stir up the accumulat-

ed silt;o Repair or replace the worn out or damaged valve, wash outs, rubber seats and screens;o Repair the concrete structure and metal parts where damaged;o Tighten all the loose movable parts.(e.g. cover hinges)

Maintenance of pipe networko Regular flushing out of the pipe system by opening all washouts and end caps.o Repair leakages and bursts promptly. It is recommended to remove a short length of pipe-

line on each side of the damage since the defects may be extended. If in doubt, replace the whole length of pipe;

o Replace the missing, damaged or vandalised pipes;o Tighten the leaking joint and replace the damaged coupling/fittings. Avoid over tightening

of steel couplers and must be protected against corrosion;o Repair damaged thrust/anchor block and replace vandilised or damaged posts;o Set the pressure as per the design and replace damaged pressure regulating devices;o Repair damaged chamber covers and frame.

Note: precaution should be taken when repairing bursts under dirty conditions to ensure that pipe and joint surfaces are clean throughout the operation

Maintenance of metersThis should not be done by farmers. It is best to seek the guidance from the qualified technician if the meters are not working properly. Replace the meters if need be.

Valves and valve boxeso Repair malfunctioning valves and replace the worn out or damaged valves;o Remove dirt and mud from valve boxes. Add gravel to the bottom if necessary;

Training Manual 10


o Clean all valves regularly for blockage and repair all worn out parts;o Grease bolts and other movable joints;o Tighten the bolts;o Bolts and nuts should be cleaned, greased and replaced if damaged or worn out;o Flush the pressure reducing valves by pulling the easing lever up;o Remove and clean strainers on diaphragm type valves;o Repair any damage on the chamber walls, covers and frames.

Maintenance of wash outso Repair all the damaged drains and control valves;o Repair all the leakages; o Drain the chamber;o Grease the chamber covers, hinges and repair the damaged or broken parts;o Bolts and nuts to be greased and tightened.

Maintenance of in-field systemso Repair leakages along the service lines, hydrants and repair them promptly;o Replace the missing, damaged control valves;o Ensure that loose connections are tightened;o Flush the system at the beginning of the irrigation;o Clean the clogged nozzles;o Replace non performing accessories e.g. springs, clips, seals, bed head arm;o Broken or missing sprinkler head must be replaced;o Align the misaligned heads: use the manufacturers manual to align;o Reposition the sprinkler heads and fasten the tripods;

Note: Periodic inspection of supply lines, mechanical equipment and other accessories should be made through out the irrigation season.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


3.0. ORGANASATIONAL STRUCTURE IN IRRIGATION SCHEMES3.1. Scheme organisationWhen several farmers are carrying out irrigated agriculture using a common point of water sup-ply, certain tasks or activities must be properly coordinated. To ensure the smooth running of the scheme and to avoid conflicts, it is important to have an Irrigation Water Users’ Association for organisation and self management. Thus irrigation schemes should be managed by a legally regis-tered irrigation water users’ association. The organisation management structure should consist of the organs described in Figure 3.1 below:

Figure 3.1: Illustration of the organisational structure of a group irrigation scheme

(Source: MoWRM&D 2003)

3.2 Functions of the various stakeholdersThere are various types of stakeholders engaged in irrigation development, O & M, depending on scale and level of commercialisation. They range from the farmers themselves, government officers, water service providers, suppliers of inputs materials, buyers of produce and others in the value chain that are affected by the scheme, e.g. shopkeepers. At the O & M level, it is mainly the farmers and administrators who are actively engaged. The roles of each of these groups are described here as follows:

14

3.0. ORGANASATIONAL STRUCTURE IN IRRIGATION SCHEMES

3.1. Scheme organisation When several farmers are carrying out irrigated agriculture using a common point of water supply, certain tasks or activities must be properly coordinated. To ensure the smooth running of the scheme and to avoid conflicts, it is important to have an Irrigation Water Users’ Association for organisation and self management. Thus irrigation schemes should be managed by a legally registered irrigation water users’ association. The organisation management structure should consist of the organs described in Figure 3.1 below: Figure 3.1: Illustration of the organisational structure of a group irrigation scheme (Source: MoWRM&D 2003)

Special Task Committee

Group/Block leaders

Stakeholders

Members

Scheme committee Chairman Secretary Treasurer Committee members

General Assembly

Technical & Administrative team

Training Manual 10


Farm level O & M

This is usually the responsibility of individual farmers. They should be responsible for the water application, and all in-field water management systems.

Unit (block) level

Most irrigation schemes are divided into smaller units, each of which has a unit committee and Leaders. At this level, there may be water guards (sometimes called water scouts) who oversee that farmers adhere to agreed water sharing bylaws or regulations. The block committee and the line patrollers should organise the operations of the main line and water distribution within the block and supervise the individual farmers at the farm level.

Scheme level

Irrigation schemes should have an irrigation water users association (IWUA) or scheme committee to facilitate equitable sharing of water and for coordinated development. The IWUA together with the patrollers is responsible for the operation from the intake, conveyance system and supervision of the block committees.

3.3 Responsibilities for Water ManagementThe water distribution should be synchronised with the cropping season which is designed to cor-respond to weather, market forces, and agreement with farmers as to their water demands, thus guiding when the intake or hydrant should be opened. The irrigation cropping/water distribution calendar and schedule should be adhered to in order to avoid over irrigation or under irrigation of crops. Proper planning of the operation is necessary in order to match the supply and demand as closely as possible. In case of water shortage, water rationing may be introduced: This could involve:o Practicing alternative irrigation (rotation system between blocks)o Reduce daily irrigation time (deficit irrigation)o Reduce the number of sprinklers per plot.

At the scheme level, the responsibilities for operations and maintenance of irrigation water can be allocated at the scales of the farm, unit/block and scheme-wide. The persons responsible can be the farmers, field technicians and administrators as shown in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Organisation and maintenance chart

Levels Tasks Responsi-bility Staff Frequency

On farm

• Operating irrigation equipment (e.g. sprinklers)

• Maintaining field equipment• Checking leakages and repairing

the in-field system

• Positioning and aligning water application equipment (e.g. sprin-klers)

• Pressure regulations• Flushing the System

Farmer Plumber/ pipe fitter

Daily:

o Operating water application systems

o Check for leakages or malfunctions

Seasonal:

o Pressure checks

o Flushing of the system

o Valves inspection

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


Unit/Blocks

• Inspection of all structures on the distribution lines

• Repair of all bursts, leakages and damages

• Regulations of water distribution and requests

• Supervision of individual farmers• Organise cleaning of the chambers

• Carry out preventive mea-sures

Unit leader Water tech-nician

Daily:

o Inspection of the System

o Supervision

o Water regulation

Seasonal:

o Cleaning of struc-tures

o Major repair works

o Check and repair valves

o Repair anchor and thrust blocks

Scheme

• Inspection of intake works and conveyance

• Repair and maintenance of the head works and conveyance

• Operation of the head works and conveyance

• Supervise block leaders• Planning and implementation• Staffing• Monitoring the activities

Irrigation Water Users’ Association (IWUA)

(i) Oper-ations man-ager

(ii) Water tech-nician

Daily:

o Inspection of head works and convey-ance

o Operation and Maintenance

Seasonal:

o Cleaning intake works

o Major repair works i.e. Change of valves, silt removal, pipe replacement.

NOTE: The staff require-ment will depend on the scheme size.

(Source: MoWRM&D –Kenya, 2003)

3.4. Monitoring of operation and maintenanceThe monitoring of the operations and maintenance (O & M) is an important activity and has two main purposes(i) Short-term: it acts as a means of management control i.e. comparing the actual situation with the designed condition and helps identify the divergence, and (ii) Long-term: it is used to amass information on water supply, demand and performance as a guide to planning and implementing forth coming seasons.

Frequent observations, measurements and checks should be carried out throughout the irrigation season and proper records obtained and analysed. Only relevant data/information should be in-cluded. Clear monitoring schedules and check lists should be made available for ease of recording

Training Manual 10


and consistency. These may include the following:

3.4.1. Materials and equipmentThe relevant materials/equipment for monitoring includes but not limited to the following:• Staffing: organisation structure of the scheme• Comprehensive map (system layout)• Section plans showing location of the system components i.e. intake, sedimentation basin,

valves, infield system etc]• Record cards/charts• Check lists• Operation and maintenance schedules• Measuring equipments i.e. pressure gauge, flow meters, tension meter• Crops and cropping calendars• Irrigation schedules• Agro-Meteorological data (preferably from weather station at scheme site).• Report sheets (daily, monthly, semi-annual and annual)

Surveillance chartsThese are charts prepared for ease of checking the various tasks to be performed along the irriga-tion system, where, when and by who. There is daily, seasonal and annual surveillance charts.

3.4.2 Daily scheduleFor the intakeo Check Damage, clogging and blockage of the screenso Check for rust on the screenso Check Silt piling at the weir and chamberso Check water flow quantitieso Check the conditions of the environment surrounding the intake weir and intake chamber

Conveyance and distribution lineo Check for leakages and bursts of pipes and fittingso Check the conditions of the valves and wash outs

Infield systemo Check for blockage/clogging o Inspect the Watering patterno Check sprinkler alignment and positioningo Check the working pressures and application rateso Check for missing, damaged or vandilised sprinklers

3.4.3 Seasonal schedulesIntakeo Remove any silt pilling at intakeo Repair any damages on the screenso Scour the weir, chambers and flush the sediments

Conveyance and distribution lineo Inspect the system for leakages and burstso Inspect the conditions of the valves and washouts

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


o Inspect the condition of the chambers, break pressure tanks and anchor blocks/thrust blocks

o Check the pressureso Flush the system

Infield system• Check for blockages/clogging• Inspect the watering pattern• Check sprinkler alignment and positioning• Check working pressures and application rates• Check for missing, damaged or vandilised sprinklers

3.4.4 Annual schedulesIntake: Inspect the system for leakages and bursts Intake

Conveyance and distribution lineo Remove any silt pilling at intakeo Repair any damages on the screenso Scour the weir, chambers and flush the sedimentso Inspect the conditions of the valves and washoutso Inspect the condition of the chambers, break pressure tanks and anchor blocks/thrust

blockso Check the system pressureso Flush the system

Infield systemo Check for blockages/cloggingo Inspect the watering patterno Check sprinkler alignment and positioningo Check working pressures and application rateso Check for missing, damaged or vandilised sprinklers.

Training Manual 10


4. WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS

4.1 What is a Water Users’ Association?A Water Users’ Association (WUA) is a group of land users (farmers, pastoralists, urban dwellers) within a given geographical location who come together for the collective interest of utilisation and sustainable management of a common water resource.

4.1.1 What is an IWUA?An Irrigation Water Users’ Association (IWUA), on the other hand, is a WUA whose main goal is to develop, utilise and manage water resources for irrigation and/or drainage. The IWUA members make joint efforts to install, operate, maintain and manage the irrigation or drainage facility for the benefit of all the members. There are two types of IWUAs, categorised based on their dominant activity.

(i) Irrigation WUAs - These abstract water mainly for irrigation activities.(ii) Drainage WUAs – These are basically involved in evacuation of excess water from the

farms and construction of flood protection works to prevent flood waters reaching agricul-tural land.

An IWUA is meant to develop, viable and sustainable farmers’ organisations that would own, oper-ate and manage smallholder schemes on a sustainable basis. The idea is to efficiently and effectively manage irrigation schemes that would help increase crop production hence improve food security and promote higher income generation towards improved well-being of irrigation and drainage farmers. In the case of river basin management, an IWUA can be a component or member of a larger WUA. This manual uses the term WUA (since it is inclusive of IWUA).

4.1.2 Roles of WUAs in Irrigation and DrainageThese normally include:o Pooling members’ resources for the installation, maintenance and sustainable management

of irrigation or drainage facility.o Management of operation and maintenance of the irrigation facility for maximum benefits

to members.o Facilitate access and ensure effective management of development resources e.g. capital,

credit, grants, land, water, technical etc.o Provide irrigation water and drainage system to members.o Develop and promote group cohesion.o Capability building for members

The roles and functions of WUAs in small holder irrigation and drainage development (SHIDD) are needed as the project development progresses. These evolve from the information given during initiation phase to total assumption of management roles at O&M/sustenance phase, as shown in Table 4.1.

Nile

Bas

in In

itia

tive

– N

ELSA

P/RA

TP


Table 4.1: Roles and functions of WUAs

Phase in Scheme development Roles/Functions of WUA

Initiation o Generation of project idea from memberso Transmission of idea to otherso Participate in feasibility studies e.g. marketing

Planning /Design

Prepare necessary information.Mobilise resources, finances, and manpower/member

activities. Participate in activities Formulation of WUA by-laws

Implementation (provision of cash, materials, labour and logis-tics)

o Mobilisation of resources for project implementation o Facilitation of acquisition of resources from members/

community. o Actual commitment of resources. o Participate in all activities.o Participate in major decisions pertaining to project poli-

cies, guidelines and procedures.

Operation and maintenance

Prepare plans i.e. financial, technical organisational.Evaluate the plans Develop proposals Link/network with support institution Promote support programmes for members Develop capability of the members Develop, implement sustainability measures

4.2 Formation of a Water Users’ AssociationBefore a group like a water users association (WUA) can function effectively and deliver the in-tended services to the members, it goes through a series of stages namely: Forming, Storming, Norming and Performing. After going through these development phases WUA should become mature and functional and perform their various tasks effectively. These roles include: (i) collec-tion of water service fees, (ii) scheme operation, (iii) equitable water distribution to members, (iv)scheme/facility maintenance, (v) sourcing for irrigation support services, and resolution of group conflicts (Table 4.2).

a) Forming Phase

(i) Members are not yet a group but a set of individuals

(ii) Individuals want to establish personal identity within the group and make an impression

(iii) Participation is limited as individuals get familiar with each other

(iv) Individuals begin to focus on tasks at hand and discuss its purpose

(v) The group is essentially evolving ground rules on which future decisions and actions will be based.

Training Manual 10


Table 4.2 The formation process of a water users association

Mile-stones Process Specific objectives Steps/strategies & Tactics

1. Core group forma-tion

Identification of entry point

Baseline data established Reconnaissance visitsInitial contacts established

Social preparationExisting groups identified Mobilisation meetingsCommunity action plan drawn

Resource mobilisationConduct PRAs,

Leader identification& development

Potential leaders identi-fied & developed based criteria

Small group & individual discussions (situation analysis)Local mobilisations

Core group formation

Member recruitment

Potential leaders catego-rised

Mobilisation meetingsStatement of objectives and qualities of leadersElection of interim committee

CIGs formed Performance evaluationPlan evaluation

Firm up list of members

Reconnaissance of probable command areas & beneficiariesCommunity discussionsIssue membership certificates

2. WUA forma-tion

Vision, Mission, objectives, Organisation & mgt Struc-ture established By-law formulation

To establish internal gov-ernance mechanism

Role definition

Define the offices, committees etc

Formal electionMeetings

3. WUA legalisa-tion

Registration Preparation of docu-mentsTo formalise the WUA

Formal application for registration & payment of fee

4. Train-ing & develop-ment

Financial mgt trainingsLeadership trainingsPre-project trainings

Install capability in organ-isational and financial mgt

Informal training sessions for leadersOn- the job trainingsGuided practiceProject orientation sessionsParticipation planningSkills development planning for irrigation, production etc

5. WUA opera-tion

Operationalise the organ-isation

To deliver services to members

Explain roles & mandate

Implementation of O&M, production plans

Test, improve & M&E WUA Mgt capability

Plan implementation by WUAPerformance evaluation & feedback

Implementation of sus-tainability measures

Total assumption of O&M and Mgt responsibilities

Install WUA capability for sustenance

Evaluate sustainability

Plan implementation by WUAPerformance evaluation & feedback

Test- run Guided O&MPerformance evaluationMgt trainings

b) Storming Phase(i) Characterised by intra-group conflict and lack of unity(ii) Preliminary groun

Documents

PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND - Welcome to Nile Basin Initiative (NBI)nilebasin.org/nileis/system/files/PARTICIPATORY OPERATION... · 2021. 1. 18. · PARTICIPATORY OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE