Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in ...iaetsdjaras.org/gallery/6-february-882.pdf · General Census of Agriculture and Livestocks (GCAL) with many goals that

Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in

agriculture, health, livestocks and tourism in Cameroon

Alfred Homère NGANDAM MFONDOUM* 1, 2, 3, Joachim ETOUNA1, 3, 4,

Christian SIMEN1, 3, Orelia TEKUH1, 3, Armel Fabrice MVOGO MOTO1, 3

1 I Love Geomatics; 2Stats N’ Maps; 3University of Yaoundé; 4National Institute of Cartography.

*Corresponding author: Alfred Homère NGANDAM MFONDOUM. I Love Geomatics,

Yaoundé, P.O Box 8381, Cameroon, [email protected]

Abstract – The aim of this paper is to assess the impact of Participatory GIS (PGIS) in the

process of decision-making in a developing country context. This practice is an alternative

process between GIS and Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) methods. It highlights

specificities in agriculture and livestocks, health and tourism whose different departments

are adjusting to government’s efforts to solve local issues while including local populations.

The main methods used here are cognitive mapping and focus groups with GIS facilitators.

The results obtained are Counting Zones, Health Areas and Touristic Spatial Units

delimitations confined or not inside the different district’s boundaries, but consensually

validated by all the stakeholders. It confirms that the Indigenous System of knowledge

(ISK), combined to GIS expertise and administrative coordination, is dynamic in

supporting the Cameroon’s advances on the field of proximity governance and territorial

planning.

Keywords–Cameroon; Cognitive mapping; Decision-making; ISK; PGIS; proximity

governance; territorial planning.

1. Background

Many authors in different words define GIS with the same background. It is a system designed to

capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data ([1], [2], [3],

[4],[5]). This computer-based technology is increasingly used in both problem solving and decision

making processes, as well as for visualization of data in a spatial environment and other

numerous activities, which involve map-making ([6];[5]). It is far beyond map drawing performed

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by mapping software, because GIS enable complex spatial analysis ([6]); location, quantities,

densities, contents, nearby, and changes are some among them ([1], [3], [4], [5]).

GIS are usually seen as 'expert' systems because of hardware and software that require a high

level of technical expertise ([6]). Moreover, the data are expensive depending on the project to

conduct or the problem to solve, reinforcing in some cases top-down development planning or

abuse of the populations trust, if the data is not used to improve the circumstances in the

community but exclusive for the interests of the government ([7]). In those circumstances and for

purposes of good decision-making, the concept, techniques and practices of GIS have evolved to

Participatory GIS (PGIS).

PGIS has then emerged as an alternative method. It designates a participatory approach to spatial

planning and information, and communications management, which merges participatory

mapping with modern mapping techniques using GIS ([6], [8], [9], [10], [11]). PGIS put together spatial

analysis techniques and living experience of both modern and cultural or archaic practitioners, by

combining GIS 'expert' skills with socially differentiated local knowledge ([12]). In terms of

decision-making, it is an effort of including less favored groups of society in the process, which

draws on the diversity of experiences associated with participatory development and involves

communities in the production of GIS data and spatial decision-making ([6], [9], [7]).

From the above, it appears that an appropriate use and practice of PGIS could exert profound

impacts on community empowerment, innovation and social change ([10]). This said, how can

PGIS contribute or impulse the decision-making process in the case of Cameroon’s national

governance program?

It is hypothesize that developing countries lack expertise and finances to really access full GIS

technology can relied on the alternative of PGIS to fulfill their spatial decision-making.

Therefore, the aim of this article is to share lessons drawn from PGIS applications for decision-

making in Cameroon. Application’s experiences come from joined government and international

projects on one hand, and academic experimentations on the other hand, on the field of

agriculture, livestocks, health and tourism.



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2. Methodology

2.1. Context of needs and experimentations

Since three decades, Cameroon government is engaged to promote good decision-making and a

proximity governance, via a National Program of Governance (NPG) with the goal of better

understanding population needs and enable their intervention in problem solving. ([13], [14]). All

the fields of socioeconomic life are concerned and the state departments are fully involved in the

process. The specific goals that the two of them are targeting and some others experimentations

ask for PGIS applications.

- Agriculture and livestocks: both the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, and

the Ministry of Livestocks, Fisheries and Animal industries are targeting to control and

improve their national productions. They decided to do so by performing a joined

General Census of Agriculture and Livestocks (GCAL) with many goals that are among

others, the livestock heads count, farms classification and statistics surveys, overlapping

borders of current extension zones claimed by two or more government’s field leads, and

conflicts solving between breeders and farmers in shared spaces. GIS experts of I Love

Geomatics Association have then traduced the goals targeted into needs of a participatory

updating and mapping boundaries of the current zones of agriculture extension, with the

connotation of “agriculture and livestocks counting zones”. (Table 1.). The main

participants mainly identified were government’s sector leads with agriculture

vulgarization agents and local population, especially breeders and farmers.

- Health: the Ministry of Public Health is targeting to promote equitable access to health

care to all the population over the national territory. Except the formation of medical

practitioners, it is important to provide different administrative levels with numbers and

categories of health facilities corresponding. Unfortunately, the delivered authorizations

file showing a considerable growth of health facilities does not correspond with the

existing map on one hand, and some health facilities are classified as belonging to two or

more different health zones. Facing the goal targeted and the conflicts between file and

field reality, I Love Geomatics Association experts have proposed a participatory

updating and mapping of health zones. (Table 1.). Government’s sector leads and others



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health local workers as mobile agent of vaccination are identified to work with local

population.

- Tourism: Since the year 2000, the Ministry of Tourism and Leisure has declared tourism

as “priority economic sector”. It then try to improve the quality of the destination in terms

of sustainable governance and planning for more arrivals. [15],[16],[17] has used participatory

mapping to conduct fieldwork for ecotourism studies in some attractive areas; the main

goals with local populations were then to locate attractions and propose itineraries for a

most integrated planning design renewal. In November 2009 and October-December

2015, while conducting fieldwork for his Ph.D. thesis, he found necessary with local

population to divide the space into spatial units based on touristic attractions, and

population’s daily experience, especially local tourists’ guides.

Although they are expressed differently, the three needs are inviting a deep implication of local

populations in the process, based on the premise that local people are knowledgeable of their

local surroundings and present conditions.([11]). Whether during the field data collection, in the

conception or in the validation of results, every step should be participative and call then to PGIS

practice.

Table 1. Recapitulation of main goals and needs

Theme

Goal to target

Literal expression Subsequent idea GIS translation into

needs

Agriculture

and livestocks

Improve national

production

General Census of

Agriculture and Livestocks

Participatory mapping

of Counting Zones

Health Promote equitable

health care access

Adequate numbers and

categories of health facilities

Participatory updating

of Health Areas

Tourism

Improve the quality

of the destination

Integrated planning renewal

design

Participatory

proposition of Touristic

Spatial Units map

The study area chosen is the Noun Division, located in latitudes North 4°26’- 6°15’20’’ and East

10°15’- 11°30’ in the Cameroon West Region and divided into nine (09) districts (Fig.1.). This

choice is justified by the fact that it is the only division submitted to the tourism

experimentations, while agriculture and health projects where applied and validated on the whole

country.



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Figure 1. Location map

2.2. Methods and materials

The participation of local populations in the PGIS is commonly ensured by using Participatory

Learning and Action (PLA) methods and tools ([18], [10]). Amongst them are cognitive or mental

maps, defined as “a construct which encompasses cognitive processes which enable people to

acquire code, store, recall and manipulate information about the nature of their spatial

environment” ([19]). Their use enables to share and materialize the local communities Indigenous

Spatial Knowledge (ISK). ([9], [11]). Their very basic methods include ephemeral mapping, done

on the ground using raw materials; and sketch mapping, calling for observation or memory

slightly elaborated on pieces of paper using symbols. ([18]). Only the second method has been

used for agriculture and health projects, while both methods have been used for tourism

experimentations especially to create a nature miniature 3D to locate the touristic attractions.



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Cognitive maps were preceded or accompanied by semi-structure interview questionnaires,

highlighting main goals and prepared for focus group. Beside, as the organization of spatial

elements can be identified in mental maps as a marker of socio-spatial representations ([20]), a

sample of local “daily markers” have been selected in advance and sketched on lightly

represented maps to direct the respondents. (Table 2.). The list of markers should be completed

by them with those they find important ([21]), popular and easy to remind. Some of them belong

to the natural environment as valleys, forests, rivers, mountains, tracks; and some others are

selected between human settlements as religious buildings, kings’ palaces or chiefdom, hamlets,

schools, market places, roads, etc.

In every locality, questionnaires combined to small sketches were distributed to individuals or

families; there followed one participatory evaluation with GIS facilitators. (Fig. 2.1.). Based on

the main convergent individuals or families sketches, respondents have been grouped in set of 15

to 25 around large sketches to confront their ideas and produce a common cognitive map,

because in the decision-making process the geographic representations created by the group is

more expressive of the reality than the individual mental maps. ([22]); then followed the second

participatory evaluation with GIS facilitators by submitting every map to the assessment of all

groups participants. The third drawing session could then start, conducted by a member of the

group that have provided the most consensually accepted map. GIS experts would use this last

map for the field verification. To do so, the most accessible daily markers are chosen with local

guides and saved in a mobile GPS. In the case of health goals, the smartphones were equipped

with an Open Data Kit (ODK) questionnaire, directly connected to a central database jointly

managed by I Love Geomatics GIS experts and World Health Organization supervisors.



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Table 2. Sample of tourism PGIS semi-direct composed questionnaires combined with

sketches

Main fieldwork goals/needs Individual/Family/Group sketch with spatial markers

Tourist attractions

(Redraw/Complete on the sketch)

Track to access the attractions


Places of ordinary daily movements


Places of special daily movements


Individual’s more accurate territory


Family’s more accurate territory


Group’s more accurate territory


For the tourism cognitive mapping, a “sand and stones sketching” group session were always

preceding the second and the third steps above. The sticks were used to locate touristic

attractions and the method has brought important changes during the group sketching. For

instance, 64 sketches, which represents 51% of the 125 participants casted in the Touristic

Spatial Units Mayouom-Matié-Manki via Njimom district, have brought modifications to the

final sketches they draw in accordance with the ephemeral mapping. (Table 3.)

Table 3. Tourism PGIS participants influenced by the "sand and stones sketching" group

session in the Touristic Spatial Unit via Njimom district.

Total (Groups) Number of markers or tracks modified on sketches

125 (15*5 & 25*2) One Two Three Four Five More than five

21 (16.8%) 16 (12.8%) 13 (10.4%) 09 (7.2%) 04 (3.2%) 01 (0.8%)

Total 51.2%

The data collected during the GPS campaign were displayed as a spatial map on a medium or

high spatial resolution satellite image in background. (Fig.2.2.). The GIS experts and all the

participants, 75 to 125, then proceed to the last data confrontation through a cross-validation

session. The full methodology flowchart brings more details to the steps. (Fig.2.3.)



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Figure 2.1. Family’s sketch group session for Touristic Spatial Units and Touristic Sites

Sectors boundaries in Njimom district.

Figure 2.2. Display of touristic sites on a spatial map after field campaign



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Figure 2.3. Flowchart resuming the methods steps

3. Results

Three PGIS has emerged from the three projects and experimentations conducted. An overview

of the results reveals deep differences between the existing boundaries and the ones proposed.

GIS software used for the following performing are ArcGis 10.5 and QGIS 3.4.

Before fieldwork Semi-direct questionnaires Sketches Smartphone ODK questionnaires

(Health goals only)

Manual and automatic Design

Individual/Family/Small groups Fieldwork

Extended groups

(10 to 15 participants)

Concertation/Distribution

Ephemeral mapping: Sand and stones

sketching (Tourism goals only)

Focus groups

Debriefing/Evaluation

Large groups

(25 participants) Focus groups


Consensual cognitive map +

local guides + GPS + ODK Validation Campaign

Breeder’s roads tracking

(Livestocks goals only)

Community group

(75 to 125 participants)

Field validation map + Large

screen display of spatial map

Cross-Validation

session

Updating GIS Database +

Shapefiles /Features

PGIS mapping

results

After fieldwork

Focus groups


Ephemeral mapping: Sand and stones

sketching (Tourism goals only)



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3.1.Strengthened GIS databases

One main point of the PGIS has been to collect data with local populations. Therefore, the GPS

fieldwork after the sketches validation has permitted to update the accuracy location of known

items, and discover the unknown ones, enriching and reinforcing by the same way the existing

database. Either new community farms, transhumance field extent, publicly unknown touristic

attractions or inoperative health care facilities, the participant’s knowledge has been greatly

helpful for the new database. The changes includes the labelling and alias, the GPS "X", "Y","Z"

coordinates, and new infrastructures.

Moreover, the existing files of the central administrations about the field reality are more

accurate, because inoperative structures detected are planned to be equipped, and fraudulent ones

are to be officially closed. It is especially the case of health facilities. This leads to a more

efficient intervention plan by concerned ministries with the consent of local populations.

3.2.Transformed maps of zones, areas or sectors needed

After updating the database, the maps were laid out. The main common point is that the proposed

delimitations are crossing district’s boundaries. (Fig.3.)

PGIS agriculture and livestocks maps results bring out ninety (90) Counting Zones

influenced by primary sector’s activities. There are exactly twenty-two (22) (24%) of

them shared between two districts, and five (5) (6%) shared between three districts.

The main reasons of these crossing are the nomadic pastoralists extension zones and

the increasingly community farming practices inside the Noun Division. (Fig. 4.1.)

PGIS health maps show up seventy-two (72) Health Areas, technically designed on the

mean distances. In effect, with the integration of new roads and local tracks used by

local population, the ArcGIS 10.5 Network Analysis extension process has eased to

integrate the mean walking time from the farthest hamlets to the main road, and the

mean driving time from that road to the main health facility. In addition to the

demarcation between Health Areas, this method has enabled to identify the level of

needs in numbers and classes of health facilities, related to inhabitants. Consequently,

eighteen (18) (25%) Health Areas boundaries overcome the limits of two districts,

while seven (10%) are shared by three districts inside the Noun division. (Fig. 4.2.)

Following goals and directions for whole viewing the Noun division’s issues expressed



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by the Ministry of Public Health, the Health areas have been grouped in five majors

Health Districts. (Fig. 4.3.)

Tourism PGIS maps result in twenty-seven (27) sectors, distributed equitably between

nine Tourisic Spatial Units (TSU). One proposition is that eight of the nine Touristic

Spatial Units are shaped out of the sub-division boundaries. This is mainly because

some populations of a neighbouring subdivision most spatially and culturally use some

touristic sites administratively belonging to another subdivision. Composed names

from two or three touristic landmarks are consequently used to designate TSU.

(Table4.). Only the Tourisic Spatial Units of Bancoupèn chiefdom-Nkoumbam via

Bangourain district keeps the same boundaries as the subdivision ones. Another

proposition concerns the delineation of the Touristic Spatial Unit of Mapé-Rifùm-Mata

via Magba district. It is the only TSU, which proposed boundaries exceed the Noun’s

division boundaries, thanks to the historical touristic site of Rifùm (circled in Purple,

Fig.4.4.); this one is the origins of both Bamoun people occupying the Noun division

and Tikar people expanded in a part of the Mayo-Banyo division. There are finally five

spots of spatial changes from subdivision to TSU; the total area of modification is

about 27 km2, bringing the touristic estimated expansion area to 7710 km2, that is

0.35% of the current Noun’s division area (7683km2). The new space shaped is a

territorial representation of tourism activities named for the purpose "Touristic Noun".

(Fig.4.4.)

Figure 3. Screenshot showing Health Areas limits crossing district’s boundaries



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Table 4. The nine Touristic Spatial Units

Touristic Spatial Unit Via the district of…

Bancoupèn chiefdom-Nkoumbam …Bangourain

Njinka/Nkounga-Mambain-Njikètkié …Foumban

Mangoum-Pouo’loum-Larentame …Foumbot

Pètpenoun-Bamendjing-Nkougham …Kouoptamo

Ngoundoup-Nkouchangkap-Didango …Koutaba

Mapé-Rifùm-Mata …Magba

Nchi/Mbam-Mantoum-Manchoutvi …Malantouen

Malandèn-Mfohouon-Maloa …Massangam

Mayouom-Matié-Manki …Njimom

Following different specificities in their approaches, the three PGIS have provided altogether

189 zones, areas and sectors in three types of repartitions.

hhhjjuhjhh



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Figure 4. A) Agriculture and livestocks Counting Zones; B) Health Areas with district’s

boundaries in background; C) Health Areas distributed in the five Health Districts;

D)Touristic Spatial Units and Touristic Sites Sectors distributed in the Touristic Noun

proposed space

A B

C D



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4. Overview of lessons drawn and Outlooks

The experimentations conducted have led to some important lessons related to PGIS and

decision-making. First, it is one mean amongst others to test and assess the multi stakeholder’s

approach, enabling GIS experts, administrative delegates or agents and local populations to sit

and talk together about development issues. As the practice integrates several tools and methods,

the mixing of semi-structured interviews, focus groups and participatory observation used in the

cases studied have help to do so. This shows how much the maps resulting are supports for

communication, community legacy and local populations advocacy, because they take into

account their feelings, cultural considerations, and just reorganize "the territory they own" for

better assistance. ([9])

As another point, both local populations and government feel most free to act in the new

environment. The populations because their perceptions have been taken in account to build the

boundaries of the territory or the environment they lived in now; and the government because

many projects of national or local governance are less and less adapted to administrative

boundaries mostly inherited from colonization. For any purpose, the new territory is more

flexible and embedded into long-lasting spatial decision-making processes; it consequently offers

more alternatives because PGIS practice adapts to different local circumstances, socio-cultural

and biophysical environments. ([7],[12])

To end up, the combination of GIS techniques and participatory mapping had shown a great

importance in decision-making and territory planning for not only allowing locals populations to

get deeply involved in a development process, but also comforting national experts in their skills

and possibilities offered by the intermediacy of PGIS. Especially on the last point and inspired

by the ODK tool, I Love Geomatics Association experts have designed a new tool named

ILGDatacollector. It enables the collection of the field’s data with an instant tracking of the

interviewer, for punctual redirections or adjustments from the user’s headquarters. Commonly

used with others PLA methods and tools depending on the context, ILGDatacollector has

brought a plus in local PGIS practices, as it is the case for the Agriculture and livestocks

Counting Zones, Health Areas and Health Districts ongoing validations or updating. Moreover,

it makes easier the updating of Cameroon’s cities features through the Open Street Maps (OSM)



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process, known as a Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) ([23]), enabling the availability

of more recent and updated data for public uses. On the other hand, the experimentations

conducted by [15],[16] and [17] were enough inspiring to propose a complementary tool to the PGIS

process, to expedite the enterprises or government managers in prioritizing their actions. It is a

combination of the Eisenhower matrix and the Analytical Hierarchy Process, that gives a 4*4

matrix called Governance Matrix, accompanied by a scale colored and graduated from 1 (lowest

priority) to 16 (highest priority). [24]

Finally, PGIS practices and its outlooks through the projects and experimentations described in

this paper are definitely time and money saving for governments, empowering and flexible for

population’s participation, and enough enriching and inspiring for GIS experts, in developing

countries for their decision-making process.

5. Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the concerned ministries departments, for trusting them as GIS

experts for the projects and approving their technical suggestions of testing PGIS methods. We

are also thankful to the laboratory of image processing and scientific committee whole teams of I

Love Geomatics Association because they took their time to provide comments and reviews to

improve the content of this paper. The general manager of the private consulting firm

GEOVECTORIX has also been awesome by enabling the use of her locals and computers upon

request, as well as participating to debates.

6. Authorship

All the authors have contributed equally to the conception of this article, the design, the data

acquisition, the fieldwork, the processing and the comments, as members of the I Love

Geomatics Association.

7. Conflicts of interest

None

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Documents

Participatory GIS and decision-making – practical cases in ...iaetsdjaras.org/gallery/6-february-882.pdf · General Census of Agriculture and Livestocks (GCAL) with many goals that