Participation’s Influence on Job Stafisfaction

7/29/2019 Participations Influence on Job Stafisfaction

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10.1177/0734371X03259860 ARTICLEREVIEW OF PUBLIC PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION/ March 2004

Wright, Kim / IMPORTANCE OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS

Participations Influence onJob Satisfaction

The Importance of Job Characteristics

BRADLEY E. WRIGHT

University of North Carolina at Charlotte

SOONHEE KIM

Syracuse University

A structural equation model was proposed to analyze the impact of employee par-ticipation and job characteristics on job satisfaction. The current study foundthat participative decision making has a significant positive effect on perfor-mance feedback, task significance, and career development support. Perfor-mance feedback was positively related to job specificity and career developmentsupport. Task significance and career development support were, in turn, posi-tively related to job satisfaction. These findings suggest that participation has animportant, albeit indirect, effect on employee job satisfaction through its influ-ence on job characteristics. The implications of these findings for publicmanagement are discussed.

Keywords: participation; job characteristics; job satisfaction; human resource

development

As a result of an emphasis on performance and results-oriented govern-ment services, researchers in public administration and governmentagencies have stressed effective human resource management strategies suchas empowerment and participative management (Kim, 2002; Ting, 1996;U.S. General Accounting Office, 1999; U.S. Merit Systems ProtectionBoard, 1998a, 1998b). Although such strategies have a direct impact on orga-nizational performance by maximizing the utilization of the organizationshuman resources, they also may have a number of indirect effects by reducingcosts associated with those resources. Several researchers (Eby, Freeman,Rush, & Lance, 1999; Pierce, Rubenfeld, & Morgan, 1991; Thomas &

Velthouse, 1990) have argued that enhancing individual perceptions ofempowerment and fair treatment may intensify affective reactions toward

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Review of Public Personnel Administration, Vol. 24, No. 1 March 2004 18-40DOI: 10.1177/0734371X03259860 2004 Sage Publications


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work and, ultimately, reduce rates of turnover and absenteeism. In particular,studies have demonstrated that participative decision making can be benefi-cial to workersmentalhealth andjob satisfaction (Cotton, Vollrath, Froggatt,Lengnick-Hall, & Jennings, 1988; Fisher, 1989; Miller & Monge, 1986).

Defined as the pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from theappraisal of ones job or job experience (Locke, 1976, p. 1300), job satis-faction represents an interaction between employees and their work envi-ronment by gauging the congruence between what employees want fromtheir jobs and what employees feel they receive. Although job satisfactionhas long been expected to have important implications for organizationalproductivity, a review of empirical evidence fails to support the assertionthat job satisfaction has a direct effect on productivity (Iaffaldano &

Muchinsky, 1985; Kahn & Morse, 1951; Katz & Kahn, 1978; Mitchell,1979; Vroom, 1964; Wechsler, Kahane, & Tannenbaum, 1952).

Job satisfaction has, however, been found to have an important, albeitindirect, influence on organizational productivity by reducing costs associ-ated with absenteeism and turnover (Brooke & Price, 1989; Carsten &Spector, 1987; Farrell & Stamm, 1988; Heneman, Schwab, Fossum, &Dyer, 1983; Lawler, 1994; Locke, 1976; Spector, 1997; Tett & Meyer,1993). With respect to organizational performance and individual produc-tivity, absenteeism and retention are significant targets for current humanresource management in private and public sectors (Carsten & Spector,1987; Eby et al., 1999). One study suggests that replacement costs areabout 50% to 60% of an employees annual salary (Wysocki, 1997). Other

costs may be even more important for government agencies. Understaffingbecause of excessive turnover among correction officers, for example, maybe linked to prison escapes (Blase, 2001). Given the significant cost ofemployee absenteeism and turnover for organizational performance, schol-ars must clearly identify variables related to quality of work life that affect

job satisfaction in government agencies, such as participative management,job characteristics, and supervisor support (Bruce & Blackburn, 1992;Rainey, 1997).

Since the 1990s, one of the leading agendas of public management hasbeen implementing effective human capital strategies to enhance govern-ment performance and accountability. However, the efforts of making theconnection of strategic human resource management to organizational per-formance in the public sector have been hindered because of the constraintsof civil service systems and traditional public personnel management.Scholars found that the civil service system emphasizing rules and regula-tions, control systems, political context, limited autonomy, and flexibility

Wright, Kim / IMPORTANCE OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS 19


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can serve as a barrier to creating outcome-oriented human resource man-agement in the public sector (Benveniste, 1987; Bozeman & Straussman,1990; Ospina, 1992, 1996). Understanding the relationships amongemployee participation, job characteristics, and job satisfaction in a publicpersonnel system may provide insights for creating effective strategies forhuman resource management in government agencies.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the causal order of theantecedents of job satisfaction in the public sector by testing a model thatsynthesizes several recent studiesthat emphasizedthe role that participatorymanagement strategies (Kim, 2002) and job characteristics (Wright &Davis, 2003) play in facilitating employee job satisfaction. In particular, thecurrent study attempted to explicate the underlying processes by which

employee participation may influence job satisfaction through its effect onthree important characteristics of employees jobs: task significance, careerdevelopment support, and feedback (Figure 1). This article begins with areview of the literature on employee participation, job characteristics, and

job satisfaction that identifies the four hypotheses tested in the currentstudy. The hypothesized effects of participation on job characteristics andoveralljob satisfaction were tested using a covariance structure analysis. Themajor findings and implications for public management arethen discussed.

LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES

Participation

Although participation has been defined conceptually and operationallyin many different ways (Cotton et al., 1988; Dachler & Wilpert, 1978;Schregle, 1970), participation is generally defined as a process in whichinfluence is shared among individuals who are otherwise hierarchicallyunequal (Locke & Schweiger, 1979; Wagner, 1994). Participatory manage-ment practices balance the involvement of managers and their subordinatesin information-processing, decision-making, or problem-solving endeav-ors (Wagner, 1994). Historically, management theory (Argyris, 1957;Bennis, 1966; Herzberg, 1966, 1968; Likert, 1967; Maslow, 1954) hasemphasized the importance of coordinating the organization-human rela-tionship to enhance productivity and develop human capital. Althoughsome have supported these efforts because of their purported benefits to theorganization, others have supported participation as a moral imperative,

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viewing the quality-of-life movement as a means to improve intrinsic moti-vation and help employees to feel good about their work (Spreitzer, Kizilos,& Nason, 1997). Although these approaches differ in terms of the relativeimportance they put on participations influence on job satisfaction, theyconclude that such an effect exists.

Employee participation programs have gained considerable positiveappeal among managers, union leaders, employees, and scholars alike.Participative management practices have been commonly perceived to havesubstantial positive effects on performance (Bush & Spangler, 1990), satis-

faction at work (Bernstein, 1993; Bluestone & Bluestone, 1992; Hoerr,1989; Kim, 2002), lower levels of absenteeism and turnover (Marks,Mirvis, Hackett, & Grady, 1986), and organizational effectiveness (Lawler,1986; Macy, Peterson, & Norton, 1989). Empirical evidence has providedmoderate support for these claims. For example, in a meta-analysis and sur-vey of previous reviews of the literature on participation, Wagner (1994)found that research has produced reliable evidence of statistically signifi-cant changes in performance and satisfaction that are positive in directionbut limited in size (p. 325). These studies, however, have tended tooperationalize a direct relationship between participation and job satisfac-tion. In contrast, Daniels and Bailey (1999) argued that the evidenceregarding the impact of employee participation on job satisfaction has notbeen consistent, suggesting that the relationship between participation and

job satisfaction could be affected by individual and situational variables(Cotton, 1993, 1995).


Satisfaction

Career Development

Support

Feedback

Participation

JobSpecificity

Job

+

+

++

+

+

TaskSignificance

+

+

Figure 1. Hypothesized Model


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As previously suggested, job satisfaction represents an interactionbetween employees and their work environment, gauging the congruencebetween what employees want from their jobsand what employees feel theyreceive. Therefore, to investigate the relationship between participationand employee job satisfaction, it must first be determined how participa-tion may alter employees job-related experience in ways that the employeefinds desirable. Successful participation programs, for example, not onlygive employees a more meaningfulrole in theorganization but alsotheskillsand information necessary to successfully carry out that role. Participation,therefore, may have an important, albeit indirect, effect on job satisfactionto the extent to which three potential consequences of participationtasksignificance, feedback, and career development supportenhance

employee job satisfaction. Each of these three variables is discussed in termsof their potential relationship with participation and their subsequentinfluence on employee job satisfaction.

Task Significance

Employee participation programs, by their very definition, allowemployees to play a greater role in the organization, granting them influ-ence in and access to activities often reserved for management, such asinformation processing, decision making, or problem solving. In other

words, participation not only gives employees more responsibility for orga-

nizational performance but also inherently signals that the organizationrecognizes that the employee can make important contributions to theorganization (Luthans, 1995).Strengthening the connection between indi-vidual and organizational performance may help employees see their workas more important or significant and, therefore, more intrinsically reward-ing. As the meaningfulness employees experience at work, commonlyreferred to as task significance, increases, so too does job satisfactionbecause employees gain opportunities to fulfill their higher order needs,such as self-actualization and self-esteem (Hackman & Oldman, 1976). Infact, one of the sources of satisfaction most frequently mentioned byemployees has been the work itself (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman,1959). Scholars have demonstrated that employee job satisfaction can be

enhanced if employees perceive a high degree of task significance (Dale,Cooper, & Wilkinson, 1997; Evans & Lindsay, 1996). Therefore, consis-tent with previous studies cited earlier, the following hypothesis regardingparticipations influence on job satisfaction was identified.



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Hypothesis 1: The degree of participationwill have an indirect, positive effect onemployee job satisfaction through its influence on the level of tasksignificance.

Career Development

A second way in which participation can affect employees jobs isthrough fulfilling growth needs. Participation not only allows employees toplay a greater role in the organization but also improves the employeesunderstanding of organizational processes and assists in developing problem-solving and technical skills (Lawler, 1986). In fact, attempts to increaseemployee participation generally include skill training in problem solving

and communication (Cummings & Huse, 1989). By providing employeeopportunities for training, future career growth, and general skill develop-ment within the organization, participation can reduce employee workstress or dissatisfaction by removing skill-related impediments to job per-formance. Such development programs address the turnover problem byincreasing the likelihood that employees successfully complete their tasksand by helping employees see their futureintertwined with that of their cur-rent organizations (Kim, 2002; Ospina, 1996; Sherman & Bohlander,1992; Wright & Davis, 2003). Stated another way, as individuals sense along-term role within the organizations goal achievement, especially onethat involves their own individual growth, job satisfaction will beenhanced. This may be especiallyimportant as employees need and want to

take greater responsibility for their own development as a result of downsiz-ing and emerging new technology (London & Larson, 1999). Therefore,consistent with studies cited previously, the following hypothesis regardingparticipations influence on job satisfaction was identified.

Hypothesis 2: The degree of participationwill have an indirect, positive effect onemployee job satisfaction through its influence on the availability of careerdevelopment support.

Feedback

In addition to sharing influence and providing growth opportunities,employee participation programs also require communication. Foremployees to play a greater role in information processing, decision mak-ing, or problem solving, they need access to information. Thus, participa-tion programs must enhance the flow and use of information. Proponents



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of participation suggest that lower level employees typically have moreknowledge of the work itself but less knowledge of the works objectives orresults than management (Lawler, 1986). Employee involvement in deci-sion making, by its very nature, requires employees and management totrade information so that decisions and actions can be made based on morecomplete information (Anthony, 1978). In the end, management andemployees benefit. Management has a better understanding of the workprocesses whereas employees receive better information about performanceexpectations and results (Lawler, 1992). Although this exchange of infor-mation is primarily concerned with increasing organizational productivityby maximizing the utilization of employee capabilities, it also has an indi-rect influence on job satisfaction. Of particular importance is the role that

participation plays in providing knowledge of results (Miller & Monge,1986).

Although scholars have demonstrated that employee job satisfaction canbe enhanced if employees perceive a high degree of feedback about perfor-mance (Dale et al., 1997; Emmert & Taher, 1992; Evans & Lindsay, 1996),this effect of feedback on job satisfaction recently has been found to be indi-rect, mediated by job specificity and career development support (Wright& Davis, 2003). Regardless of whether employees receive job-related feed-back from supervisors, coworkers, or customers, feedback provides periodicformative or summative performance evaluations that may help to defineand clarify job performance expectations. Such feedback not only providesa mechanism to guide action but also can serve as on-the-job training,

developing the necessary skills or judgments specific to an employees job.Consequently, feedback may serve an important dual function in theemployees relationship with the organization. First, feedback can definethe employees current responsibilities in obtaining the organizations goals,thus increasing task clarity or job specificity. Second, feedback can helpdefine future roles the employee may be able to play in the organization,supporting employee development.

Although the connection between career development support and jobsatisfaction has already been discussed, task clarity or job specificity also hasbeen found to have a positive effect on job satisfaction (Daley, 1986; Jack-son & Schuler, 1985; Ting, 1996). Jobspecificity deals with worker percep-tions regarding the clarity with which job duties and their relative impor-tance are defined as well as the ability for the employee to clearly evaluate hisor her success and failure in performing these duties. As employees under-stand more clearly what is expected of them in their jobs, tension associated

with role ambiguity decreases, and the likelihood of successfully complet-



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ing their responsibilities increases (Hamner & Tosi, 1974; Tosi, 1971;Wright & Davis, 2003). The resulting comfort level translates into a higherdegree of job satisfaction. Therefore, consistent with these studies on feed-back, career development support, and job specificity, the followinghypotheses regarding participations influence on job satisfaction wereidentified.

Hypothesis 3: The degree of participationwill have an indirect, positive effect onemployee job satisfaction through its influence on feedback and its effect oncareer development support.

Hypothesis 4: The degree of participation willhave an indirect, positive effect onemployee job satisfaction through its influence on feedback and its effect on

job specificity.

Therelationships identified by thefour hypotheses aredepicted in Figure 1.

METHOD

Sampling Procedure

Data used in the current study came from a study of state employeesworking for a single state agency in New York that provides professionalassistanceto local governments. The survey was conducted during the sum-

mer of 2000 as part of a strategic planning process. All 477 employees weregiven an 8-page questionnaire to complete and mail to the first author (act-ing as an external consultant). To maximize the surveys response rate, ques-tionnaires were coded for tracking purposes; the agencys senior manage-ment sent an e-mail reminder after 7 days, and nonrespondents received apersonally addressed reminder after 14 days.1

Survey Instrument

The selected survey participants received an 88-item survey instrumentdesigned to investigate employee perceptions of the work context, psycho-logical climate, job characteristics, work incentives, as well their job satis-faction. Each of the six study variablesweredevelopedby a task force withinthe agency using multiple items adopted from prior surveys within theorganization and, whenever possible, from previously validated measures.

Job satisfaction, the dependent variable, was measured with three items



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taken from a previous measure of an employees overall evaluation of, orattitude toward, his or her job (Wright & Davis, 2003). Career develop-ment support was assessed by four items measuring the degree to which theorganization provided, or took interest in, employee training, develop-ment, or advancement (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Goal specificity wasmeasured with four items drawn from previous measures of job specificity(Steers, 1976) and role ambiguity (Beehr, Walsh, & Taber, 1976). Task sig-nificancewasoperationalized using two items reflecting the degree to whichemployees recognized the importance of their work objectives and theirimpact on the organizations performance. Job-related performance feed-back was measured using two items developed by Stone (1976) concerningfeedback from others, the task itself, and two additional items developed to

assess the feedback given specifically by the supervisor or organization. Par-ticipation was operationalized using four items adapted from previousstudies that measured the degree to which the employee felt involved indecisions related to either their workor work unit (Hrebiniak, 1974; Mohr,1971). A complete list of the items used in each measure is provided in the

Appendix.Items for all six variables were measured on either a 6-point (coded 1

through 6) strength of agreement (strongly disagree, generally disagree, dis-agree a little, agree a little, generally agree, and strongly agree) or a 5-point(coded 0 through 4) frequency of occurrence (almost never/never, rarely,sometimes, often, and almost always/always) scale. To accommodate the dif-ferences in response scales, composite scale scores for each measure were

computed as the sum of the standardized item scores.

Respondent Characteristics

Of the 477 selected participants, 409 usable questionnaires werereturned for an overall response rate of 85.7%. A brief demographic over-view of the 409 survey respondents is provided in Table 1. The majority ofrespondents identified themselves as male (59.3%) with at least 11 years oftenure in the agency (70.6%) and state government (75.6%).

Salary grade provided a measure of organizational level and responsibil-ity. As expected with this type of agency, nearly two thirds of respondents

(62.7%) reported themselves to be in the salary grade levels 18 to 25, whichrepresent low- to mid-level professionals. Just more than one fourth(27.1%) were in salary grade levels 1 to 17, which typically represent clericalor support personnel. The remaining 10.1% of respondents were at the



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senior management or executive levels (salary grades 26 through M4).Although the agency has several regional sites throughout the state, mostemployees and respondents (70.2%) worked in the central office located inthe state capital. Comparisons between the demographics of the respon-dents with the characteristics of the agencys workforce suggested that thesample was comparable to the population in terms of gender, tenure, gradelevel, and work location.

Measurement Validity and Reliability

Table 2 provides reliability estimates for each of the six study measuresincluded in the final analysis, as well as the zero-order correlations betweenthem. Checks of internal reliability for the six measures (corresponding tothe constructs depicted in Figure 1) intended for use in the current study


Table 1. Characteristics of Sample (N= 409)

Percentage

GenderFemale 40.7Male 59.3

Tenure in state governmentLess than 2 years 7.92 to 5 years 4.76 to 10 years 11.811 to 19 years 35.320 years or more 40.3

Tenure in current organizationLess than 2 years 12.42 to 5 years 4.26 to 10 years 12.711 to 19 years 34.420 years or more 36.2

Salary gradeGrades 1 to 13 16.0Grades 14 to 17 11.1Grades 18 to 22 33.4Grades 23 to 25 29.3Grades 26 to M4 10.1

Work locationState capital 70.2Regional office 29.8


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were encouraging. All six measures achieved an acceptable level of internalconsistency: reliability estimates (Cronbachs coefficient alpha) rangedfrom .62 to .83.

An analysis of bivariate relationships found that correlations between thestudy measures were all statistically significant atp < .05. In addition to thehypothesized interrelatedness of study measures, however, the prevalenceand strength of significant relationships may be a function of characteristicsof the study itself, specifically the sample size and source effects. Althoughthe measures used multiple scales and reverse-coded items to avoid responsebias, shared systematic or source errors are often associated with collectingself-report data at a single point in time (Sullivan & Feldman, 1979). Itshould be noted, however, that the measures appeared to be relatively dis-

tinct as no two independent measures had greater than 42% of sharedvariance.

RESULTS

Univariate Analysis

Table 3 shows the univariate statistics for each measure prior to standard-ization.2 The potential range of values for each scale varied depending onthe number of items and number of response categories per item. Overall,respondents did not report extreme levels of any of the six variables mea-sured. Perhaps contrary to common perception, however, these govern-ment employees did report some degree of job satisfaction and reasonablyhigh levels of job specificity and task significance, with means above theirrespective scale midpoints. On average, respondents reported only rela-


Table 2. Correlations and Reliabilities of Study Measures (N= 409)

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Job satisfaction (.80)2 Task significance .53 (.76)3 Job specificity .55 .55 (.79)4 Career development support .78 .47 .52 (.83)5 Feedback .62 .44 .65 .60 (.62)6 Participation .65 .57 .63 .64 .60 (.79)

Note: Cronbachs alpha in parentheses.All correlations: p < .05.


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tively moderate levels of feedback and career development opportunities;both measures scored just slightly above their midpoints. All six measuresshowed a moderate degree of variability: standard deviations ranged from2.73 to 5.74.

Multivariate Analysis

Based on the conceptual framework developed earlier, research hypothe-ses for the current study were formulated for each of the indicated relation-ships identified in Figure 1. Subsequent analysis of these data was con-ducted in a covariance structure analysis using LISREL version 8.30. Thehypothesized relationships among the independent variables and between

these variables and the dependent variable (Figure 1) were tested in a singleindicator structural equation model incorporating measurement error(Hayduk, 1987). To test this model, the composite scores of the multipleitem measures were used as single indicators of their respective latent vari-able (represented as circles in Figure 2). This recognizes that the observedvalue of each measure was expectedto have a relationship with the true scoreof the corresponding theoretical construct. To adjust for measurementerror, the error variance for each measure was set by constraining the valuesassociated with the measure in the theta delta or theta epsilon matricesequal to the variance of the measure multiplied by one minus the reliability(Hayduk, 1987; Jreskog & Srbom, 1992).3 This fixed the path from thelatent variable to the measured indicator equal to the square root of themeasures reliability.4

In addition to the six variables and eight paths hypothesized, we alsocontrolled for the effects of gender, tenure in position, and salary grade levelto isolate the influence of job characteristics on job satisfaction. Although


Table 3. Measure Univariate Statistics (N= 409)

Potential Observed Observed

Scale Range Midpoint M SD Minimum Score Maximum Score

Job satisfaction 2 to 20 11.0 13.28 3.97 2 20Task significance 3 to 18 10.5 14.03 2.73 3 18Job specificity 2 to 20 11.0 14.43 3.59 2 20Career development

support 5 to 30 17.5 17.73 5.74 5 29Feedback 3 to 22 12.5 13.20 3.56 5 22Participation 3 to 22 12.5 14.14 4.17 3 22


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these employee characteristics may influence job satisfaction, they are notof primary interest in the current study because they cannot serve as viable

leverage points for the organization to increase job satisfaction. 5

The overall fit of the hypothesized structural model was tested using sixfit indices recommended by Jaccard and Wan (1996). Of these six indices,only five were consistent with a good model fit. Thep-value test for close fit(.07) was statistically significant, consistent with good model fit. The rootmean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was .071, and the standard-ized root mean square residual (standardized RMR) was .029; both were ator below the thresholds generally considered necessary for a satisfactorymodel fit (.08 and .05, respectively). The comparative fit index (CFI) was.98, and the goodness-of-fit index (GFI) was .98, with both indices greaterthan the .90 value used to suggest good model fit. Of the six tests, only themaximum likelihood chi-square (2 [15] = 43.82,p < .05) was inconsistent

with good model fit. This particular fit index, however, is sensitive to sam-ple size, with larger samples inflating the chi square and decreasing the like-lihood of achieving a good model fit (James, Mulaik, & Brett, 1982).Despite the statistically significant chi square, the results appeared to point


0.07

0.54*

0.22*

0.89*0.36

0.76*

0.91*

0.16*

Job Satisfaction

Career

Development

Support

E

Feedback0.78*

Task

Participation

Job Specificity

0.40E

0.37

E

0.15E0.26

E

Significance

Figure 2. Model ResultsNote: The structural path estimates are reported as standardized regression weights.

*Path coefficients are statistically significant at p < .05.


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to a good model fit, suggesting that the theoretical model accurately cap-tured the pattern of relationships suggested by the data. Figure 2 presentsthe parameter estimates for the structural model as standardized regression

weights.Three of the four hypotheses were supported, with seven of the eight

implied paths statistically significant (p < .05) and in the predicted direc-tion. Consistent with Hypotheses1 and2, thedegree of participation seemsto have an indirect, positive effect on employee job satisfaction through itsinfluenceon the level of task significance andthe availability of career devel-opment support. After controlling for gender, tenure, and grade level, par-ticipation explained a substantial amount of variation in task significanceand career development support (60% and 63%, respectively), which, in

turn, explained nearly two thirds (64%) of the variation in job satisfaction.6Support was also found for Hypothesis 3, with the path coefficientsbetween participation and feedback, feedback and career development sup-port, and career development support and job satisfaction all statisticallysignificant and in the predicted direction (p < .05). Only Hypothesis 4failed to receive complete support from this model. Participation was notfound to have a significant effect on job satisfaction through its influenceon feedback and job specificity (p > .05). Tests of whether the pattern ofrelationships supported by this model differed depending on employeegrade level, however, provided partial support for Hypothesis 4. In fact, thegrade level analysis indicated that the direction and relative strength of therelationships in the model were generally similar except with regard to the

relationshipbetween job specificity and job satisfaction.7Although the rela-tionship between job specificity andjob satisfaction was not statistically sig-nificant for employees with salary grade levels that typically represent pro-fessional staff (salary grade levels 18 and above), a positive and statisticallysignificant relationship was found to exist for administrative support staff(salary grade levels below 18). This finding is consistent with previousresearch that suggests that the relationship between job characteristics and

job satisfaction for professional employees may differ from that of nonpro-fessional employees. Cherniss and Kane (1987), for example, found thatalthough professional and nonprofessional employees in the public sectorreport similar levels of job satisfaction, professional employees experienceless task identity and knowledge of results. These findings may be partiallyexplained by differences between professional and nonprofessional work.The relationship between job specificity and job satisfaction may be lessimportant for professional employees simply because they may expect oreven desire less job specificity; their jobs typically involve greater decision



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making and planning responsibilities that are, by their very nature, moreambiguous and discretionary.

IMPLICATIONS

The current study examined the relationships between participativedecision making, job characteristics, and job satisfaction in a state govern-ment agency. The results suggest that public organizations interested inenhancing employee job satisfaction should take into consideration howfeedback, job specificity, task significance, and career development supportmay influence employee experiences and attitudes on the job. In particular,

the current study suggests at least three important ways in which participa-tion can increase employee job satisfaction by helping to fulfill importantneeds. First, by strengthening the connection between individual and orga-nizational performance, participation can help employees perceive the sig-nificance of their work and recognize ways in which it can fulfill their self-actualization or esteem needs. Second, participation can improve anemployees understanding of organizational processes and provide oppor-tunities to develop important problem-solving and communication skills.Participation programs simultaneously invest in and maximize the utiliza-tion of an organizations human capital by providing employees withimportant development and growth opportunities through training, per-formance feedback, and expanding work roles and responsibilities. Conse-

quently, employees are not only more likely to succeed in their current posi-tions but also more likely to see a long-term role in the organization thatfulfills their own growth and development needs. Finally, public organiza-tions may find a number of benefits related to the increased communica-tion associated with employee participation. For participation to be suc-cessful, it requires communication with employees regarding jobexpectations and performance. Such communication not only helps todecrease tension related to role ambiguity but also provides importantperformance feedback that can help guide employee growth anddevelopment.

What are the implications of the findings of the current study for publicmanagement? The findings suggest at least two important strategies that

public organizations may choose to consider if they want to enhance the jobsatisfaction of their employees. First, public organizations can leverage thepositive effects of greater employee participation by developing clear strate-gies to support their employees career development. Unfortunately,



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although the importance of career development programs in improvingorganizational productivity in the public sector has been recognized (Budd& Broad, 1996; Ospina, 1996), the work of the National Commission onthe Public Service (Winter Commission; 1989) has highlighted the publicsectors tendency to underinvest in skill development. Training programsthat focus on skill development, succession planning, career developmentstrategies, and providing formative feedback to subordinates may beparticularly useful.

Second, public organizations may also discover that increased commu-nication with employees about job responsibilities and performance, inconjunction with a sincere effort to increase participative decision making,can lead to enhanced levels of employee job satisfaction. Employees need to

understand not only how their work can contribute to the organizationsperformance (task significance) but also to what degree their current workperformance and strategies are making that contribution (performancefeedback). Although performance feedback is beneficial for all employees,organizations should be particularly attentive to its potential to help non-professional staff understand their job responsibilities and expectations andreduce the tension associated with role ambiguity. Agencies implementingparticipatory management programs should consider leadership develop-ment training for managers and supervisors that build supervisory goal set-ting, communication, and feedback skills. Training programs for managersand supervisors emphasizing effective communications skills andmentoring relationships would not only facilitate more effective employee

involvement but also supervisory support for employee growth and careerdevelopment.

All these suggestions, however, cannot be accomplished without organi-zational leaders commitment to reviewing the structure of civil service andits impact on human resource management processes and outcomes. Asmentioned earlier, the civil service systems emphasis on rules, regulations,and control systems serves as a barrier to creating a participatory man-agement culture and the career development support that is necessaryfor outcome-oriented human resource management in the public sector.

Accordingly, executive leaders and managers need to create work environ-ments and personnel systems in which individual employees perceive a sup-portive interest in their career goals. For example, several states have modi-fied their civil service systems to create broadbanding and modernperformance management systems for information technology profession-als to respond to the increased demand for these professionals. In addition,severalfederal government agencies have provided e-learningprograms that



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provide employees 24-hour access to training. The current study suggeststhat such efforts to support more flexible career development opportunitiescan provide important incentives for public employees to stay with theirorganizations instead of searching for new positions.

CONCLUSION

The current study examined the positive relationship betweenparticipative decision making, job characteristics, and job satisfaction. Inparticular, our findings suggest that public organizations that emphasizeparticipative decision making can enhance employee job satisfaction

through its influence on other job characteristics, such as task significance,feedback, and career development support. Consequently, participatorymanagement may improve organizational productivity by not only maxi-mizing the utilization of the organizations human resources, but also byincreasing job satisfaction and reducing turnover and absenteeism. In thisregard, organizational leaders who wish to change the organizational cul-ture from the traditional patterns of hierarchical structure to participativemanagement and empowerment should take care to leverage the effects ofparticipation on employee job satisfaction by emphasizing the importanceof communication and employee career development.

APPENDIX

Survey Measures

Job satisfactionI think of quitting this job. (R)I would recommend working here to others.

a

My job is personally satisfying.a

Career development supportI have received the training necessary to stay up-to-date.

a

This agency takes an interest in my career development and advancement.a

My development needs are being addressed.a

I see opportunities for myself in the future of this agency. a

I feel stuck in my present job.a (R)

FeedbackMy supervisor gives me ongoing feedback that helps me improvemy performance.a

My performance evaluations help me to improve my job performance. a



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I get informationfrom others (workers, supervisors, customers, etc.) about howwell I am doing my work.I am not able to tell from my own observations how well I am doing my work. a

(R)

ParticipationMy supervisor asks for my opinions and thoughts when determining my work

objectives.I feel involved in important decisions in my work unit.a

Employees who will be affected by decisions are asked for their inputs.a

I feel free to suggest changes in my job.a

Task significanceI understand the importance of achieving my work objectives.a

I understand how the tasks of my work unit fit into the agencys overall

purpose.a

Job specificityI think my work objectives are ambiguous and unclear. (R)I understandfully which of my work objectives are more important than others

(I have a clear sense of priorities).a

I am not sure what level of performance is expected of me. (R)I am clear about what my supervisor expects me to do on my job.

a

Note: (R) = Reverse coded.

a. Responses on a 6-point (1 to 6) scale: strongly disagree, generally disagree, disagree, agree, generallyagree, stronglyagree. Responsesforallotheritemsona5-point(0to4)scale: almost neveror never, rarely,

sometimes, often, almost always or always.

NOTES

1. Although each questionnaire was coded for tracking purposes, 12.2% of responseswere returned anonymously (code taken off the instrument). To avoid potential duplicateresponses, additional replacement questionnaires were not provided to employees.

2. Although composite scale scores for each measure used to analyze the measure rela-tions were computed as thesum of thestandardized item scoresto accommodatethe differ-ences in response scale across items,the meaningof such scoresare difficult to interpret.Forthis reason, the sum of the raw item scores was used in Table 3 to describe the sample interms of the six study measures.

3. Error variances associated with the indicators (e) are equal to one minus the indica-tors reliability estimate.

4. This path can be interpreted as the factor loading of the observed indicator on theconceptual variable it was intended to measure.

5. To determine if the demographic variables, as a set, had a significant impact on themodel fit, the model also was run constraining the paths from the control variables to jobsatisfaction to zero. Although a nested chi-square test comparing the constrained model to



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the unconstrained model suggested that the demographic variables contributed littleexplanatory power to the overall model, they were kept in the model as controls.6. The portion of variance explained by job specificity, also in the model, can be

assumed to be minimal as it was not found to be a statistically significant predictor of jobsatisfaction.

7. To test whether salary grade level (a proxy for occupation and organizational level)moderated any of the relationships in the model, the responses were separated into twogroupsby grade level, andthe model was rerun for each group.Toensurea sample size ade-quate for thistype of analysis(Jaccard & Wan, 1996) and ensuresome homogeneity withingroups, onegrouprepresentedemployees in salary grade levelsthat aretypicallyreserved foradministrative staff (Grades 1 through 17) and another represented salary grade levelstypi-cally reserved for low-to-middle professionals (Grades 18 through 25).

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BRADLEY E. WRIGHTis an assistant professor of political science at the University of North

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tion Research and Theory, Administration & Society, and American Review of Public

Administration.

SOONHEE KIMis an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration in the

Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University. Her recent publicationshave appeared in Review of Public Personnel Administration, Public Administration

Review, andPublic Performance and Management Review.


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Participation’s Influence on Job Stafisfaction