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Part II - Understanding Components of Nutrition

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Part II -Understanding components of nutrition

The descriptions of nutrients we have described are actually classes of chemical compounds that hu-mans consume. In the largest quantities, we refer to these compounds as macronutrients. These com-pounds provide nutrients to humans as energy is derived from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Wa-ter and atmospheric oxygen also must be consumed in large quantities. In Part 1 we learned about the macronutrients that provide energy, but we need to understand more about these compounds or mac-ronutrients. Lets take a look at these compounds a little more closely.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates fulfill several roles in human physiol-ogy. The body’s priority, or job one, is to make sure that the brain has sufficient glucose to function and to provide energy for muscular work. Without the proper carbohydrate intake, the ability to make glucose can still occur, but is derived differently than when glu-cose is taken up or absorbed and assimilated from ingesting carbohydrates. The usable form of glucose for muscular work is glycogen. In fact, carbohydrate stores are retained in both muscle and liver tissues as glycogen. By design, glycogen has the ability to provide energy for PA over an extended period of time. Basic overview of carbohydrates facts:

Because the body can make glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (gluconeogenesis), carbohydrates are not considered essential. If there is not enough carbohydrate converted to glucose for energy, the body will tap into other systems to make this substance - THAT’S how important glucose and carbohydrates are to our functionality. As an example, when there has been a fasting period and carbohydrates have been restricted, glucose is made from fats and proteins - even if not in the GI tubing at that time. Again, a relatively efficient design that works to provide a stable and constant source of energy for the body to then use.

A carbohydrate is one type of natural organic substance that includes sugars, starches and cellulose. The molecular composition of carbohydrates is formed in combinations of carbon, hydrogen and water. Carbohydrates are often isomers - meaning, they have identical atomic compositions but vary in their structure. As examples, fructose, galactose and glucose are isomers with the chemical formula C6H120.

You can then see that chemical formulations go beyond the scope of what you will most likely need to know to understand carbohydrate consumption, but the most common way to classify carbohydrates is to separate them into

A fructose molecule

A sucrose molecule

• 1. Adults need 45%-65% percent of their total calories from carbohydrates.

• 2. Athletes training at higher levels of intensity (approx. 70% HRmax) need to consume 5 to

7g/kg/BW per day.

• 3. Focus on fiber, not the carbohydrates.

• 4. Recommend whole grain carbohydrates for all meals, except during and postworkout.

• 5. Consuming a variety of bright, colorful fruits and vegetables is recommended.

• 6. Consume high glycemic, rapidly absorbed simple carbohydrates after a workout.

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4 major groups: saccharides, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Carbohydrate Structure

Monosaccharides (simple sugars) are molecules that usually contain 5-6 carbon atoms. The three most common monosaccharide carbohydrate types include glucose (also called dextrose), fruc-tose (sugar in fruit) and galactose. Glucose is in-cluded in the group of those carbohydrates that are the most common or widely seen – disaccha-rides, sucrose and lactose, and is also the sole structural component of the polysaccharides cel-lulose, starch and glycogen grouping. Galactose is a common member of the oligosaccharide and polysaccharide group (eg. agar, carrageenan), and is even found in some lipids (glycolipids) lo-cated in the brain and in nerve tissues.

Disaccharides are different in their molecular structure as they are composed of 2 simple sugar molecules and are therefore sometimes referred to as “double sugars”. An example would be the disaccharide sucrose, which contains one mol-ecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose. Other disaccharide carbohydrates include lactose (milk sugar) and maltose. Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates with 3-6 monosaccharide units and are less common. Many oligosaccharides are the result of breaking down polysaccharides. Most naturally occurring oligosaccharides are found in plant foods and in-clude raffinose (a trisaccharide) consisting of me-libiose (galactose and glucose) and fructose.

Polysaccharides including cellulose, starch and glycogen, are much larger molecules and com-prise up to 10,000 monosaccharides. Most of the stored carbohydrates from nature occur in the form of polysaccharides. For example, glycogen - the stored carbohydrate found in the muscles and liver of humans and many animals - consists of a com-plex chain of glucose molecules. The two most well known polysaccharides are cellulose and starch. Cellulose - the basic structural material in plants - contains over 3,000 glucose molecules. We en-counter cellulose in the form of insoluble dietary fiber. Starch refers to a class of plant-based poly-saccharides made up of units of glucose. Starches typically comprise a combination of two substanc-es: amylose and amylopectin.

We metabolize starch in our digestive system in stages. First, digestive enzymes called amylases convert the starch into maltose. As the maltose is absorbed through the walls of the intestine it is hydrolyzed to glucose and distributed to cells and muscles for energy or stored as glycogen or fat.

A lot of popular diets used by your clients may try to restrict carbohydrates. In reality, the body needs carbohydrates, especially for PA. What needs to be mastered by the client is 1) understanding the differences between carbohydrate types and 2) the timing of their intake. Cutting carbohydrates is extremely unwise as it is a source of energy, fiber and vitamin C. If this compound is cut from the diet, an entire macronutrient is being cut - and as it happens, this is the macronutrient that is needed in the largest percent by volume.

At first glance, this looks like a very healthy food choice but add up the carbohydrates !

This meal includes a representative from all macronutrient groups. But is it healthy?

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Dietary guidelines for carbohydrate consumption are expressed as a ratio of the total, are pretty standard across the board. The most credible sources put this percent of intake at about 45 - 65% of all daily food intake and calories from carbohydrates. The non-active or more seden-tary individual would be consuming closer to the 45% mark, while those engaged in PA will have an eating plan that might increase the percent up to toward the 65% level. Therefore, the dif-ferences are mainly seen in terms of how active the individual is or if the goal includes overall weight loss or gain.

Carbohydrate Types Simple Carbohydrate

There is a tendency in the fitness industry to dis-courage simple carbs, as they tend to alter en-ergy levels acutely and can not provide enough fuel for people who are active. But there is a proper time and circumstance for taking in sim-ple carbohydrates. Still, their intake should be understood and furthermore, should be a small part of the overall carbohydrate intake due to the relatively small amount of benefit to the cli-ent (energy and nutrient concerns).

Simple carbohydrates are known as monosac-charides and include any of the compounds that end in “ose” - fructose, galactose and glucose are a few.

Again, based on the molecular bonds of carbo-hydrate molecules, they are considered either mono- or disaccharides. Disaccharides are simply the pairing of two monosaccharides and include sucrose, lactose and maltose.

Your client is not expected to know this informa-tion - but your responsibility to coach the client into a level of understanding carbohydrates in their simple form is vital to their success, as car-bohydrates determine or influence everything from anabolic reactions to energy supplies.

The following is a list of simple carbohydrates, identified by their common name(s):• Table sugar• Brown sugar• Powdered or confectioners sugar• High fructose corn syrup• Turbinado• Honey• Corn Syrup• Molasses• Maltodextrin• Dextrose Simple carbohydrates are rapidly converted to glucose, so there is no real chance for the body to use them for sustainable energy, as in a bout of PA. Be sure that your client knows all of the terminology shared by the food industry to indi-cate simple carbohydrates in consumables.

Complex Carbohydrate

Complex carbohydrates are derived from plants that contain both starch and dietary fiber. This includes vegetables, potatoes, dried beans, grains and fruits. Animal products contain little, if any carbohydrates.

Coaching Application.....

Although a lot of athletes and fitness enthu-siasts like to consume sports drinks, the fact remains that there are some pitfalls to their use. Yes, a surge of energy can be cre-ated if consumed in amounts over 20g, but the resulting crash in energy is a compelling reason to coach the client on the proper use of these “sports drinks”. When the cellular environment is ripe for glucose replenish-ment, it is prudent to use sports dirnks - this would be during the bout directly and immediately after as a post bout recovery strategy to replenish glycogen stores in the muscles.

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of your clients will know the amount of fiber that is recommended as a daily allowance. Do you know what the intake for fiber is?

To encourage the intake and consumption of more fiber in the diet of your client, coach them to understand the health benefits of doing so. This would include lowering the risk for certain diseas-es, including heart disease. Fiber consumption in the proper amount also helps lower other risk factors tied to diseased states like diabetes, obe-sity and disorders of the GI tract.

Fiber will also act to slow how food is digested after being consumed. For your client, this may mean that they now can have enough energy to complete their PA goals each day. This will also help to provide more energy to the client during a bout of PA, due to the slower digestion seen when complex carbohydrates are eaten in the form of fiber.

Fiber can be further broken down into different categories or classifications.

Functional fiber

This classification of fiber has specific purposes in the body, including the feeling of being fuller, longer. Other benefits include improved control over insulin secretion and more stable blood sugar levels. Motility and absorption are also

Complex carbohydrates should be the greatest part of the daily intake for your client - but again, at the right time! The energy from these complex carbohydrate molecules is more of a slow, steady burn, and can prevent peaks and valleys in the energy profile of your client. The secretion of in-sulin is also more controlled in the presence of complex carbohydrates. All of this is in addition to the health benefits of consuming foods that are less refined, as in whole grains, due to the in-creased fiber and the effects on heart health and certain cancers.

Complex carbohydrates are similar to their sim-ple counterpart in one main way - they are bro-ken down into glucose and then eventually are used to provide energy for human function and performance. Where the two are different is also significant; the complex bonds of multiple mol-ecules linked together means that it is a slower process within the body to make glucose, and to then digest them properly. Many times this will help your client feel as if they are fuller for a lon-ger period of time compared to the ingestion of simple carbohydrates.

More on Complex Carbohydrates - FIBER

It will be rare for you to come upon a client who consumes enough fiber. Furthermore, not many

Encourage clients to count FIBER grams, not carbohydrates.

Canned peaches, sliced apples,whatever - these simple carbs complement the complex carbohydrates in the bread and the timing of their intake is a relevant factor for your client.

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influenced positively by fiber intake, meaning that fiber will help to prevent constipation while working to reduce dietary fat and cholesterol absorption in the GI tract.

This group, functional fiber, includes the follow-ing:

• psyllium• pectin

• cellulose• seeds and plant gums

and these items can frequently be found in:

• oats ( oatmeal or oat bran cereals)• wheat (whole wheat)

• vegetables• fruits

• beans (dried)

Dietary Fiber

This type of fiber is characterized by those items considered non-digestible in the GI tract. The sourcing of this type of fiber is derived from the lignins within plants that are consumed. The pres-ence of dietary fiber in (carbohydrate) foods helps to slow digestion, thus reducing their glycemic in-dex and their affect on blood glucose levels.

Recommend Fiber Intake - Adults

Recommended Actual Fiber Fiber intake Intake

Men 19 -50 y/o 38g 13.7

Women 19 - 50 y/o 25g 13.2

The type of fiber in this oat bran may help pro-tect your client from diseases of the GI tract, among them - diverticulosis and colon cancer.

Net carbs are those carbs that have a direct impact on blood sugar. Net carbs are calculated by subtracting out fiber out from the total carbohy-drate count of a food. The FDA has not officially endorsed the use of net carbs on food labels.

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glycemic loads (carbs) enter into the blood-stream very quickly upon consumption and are therefore available for use both during and af-ter exercise, as the body seeks to replenish glucose quickly. During other times, when the client is not in the middle of a PA bout or recov-ering from a recent one, the main type of carbo-hydrates ranked by lower glycemic index values should be consumed, as to best control blood sugar and insulin levels.

It should make sense that foods lower on the glycemic index are also higher in fiber, as we have come to know that fiber slows the glycemic response.

When your client comes to trust you as a mentor, leader and coach, they may also come to you for advice along the way. Some questions from your clients may send you back to the books for research but this should be considered part of your job description.

With regard to carbohydrates, remember that you will see different numbers provided in the research currently - and this will usually represent a range any where from 45% on up to 65%. Your mission is to determine what percent is appropriate for each individual client. Do not be overly concerned with numbers that present different percents. This is in-tended as a reference range only. Ultimately, it will also depend on the specific fat and protein amounts determined for the client.

The Glycemic Index

You’ve probably heard of the glycemic index. Your client may have some questions about understand-ing the glycemic index and how to make relevance to their unique experience. In the body, the rise or change in blood glucose levels is called the gycemic response and is defined as being determined after consuming any food containing 50g of carbohydrate. Then, this number or value is compared to the glyce-mic response of a standard carbohydrate of known value (this serves as the reference point and is the comparative index). In nutrition science, it is typi-cal to consider white bread as the standard carbohy-drate to reference due to it having a glycemic index value of 100.

Studying the glycemic index and becoming familiar with the different values assigned to various foods is of extreme value to the FNC AND the client. Higher

Coach Application:

Your client has been working with you for a 2 month period of time and has started to see some weight loss in terms of fat pounds. They begin to trust your knowledge. They come to

you and ask any of the following: ( ask yourself, “how would I respond to this question”?)

• What is/are sugar alcohols?

• What are net or impact carbohydrates?

• How many carbohydrates should I con-sume?

• Are fruit(s)( or some vegetables) bad?

• How come I can not go on a low-carb diet?

Have you done external research to know these concepts? This is another point of understand-ing for the FNC - that you will need to seek in-formation at times from external sources to stay current or knowledgeable.

Coaching Moment

A sugar alcohol is an hydrogenated form of carbohy-drate, whose carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone, re-ducing sugar) has been reduced to a primary or second-ary hydroxyl group (hence the alcohol). Sugar alcohols have the general formula H(HCHO)n+1H, whereas sug-ars have H(HCHO)nHCO. In commercial foods, sugar alcohols are commonly used in place of table sugar (sucrose), often in combination with high intensity ar-tificial sweeteners to counter the low sweetness. Both disaccharides and monosaccharides can form sugar alcohols. Unfortunately, there are some negatives as-sociated with sugar alcohols. The most common side effect is the possibility of bloating and diarrhea when sugar alcohols are eaten in excessive amounts.

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Foods “High” on the Glycemic Index:

(Greater than 70) Value

Glucose 100Honey 92Potato 87Rice Cake 85Jelly Beans 74Watermelon 72Bagel (plain) 72

Foods considered “Moderate” on the Glycemic Index:

(Moderate - 40-70)

White sugar 68 Snickers bar 68Oatmeal 65Beets 64Corn 60Sucrose 59White pasta 50WW pasta 42Garbanzo beans 42Strawberries 40

Foods “Low” on the Glycemic Index:

(Low - Less than 40)

Bran cereal 38Apple 38Chocolate Milk 34Yogurt ( low fat) 33Skim Milk 32Kidney Beans 29Lentils 29Peach 28Whole milk 27Grapefruit 25Peanuts 13

It is worth noting that for all of the values de-scribed above, the portion or serving size is 50g.

Good To Know - Coaching Appli-cation...

You have been working with a client who reports a lack of energy during cycling and racing events. Recently, the client has de-cided to stop consuming complex carboy-hdrates because they feel ‘weighed down’ after eating pasta or brown rice. Now, to maintain energy, the client is drinking sports drinks in the mornings before riding and cutting out complex carbs the nights before a ride. How do you discuss this sit-uation or concern with the client?

Endurance athletes need even more car-bohyhdrates (of both types) than their more sedentary counterparts. As an exam-ple, your calculations show that the client needs to consume about 7-10 g of carbo-hydrate for each kg of body weight (see the practical math section for more on these calculations). You may need to have your client submit food logs to determine what changes are needed to get over the energy problem he is experiencing. If carbohyrage intake is not of the type and ratio it should be, try making some recommendations from food items in the Preferred Carbohy-drates/Grains chart on the following page.

We’ve stated that some GRAINS are lower on the glycemic index and also have great ben-efits to the athlete in terms of supply energy in an even, steady state without any huge shifts in the insulin or glucose response. Within this group, encourage your client to consume items that follow in the “most often” category (pg.46). Other grains are known to be less useful for controlling energy, such as those items known as simple carbohydrates; clients should be coached on knowing the differences between these items and to refrain from consuming foods in the ‘least often” category whenever possible.

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Most often

AmaranthBarleyBeansBrown RiceBuckwheatBulgarOatmealSorghumWheat berriesWhole ryeWhole wheat crackersWhole wheat tortillasWild or brown rice

Protein and amino acidsProtein is an important part of the eating profile for your client due to its need in repairing tissue after bouts of PA. Protein is used for building, maintain-ing and repairing muscle, skin and blood. Protein supplies very little energy to the body (approxi-mately 5 to 15%) during resting conditions.

What is protein?Protein was the first substance to be recognized as a vital part of living tissue. In fact, the word pro-tein comes from the Greek word proteos, which means “primary” or “taking first place,” indicating the importance of this nutrient in the function of the body. Accounting for 20 percent of our body weight, proteins perform a wide variety of func-tions throughout the body as vital components of body tissues, enzymes, and immune cells.

Proteins are complex molecules comprised of a combination of different amino acids, which are compounds that contain carbon, oxygen, hydro-

Less often

CornbreadCorn tortillasCousCousCrackers

Flour tortillasGrits

NoodlesMost cold cerealsMost hot cereals

Pita breadPretzels

White breadWhite rice

Least often

Brown sugarBrown rice syrup

Chicory syrupConfectioners sugar

Corn syrupDextrose

Evaporated cane juiceGlucose

High Fructose Corn SyrupHoney

Malt syrupMaltodextrin

MolassesRaw Sugar

gen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur. Amino acids link together in specific numbers and unique combinations to make each different protein.

Protein is an essential component of the diet, because it provides the amino acids that the body needs to synthesize its own proteins. In traditional nutrition textbooks, we typically learn the two types of amino acids: essential amino acids and non-essential amino acids.

Essential amino acids have been defined as those amino acids that our body cannot syn-thesize on its own. Essential amino acids must therefore be obtained from our diet. As tradi-tionally defined, the essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methion-ine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.

There was debate over the status of the amino acid histidine, because the body appears rou-tinely unable to make sufficient amounts of his-tidine during certain periods of development.

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Newer research now shows that this amino acid is, in fact, essential.

Nonessential amino acids have traditionally been defined as those that the body can manufacture on its own. It is therefore not necessary to obtain these amino acids from the diet. As traditionally defined, the nonessential amino acids include glu-tamate, alanine, aspartate, and glutamine, as well as arginine, proline, serine, tyrosine, cysteine, taurine, and glycine.

This traditional separation of amino acids into the categories of “essential” and “non-essential” seems complex. While it is true that the human body has the potential to manufacture all non-essential amino acids, this potential is not the same as actually making them. There are many circumstances in which the body cannot make nearly enough of the non-essential amino acids it needs.

For example, when a person is exposed to large amounts of environmental toxins and pollutants, the amount of glycine (a non-essential amino acid) made by the body may be far from adequate. For this reason, it may be more constructive to think about all non-essential amino acids as “condition-ally essential.” This classification would point out that under certain physiological circumstances, the body would unable to manufacture enough of these amino acids and they would have to be obtained through diet (or supplementation). This concept of “conditionally essential amino acids”

tells us that all of the amino acids can be equally important when it comes to our diet, and that it’s worthwhile for us to pay attention to all amino ac-ids when thinking about the nourishment we get from our food. There are 20 different amino acids required by the body.

The body is only able to make the proteins it needs when there are sufficient quantities of all the nec-essary amino acids in the so-called “amino acid pool.” If we are deficient in essential amino acids, the body will be unable to make proteins and will have to break down muscle proteins to obtain the amino acids it needs.

As a result, it is imperative that our daily intake of food contains each of the essential amino acids, which is easily accomplished by eating a variety of vegetables, beans, whole grains, nuts, seeds, and meat and animal products if desired.

What is the function of protein?How it FunctionsProtein, providing 4 calories per gram, is an impor-tant source of energy for the body, when carbohy-drates and fats are not available. In addition to us-ing protein to generate energy for cellular function whenever necessary, the body uses the amino ac-ids contained in the protein we eat to manufacture its own proteins. The proteins synthesized by the body perform a variety of important physiological functions:

Production and maintenance of struc-tural proteins: The body manufactures several structural proteins, such as myosin, actin, collagen, elastin, and kera-tin, that maintain the strength and integrity of mus-cles, connective tissues (ligaments and tendons), hair, skin, and nails.

Production of enzymes and hormones: All of the enzymes, which are compounds that catalyze chemical reactions in the body, are made from protein. In addition, the hormones involved in blood sugar regulation (insulin and glucagon) as

Animal-based proteins are considered “com-plete” due to containing all of the essential amino acids. Plant-based proteins are those that are plant derived.

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well as the thyroid hormones are synthesized from proteins.

Production of transport proteins and lipo-proteins:

Certain proteins are used by the body to carry various substances to body tissues. These trans-port proteins include hemoglobin (carries oxygen), transferrin (carries iron), ceruloplasmin (carries copper), retinol-binding protein (carries vitamin A), albumin and transthyretin (both carry other pro-teins). Lipoproteins participate in the transportation of fat and cholesterol.

Production of antibodies: Antibodies, which are proteins, play an important role in the immune system by attaching to antigens (viruses, bacteria, or other foreign invaders), there-by inactivating the antigens and making them more visible to the immune cells (called macrophages) that destroy antigens.

Maintenance of proper fluid balance: Proteins par-ticipate in the maintenance of osmotic pressure, which controls the amount of water that is found inside of cells.

Maintenance of proper acid-base balance: Due to their ability to combine with both acidic and basic substances, proteins help to maintain the normal acid-base balance in the body.

Average consumption protein consumption for an adult in the U.S. is 100 grams/day but your clients will most likely need a little more than that, depending on the individual.

Protein requirements

• 10% - 20% of the diet should be protein for sedentary individuals

• 40 grams/day for females

• 55-70 grams/day or 0.8 grams/kg body weight for males

Recommended protein intake for ath-letes or physically active people

In some cases, protein requirements for endur-ance athletes are greater than weight trained athletes, and this is due to the fact that endur-ance athletes are more likely to deplete carbo-hydrate sourcing for glucose and the body then turns to make glucose from protein (typically, lean body mass), but this may only be an acute need.

In many popular low-carbohydrate diets, protein requirements increase when calories are insuf-ficient from other macronutrients. The idea be-hind this is that if carbohydrates are cut from the diet, the difference needs to come from one of the other macronutrients. Since fat is not an ideal choice, the only other option is protein.

Beef provides large amounts of vitamin B-12, iron and zinc.

Protein and carbohydrate requirements increase somewhat for physically active people depending on various factors.Increase is part of an eating plan that includes more calories overall.The ratio of protein to carbohydrates does not automatically change.25% to 30% of the total calories should be the target for your client each day.

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Athletes and Physically Active IndividualsIt has been shown that the protein requirements for athletes may well exceed that suggested by the (USRDA) .80 g/kg/day. If an individuals pro-tein requirement increases in response to exer-cise, then changes in protein metabolism will be-come apparent. As the body tries to maintain a homeostatic state, protein synthesis is equal to protein degradation and the protein requirement of the body for tissue maintenance is satisfied. One way to evaluate changes in protein metabo-lism is to assess nitrogen balance of the body.

Positive nitrogen balance occurs when the total nitrogen excreted in the urine, feces and sweat is less than the total nitrogen ingested. Positive nitrogen balance must exist for new tissue to be synthesized. When dietary protein intake or total energy intake is inadequate to maintain tissues total nitrogen balance, negative nitrogen balance occurs and new tissue is unable to be synthe-sized. When the body is in nitrogen balance, pro-tein and energy intake is sufficient to maintain tissue protein needs and the amounts of nitrogen entering and exiting the body are equal.(1)

The results of nitrogen balance studies on endur-ance athletes indicates that these athletes have protein requirements that exceed the USRDA of 0.8 g/kg/day. A study found that endurance ath-letes (defined as training for at least 12 hours per week for at least 5 years) require 1.37 g/kg/day of protein to maintain nitrogen balance compared to 0.73 g/kg/day for sedentary individuals.

It now appears that weight training can also lead to a daily protein requirement that exceeds the current USRDA. It has been found that 2.0 to 2.2 g/kg/day of protein was barely sufficient to main-tain nitrogen balance during moderate intensity weight training. Furthermore, weightlifter’s protein requirements increased proportionally to training intensity.

Some research has shown that up to 2.6 g/kg/day of protein are required for periods of very intense weight training, whereas protein intakes of 2.0 g/kg/day maintained a positive nitrogen balance during periods of less intense weight training.

It is clear that athletes need to consume more protein than the current USRDA for 0.8 g/kg/day in order to maintain nitrogen balance. Con-versely, since the requirements of carbohydrates, and overall calories also increase with physical activity, the recommended proportion of calories from protein does not change significantly. With a calorie sufficient diet, protein requirement values needed to maintain a positive nitrogen balance for both weight-trained and endurance-trained ath-letes, and constitutes intakes of up to 20% of total daily calories consumed. However, all macronutri-ent needs increase in these cases.

Protein Sources - Plants and Ani-malsAnimal protein and vegetable protein seem to have the same effects on health. It’s the protein type that’s likely to make a difference. A 6-ounce steak would be a great source of protein—38 grams worth. But it also contains 44 grams of fat, 16 of them saturated. That’s almost three-fourths of the recommended daily intake for saturated fat. An equal amount of wild salmon gives you 34 grams of protein and 18 grams of fat, 4 of them saturated. A cup of cooked lentils has 18 grams of protein, but under 1 gram of fat. So there ARE differences and choices that are better than oth-ers. Unlike animal proteins, plant proteins may not contain all the essential amino acids, however, a varied vegetarian diet means a mixture of proteins are consumed so that both essential and non-es-

Nitrogen metabolism is no less important than carbohydrate and lipid metabolism

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sential amino acids are consumed daily.

Coach your clients so that when choosing protein-rich foods, they pay attention to what comes along with the protein - as in, how much fat is present or how much of it is saturated.

Vegans or vegetarian clients will have different needs. In general, if your client fits this descrip-tion, ensure that enough kcals are consumed on a regular basis. There must also be sufficient variety in the diet while paying special attention to protein intake values with detailed planning.

Vegetable sources of protein, such as beans, nuts, and whole grains, are excellent choices, and they also provide healthier fiber benefits, vitamins and minerals. These items should be staples in your clients diet; it would be ideal for us to tell your cli-ent’s needs and how much of these items to con-sume, but you are not providing only detailed in-formation so that the client’s nutritional needs are met. Everyone’s needs will be different depending on their current metrics and their goal.

Most often

BeansChicken breast (no skin)CrabEgg whitesFlounderHalibutLow-fat luncheon meatsLow-fat/non-fat cottage cheeseLow-fat/non-fat milkLow-fat/non-fat yogurtSalmonSnapper (red or blue)Soy milkTilapiaTunaTurkey breast

Less often

Canadian baconLean cuts of beef/pork

Mixed nutsPeanut butter

Reduced fat and part-skimCheeseShrimp

Texturized vegetable pro-tein

Turkey baconWhole eggs

Least often

BaconChicken (with skin)

Chicken wingsFatty beef, lamb, porkFatty luncheon meatsFried chicken and fish

LiverRibs

SausageTurkey (with skin)

Untrimmed beef and porkWhole milk

Whole milk cheese

Protein Recommendations - Sources

Protein Recommendations - Intake Values

Protein Gram Requirements

currently RDA for sedentary adults

.4g per pound of bodyweight

.8 g per kilogram of bodyweight

recreational athlete

.5 - .7 gper pound of bodyweight

.8 - 1.5 gper kilogram of bodyweight

adult endurance ath-letes

.6 - .7 gper pound of bodyweight

1.2 - 1.6 gper kilogram of bodyweight

adult strength trained athletes

.7 - .8 gper pound of bodyweight

1.5 - 1.7 gper kilogram of bodyweight

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Fat

As health professionals, we tend to witness a lot misunderstanding when we start talking about fat as a macronutrient. It has been like carbohy-drates in that they have been scorned for decades as the culprit behind pandemic obesity. But once fat is more clearly understood, it becomes easier to sort through some of the myths and fallacies read or heard about today in society.

For many people, fat is something that can eas-ily be identified within their personal food intake or diet. Everyone knows when they are eating fattening foods, or so it seems. You might also agree that most people know when they are con-suming a high fat meal and that it poses potential risks to controlling biometrics when done in ex-cess. Obesity and high blood pressure (although

there is no cause/effect relationship proven be-tween high blood pressure and obesity or fat, the two are often seen together) are also impacted by the excessive intake of certain fats.

Because performance and health are both affect-ed by the type of fat consumed, it is important to know more about the quality of this energy-dense macronutrient. In addition to protein, fat is also an essential macronutrient in that the body does not synthesize all types needed for physiological func-tion, and these fats are taken in through food.

Fats or fatty acids, all have a similar structure - a carbon backbone with hydrogen atoms arranged in varied concentrations along the carbon chain. Based on the amount of hydrogen atoms attached, we rank fats as saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated.

Fatty Acid Profiles for Some Common Food Items

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Characteristics of fat are as follows: Saturated fats - these carbon chains or backbones are full, and can not take any more hydrogen at-oms as they will not fit. This type of fat is solid at room temperature.

Monounsaturated fats are called such because there is one slot along the carbon backbone or chain that can accommodate a hydrogen mole-cule. This type of fat is liquid at room temperature (olive oil, canola oil).

Polyunsaturated fats have several open slots along the carbon chain and are also liquid at room temperature. This group includes flax seed oil and fish oils (omega group).

Trans fats are more problematic. The process of hydrogenating food creates trans fat. During this process, an unsaturated fat item is ‘super whipped’ with hydrogen atoms; these atoms then bind to the carbon backbone or chain to change the properties of the molecular structure, making the fat solid at room temperature instead of its for-mer state, liquid.

Food labels are changing about disclosure relat-ed to trans fats. Up until recently, amounts under a certain threshold allowed the label to state that the food item was ‘trans fat free’ but there are in fact, hydrogenated items listed on the ingredients list. Coach your client to learn and then look for the word hydrogenated on the food labels of items

they consume, and to avoid trans fats completely. Even in small amounts, this type of fat is correlated with negative effects on LDL cholesterol, elevated triglyceride and insulin levels.

Trans Fats are found everywhere! The following is based on current US FDA data:*

51% in baked goods (breads, cakes, cookies, crackers, pies)

22% in margarines10% in fried potatoes

6% in potato chips, corn chips5% in shortening

4% in salad dressing1% in breakfast cereals

The body can only obtain omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids through the diet. Be-cause of their role as precursors of other fatty ac-ids that the body can not synthesize, they have been termed essential fatty acids. About 1 to 2% of the total energy intake should come from linoleic acid. For an average 2500-kcal per day intake, this is about 1 tablespoon of plant based oil per day. Foods such as mayonnaise, cooking oils and salad dressings, whole grains, vegetables and other foods readily provide this amount for us. Fatty fish such as salmon, tuna or sardines provide the best sources of alpha-linolenic acid or its related omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaeonoic acid (DHA) (2).

Fat Use During ExerciseResearch shows that regular aerobic exercise im-pacts the client’s ability to oxidize long-chain fatty acids and there is an increase in fat catabolism during submaximal exercise following aerobic training bouts. This is paired with a decrease in the amount of carbohydrates broken down. How-ever, even for endurance athletes, the improved capacity for fat oxidation can not sustain the level of aerobic metabolism generated when oxidizing glycogen for energy. As a result, well-nourished endurance athletes rely almost totally on oxidation

Fat molecules render 9 kcals per gram.

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of stored glycogen in near-maximal, sustained aerobic effort (3)

Consuming Fats ResponsiblyFat intake should comprise no more than 35% of total calories. Within that 35%, approximately 1/3 come from each of the different types of fat (satu-rated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated). If an individual needs to decrease their fat intake overall, this decrease come primarily from satu-rated fat foods

Fish oil supplementation has been shown to be ef-fective with regards to a variety of health markers (e.g., lowering lipid levels, decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease, enhancing recovery, etc) without the risks associated with consuming fish foods potentially high in mercury. Some medica-tions and other contraindications could offset the practical advice or suggestion to use fish oil, so this is an example of the need to know your client and to know about fat supplements. As with all macronutrients, it is best to consume the majority of omega-3 fats from whole foods.

There is a greater use of fat when exercising at lower intensities and this is because of the avail-ability of oxygen. However, due to the lower inten-sity overall, less total calories are burned. There-fore, although the percentage of fat use is higher, the higher percentage is from a lower total calorie usage and the percents or ratio does not change.

To use an example, say you exercise for one hour at a lower intensity. During that 60 minutes, you burn 300 calories. From those 300 calories, let’s say that 60% comes from fat as a fuel source and the remaining 40% is from carbohydrates. In this example, 180 calories have come from fat usage and approximately 120 calories have come from carbohydrate.

If your intensity increased, and you exercised at a higher intensity for a shorter duration, you would have a change in the fuel used. The body’s sys-tems would shift, making carbohydrate the prima-ry fuel used. Consider a 45-minutes PA bout of higher intensity exercise, where 400 calories are burned. 240 calories would come from carbohy-drate sources and 160 calories would come from fat fuel sources.

We are always burning a combination of carbohy-drate, fat, and protein when we exercise, albeit at different rates. It is the many variables, including exercise intensity and duration, state of condition-ing, and dietary intake, to name a few, that deter-mine where the body is tapping for fuel.

The body burns what is needed and available and will burn whatever fuel provided. If a high-fat meal is consumed, for example, there is more fat in the GI tube and therefore, more fat is metabolized. This doesn’t mean that we burn more body fat; available fuel from fat and fuel from stored body fat are different.

Likewise, if a high carbohydrate meal is con-sumed, carbohydrate provides more fuel during a bout of PA. Since the amount of glycogen stored in muscles is limited, the stores of glycogen are depleted somewhat after an overnight fast and if an exercise bout is undertaken in the morning af-ter a nights’ rest, then it is more likely to see the fuel supply coming from fatty acids, in abundant supply.

The key with any successful fitness nutrition plan is to achieve an overall energy deficit, as stated previously Therefore, the actual fuel source be-

In addition to excessive carbohydrates, this meal is also most likely to have too much satu-rated fat in the meat serving.

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comes less important than the overall deficit created. A small intake of food before a work-out in this scenario would provide additional energy during the time when it is needed most. But instead of focusing on the fuel used dur-ing exercise, focus on the type fuel consumed after exercise. If the main goal is to lose body fat, this awareness is both useful and effective for the client.

Hydration

Water is the most important nutrient. Water accounts for 50 to 60% of overall body mass. Lean body tissues (e.g., muscle, heart, liver, etc) are about 72 to 75% water by mass,whereas adipose (fat) tissue is about 5% by mass. Therefore, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of regular fluid consumption throughout training and performance.

Most often AvocadoFish oilFlax oilOlivesOlive oilMixed nutsSoybean oilSunflower oilWalnut oil

Less often

Margarine (without trans fat)

Egg yolksVegetable oil

Least often

Animal fatButter

Coconut oilCream

Fried foodsIce cream

Lard/shorteningShorteningSour cream

Whole fat dairy products

Fat Intake Recommendations -

Hydration StatusAthletes constantly risk dehydration. This is par-ticularly true for those who train in hot and humid environments. The longer and harder the athlete works, the greater the risk. Dehydration will hurt performance. In fact, it only takes a 2% loss of body weight (i.e., 3 pounds for a 150 lb person during exercise) for performance to suffer. It is important to emphasize to clients that weight loss in one practice, game, or training session is NOT fat loss; it is therefore crucial to re-hydrate. On the contrary, weight gain means the client has consumed too much fluid. Most importantly, de-hydration can be dangerous and large fluid loss-es can result in death.

Water is crucial for life for a variety of reasons:

1. In blood it helps transport glucose (blood sugar), oxygen, and fats to working muscles.2. It eliminates waste products.3. It absorbs heat from working muscles.4. It regulates body temperature.5. It lubricates joints and cushions organs and tissues.

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Measuring Hydration Status

Thirst is NOT an adequate sign of hydration sta-tus; by the time a person is thirsty, they are likely already mildly dehydrated. However, follow the cues of thirst; this clearly means it is time to drink. While more in depth techniques performed in the laboratory are more accurate than making edu-cated guesses, they are often impractical on a regular basis or during training. There are simple ways to measure fluid balance, however.

Assessing Fluid Losses by Weight

• 1. Have a client weigh-in without clothing, both before and after a workout.

• 2. The difference in weight will be primarily from fluid losses.

• 3. Consume 20 to 24 oz. of non-alcoholic fluid for every pound lost.

Assess Fluid Losses by Urine Color and Volume

• 1. If urine is pale like lemonade and there is plenty of it, this is a good sign of adequate

hydration.

• 2. If urine is dark like apple juice and scant, it is crucial to consume more fluids.

• 3. If someone is taking vitamin supplements, urine color may not be a good marker of

hydration status; the riboflavin in most multivi-tamins will give urine a darker color. In these

cases, go by volume.

Keep in mind that it is also possible to overhydrate (called hyponatremia). This is not a common occurrence, but it can be lethal. To prevent hyponatremia, it is important to again monitor urine volume. What is happening is that the body fluids become diluted causing sodium levels to drop dangerously low.

Hyponatremia is seen most commonly in distance athletes (triathletes, ultrarunners, and sometimes unfit individuals who have higher sweat rates than others). While this can be dangerous, it is not common among clients who are training in a fitness facility or a person’s home. However, it is important to understand it is possible.

Tips for Staying HydratedKeep in mind that any non-alcoholic food or bev-erage counts toward total daily fluid intake. Foods like watermelon and lettuce, for example, have very high water content; therefore, these all count towards the total intake. In fact, foods account for approximately 30% of total fluid intake.

Because everyone’s sweat rate differs and coach-es work with a variety of clients, it is impossible to make a blanket recommendation (e.g., drink 8 cups of fluid every day). Understand that it is im-portant to hydrate regularly throughout the day, because sweat is 99% water.

• Recommend to your clients to carry a water bottle with them during training sessions. Aim for an intake of approximately 16 oz/session; again, this is dependent on overall body weight and sweat volume (con’t on next page).

Dehydration

Common signs and symptoms of dehydra-tion include, but are not limited to:

1. Muscle cramps2. Intense thirst3. Weakness4. Irrational behavior5. Reduced performance6. Headache7. Nausea8. Fatigue9. Dizziness10. Confusion

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• Hydrate regularly throughout the day and not only immediately before, during, and after training.

• Sports drinks (e.g., Gatorade, Powerade, All Sport, etc) are typically unnecessary for activities lasting less than 60 minutes.

• Suggest squeezing a lemon or lime into water to enhance palatability.

• Cold water re-hydrates the body more effectively than warm water.

• Drink to replace fluid losses-don’t over drink.

• Drink before, during, and after athletic events or training sessions.

• Plain water is an adequate way to effectively re-hydrate the body.

• Alcoholic beverages act as diuretics; they are not effective at re-hydrating the body.

References

1. Paul GL. Dietary protein requirements of physically active individuals. Sports Med 1989; 8:154-176.

2. McCardle, William, Katch, Frank and Katch, Victor. Sports and Exercise Nutrition. 2005;1:23

3. McCardle, William, Katch, Frank and Katch, Victor. Sports and Exercise Nutrition. 2005; 5:162