Contents

List of Abbreviations XLI

l Introduction to NanotechnologyBharat Bhushan 11.1 Nanotechnology - Definition and Examples 11.2 Background and Research Expenditures 41.3 Lessons from Nature (Biomimetics) 61.4 Applications in Different Fields 91.5 Various Issues 101.6 Research Training 111.7 Organization of the Handbook 11References 12

Part A Nanostructures, Micro-/Nanofabrication and Materials

2 Nanomaterials Synthesis and Applications:Molecule-Based DevicesFrancisco M. Raymo 172.1 Chemical Approaches to Nanostructured Materials 182.2 Molecular Switches and Logic Gates 222.3 Solid State Devices 302.4 Conclusions and Outlook 42References 43

3 Introduction to Carbon NanotubesMarc Monthioux, Philippe Serp, Emmanuel Flahaut,Manitra Razafinimanana, Christophe Laurent, Alain Peigney,Wolfgang Bacsa, Jean-Marc Broto 473.1 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes 483.2 Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes 533.3 Growth Mechanisms of Carbon Nanotubes 703.4 Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 743.5 Carbon Nanotube-Based Nano-Objects 803.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes 853.7 Toxicity and Environmental Impact of Carbon Nanotubes 993.8 Concluding Remarks 100References 101

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Contents

NanowiresMildred S. Dresselhaus, Yu-Ming Lin, Oded Rabin, Marcie R. Black,Jing Kong, Gene Dresselhaus 1194.1 Synthesis 1214.2 Characterization and Physical Properties of Nanowires 1304.3 Applications 1524.4 Concluding Remarks 159References 159

Template-Based Synthesis of Nanorod or Nanowire ArraysHuamei (Mary) Shang, Guozhong Cao 1695.1 Template-Based Approach 1705.2 Electrochemical Deposition 1715.3 Electrophoretic Deposition 1755.4 Template Filling 1805.5 Converting from Reactive Templates 1825.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks 182References 183

Templated Se If-Assembly of ParticlesTobias Kraus, Heiko Wolf 1876.1 The Assembly Process 1896.2 Classes of Directed Particle Assembly 1946.3 Templates 2026.4 Processes and Setups 2056.5 Conclusions 206References 207

Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabricationby Focused Ion Beam Chemical Vapor DepositionShinji Matsui 2117.1 Three-Dimensional Nanostructure Fabrication 2127.2 Nanoelectromechanics 2157.3 Nanooptics: Brilliant Blue Observation

from a Morpho Butterfly Scale Quasistructure 2237.4 Nanobiology 2247.5 Summary 228References 228

Introduction to Micro-/NanofabricationBabak Ziaie, Antonio Baldi, Massood Z. Atashbar. 2318.1 Basic Microfabrication Techniques 2328.2 MEMS Fabrication Techniques 2448.3 Nanofabrication Techniques 2568.4 Summary and Conclusions 265References 265

Contents

9 Nanoimprint Lithography - Patterning of Resists Using MoldingHelmut Schift, Anders Kristensen 2719.1 Emerging Nanopatterning Methods 2739.2 Nanoimprint Process 2779.3 Tools and Materials for Nanoimprinting 2889.4 Nanoimprinting Applications 2949.5 Conclusions and Outlook 302References 304

10 Stamping Techniques for Micro- and NanofabricationEtienne Menard, John A. Rogers 31310.1 High-Resolution Stamps 31410.2 Microcontact Printing 31610.3 Nanotransfer Printing 31810.4 Applications 32210.5 Conclusions 329References 330

11 Material Aspects of Micro- and Nanoelectromechanical SystemsChristian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 33311.1 Silicon 33311.2 Germanium-Based Materials 34011.3 Metals 34111.4 Harsh-Environment Semiconductors 34311.5 GaAs, InP, and Related HI—V Materials 34911.6 Ferroelectric Materials 35011.7 Polymer Materials 35111.8 Future Trends 352References 353

Part B MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/NEMS

12 MEMS/NEMS Devices and ApplicationsDarrin J. Young, Christian A. Zorman, Mehran Mehregany 35912.1 MEMS Devices and Applications 36112.2 Nanoelectromechanical Systems (NEMS) 38012.3 Current Challenges and Future Trends 383References 384

13 Next-Generation DNA Hybridizationand Self-Assembly Nanofabrication DevicesMichael J. Heller, Benjamin Sullivan, Dietrich Dehlinger, Paul Swanson,DaliborHodko 38913.1 Electronic Microarray Technology 39113.2 Electric Field-Assisted Nanofabrication Processes 39713.3 Conclusions 399References 400

Contents

14 Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Sensor ConceptsCosmin Roman, Thomas Helbling, Christof er Hierold 40314.1 Design Considerations for SWNT Sensors 40414.2 Fabrication of SWNT Sensors 41214.3 Example State-of-the-Art Applications 41614.4 Concluding Remarks 421References 421

15 Nanomechanical Cantilever Array SensorsHans Peter Lang, Martin Hegner, Christoph Gerber 42715.1 Technique 42715.2 Cantilever Array Sensors 42915.3 Modes of Operation 43015.4 Microfabrication 43415.5 Measurement Setup 43415.6 Functionalization Techniques 43815.7 Applications 43915.8 Conclusions and Outlook 445References 446

16 Biological Molecules in Therapeutic NanodevicesStephen C. Lee, Bharat Bhushan 45316.1 Definitions and Scope 45416.2 Assembly Approaches 46116.3 Sensing Devices 47116.4 Concluding Remarks: Barriers to Practice 478References 480

17 G-Protein Coupled Receptors:Progress in Surface Display and Biosensor TechnologyWayne R. Leifert, Tamara H. Cooper, Kelly Bailey 48517.1 The GPCR:G-Protein Activation Cycle 48817.2 Preparation of GPCRs and G-Proteins 48917.3 Protein Engineering in GPCR Signaling 49017.4 GPCR Biosensing 49117.5 The Future of GPCRs 499References 499

18 Microfluidic Devices and Their Applications to Lab-on-a-ChipChong H. Ahn, Jin-Woo Choi 50318.1 Materials for Microfluidic Devices

and Micro/Nanofabrication Techniques 50418.2 Active Microfluidic Devices 50718.3 Smart Passive Microfluidic Devices 51318.4 Lab-on-a-Chip for Biochemical Analysis 520References 527

Contents

19 Centrifuge-Based Fluidic PlatformsJim V. Zoval, Guangyao lia, Horacio Kido, Jitae Kim, Nahui Kim,Marc J. Madou 53119.1 Why Centripetal Force for Fluid Propulsion? 53219.2 Compact Disc or Microcentrifuge Fluidics 53419.3 CD Applications 53819.4 Conclusion 549References 550

20 Micro-/Nanodroplets in Microfluidic DevicesYung-Chieh Tan, Shia-Yen Teh, Abraham P. Lee 55320.1 Active or Programmable Droplet Systems 55420.2 Passive Droplet Control Techniques 55720.3 Applications 56420.4 Conclusions 566References 566

Part C Scanning-Probe Microscopy

21 Scanning Probe Microscopy -Principle of Operation, Instrumentation, and ProbesBharatBhushan, Othmar Marti 57321.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope 57521.2 Atomic Force Microscope 57921.3 AFM Instrumentation and Analyses 595References 612

22 General and Special Probes in Scanning MicroscopiesJason Hafner, Edin (I-Chen) Chen, Ratnesh Lai, Sungho Jin 61922.1 Atomic Force Microscopy 62022.2 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 630References 631

23 Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy and Related TopicsFranz J. Giessibl, Yasuhiro Sugawara, Seizo Morita, Hirotaka Hosoi,Kazuhisa Sueoka, Koichi Mukasa, Akira Sasahara, Hiroshi Onishi 63523.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 63623.2 Applications to Semiconductors 64123.3 Applications to Insulators 64723.4 Applications to Molecules 654References 658

24 Low-Temperature Scanning Probe MicroscopyMarkus Morgenstern, Alexander Schwarz, Udo D. Schwarz 66324.1 Microscope Operation at Low Temperatures 66424.2 Instrumentation 666

Contents

24.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Spectroscopy 66924.4 Scanning Force Microscopy and Spectroscopy 688References 700

25 Higher Harmonics and Time-Varying Forcesin Dynamic Force MicroscopyOzgurSahin, Calvin F. Quate, Olav Solgaard, Franz J. Giessibl 71125.1 Modeling of Tip-Sample Interaction Forces in Tapping-Mode AFM ... 71225.2 Enhancing the Cantilever Response to Time-Varying Forces 71425.3 Application Examples 72025.4 Higher-Harmonic Force Microscopy with Small Amplitudes 724References 728

26 Dynamic Modes of Atomic Force MicroscopyAndré Schirmeisen, Boris Anczykowski, Hendrik Hölscher, Harald Fuchs 73126.1 Motivation - Measurement of a Single Atomic Bond 73226.2 Harmonic Oscillator: a Model System for Dynamic AFM 73626.3 DynamicAFM Operational Modes 73726.4 Q-Control 75026.5 Dissipation Processes Measured with DynamicAFM 75426.6 Conclusions 758References 758

27 Molecular Recognition Force Microscopy:From Molecular Bonds to Complex Energy LandscapesPeter Hinterdorfer, Andreas Ebner, Hermann Gruber, Ruti Kapon, Ziv Reich 76327.1 Ligand Tip Chemistry 76427.2 Immobilization of Receptors onto Probe Surfaces 76627.3 Single-Molecule Recognition Force Detection 76727.4 Principles of Molecular Recognition Force Spectroscopy 76927.5 Recognition Force Spectroscopy:

From Isolated Molecules to Biological Membranes 77127.6 Recognition Imaging 77927.7 Concluding Remarks 781References 781

Part D Bio-/Nanotribology and Bio-/Nanomechanics

28 Nanotribology, Nanomechanics, and Materials CharacterizationBharat Bhushan 78928.1 Description of AFM/FFM and Various Measurement Techniques 79128.2 Surface Imaging, Friction, and Adhesion 80228.3 Wear, Scratching, Local Deformation, and Fabrication/Machining.... 82828.4 Indentation 836

Contents

28.5 Boundary Lubrication 84028.6 Conclusion 849References 851

29 Surface Forces and Nanorheology of Molecularly Thin FilmsMarina Ruths, Jacob N. Israelachvili 85729.1 Introduction: Types of Surface Forces 85829.2 Methods Used to Study Surface Forces 86029.3 Normal Forces Between Dry (Unlubricated) Surfaces 86429.4 Normal Forces Between Surfaces in Liquids 86829.5 Adhesion and Capillary Forces 87829.6 Introduction: Different Modes of Friction and the Limits

of Continuum Models 88429.7 Relationship Between Adhesion and Friction Between Dry

(Unlubricated and Solid Boundary Lubricated) Surfaces 88529.8 Liquid Lubricated Surfaces 89629.9 Effects of Nanoscale Texture on Friction 908References 911

30 Friction and Wear on the Atomic ScaleEnrico Gnecco, Roland Bennewitz, Oliver Pfeiffer, Anisoara Socoliuc,Ernst Meyer. 92330.1 Friction Force Microscopy in Ultrahigh Vacuum 92430.2 The Tomlinson Model 92830.3 Friction Experiments on the Atomic Scale 93030.4 Thermal Effects on Atomic Friction 93530.5 Geometry Effects in Nanocontacts 93830.6 Wear on the Atomic Scale 94230.7 Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Atomic Friction and Wear 94430.8 Energy Dissipation in Noncontact Atomic Force Microscopy 94730.9 Conclusion 949References 949

31 Computer Simulations of Nanometer-Scale Indentationand FrictionSusan B. Sinnott, Seong-Jun Heo, Donald W. Brenner, Judith A. Harrison,Douglas L. Irving 95531.1 Computational Details 95631.2 Indentation 96131.3 Friction and Lubrication 97631.4 Conclusions 1002References 1002

32 Force Measurements with Optical TweezersOthmar Marti, Katrin Hübner. 101332.1 Optical Tweezers 101332.2 Influence of Surfaces and Viscosity 1017

Contents

32.3 Thermal Noise Imaging 101832.4 Applications in Cell Biology 1018References 1021

33 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties and TribologyBharat Bhushan, Michael Nosonovsky 102333.1 Nomenclature 102433.2 Introduction 102533.3 Scale Effect in Mechanical Properties 102733.4 Scale Effect in Surface Roughness and Contact Parameters 103133.5 Scale Effect in Friction 103433.6 Scale Effect in Wear 104633.7 Scale Effect in Interface Temperature 104633.8 Closure 104733.A Statistics of Particle Size Distribution 1049References 1052

34 Structural, Nanomechanical, and NanotribologicalCharacterization of Human Hair Using Atomic Force Microscopyand NanoindentationBharat Bhushan, Carmen LaTorre 105534.1 Human Hair, and Skin and Hair Care Products 105834.2 Experimental 106834.3 Structural Characterization Using an AFM 108034.4 Nanomechanical Characterization

Using Nanoindentation, Nanoscratch, and AFM 108734.5 Muniscale Tribological Characterization 111234.6 Conditioner Thickness Distribution and Binding Interactions

on Hair Surface 114534.7 Surface Potential Studies of Human Hair

Using Kelvin Probe Microscopy 115334.8 Conclusions 116434.A Shampoo and Conditioner Treatment Procedure 116634.B Conditioner Thickness Approximation 1166References 1167

35 Cellular NanomechanicsRoger Kamm, Jan Lammerding, Mohammad Mofrad 117135.1 Overview 117135.2 Structural Components of a Cell 117335.3 Experimental Methods 117935.4 Theoretical and Computational Descriptions 118535.5 Mechanics of Subcellular Structures 118835.6 Current Understanding and Future Needs 1196References 1196

Contents

36 Optical Cell ManipulationCarsten Stüber, Tobias Kießling, Anatol Fritsch, Franziska Wetzet,Christian Schulze, Dan Strehle, Josef Käs 120136.1 Interaction of Laser Light with Cells 120236.2 Optical Tweezers 120636.3 Holographic Optical Tweezers 120936.4 Optical Rotation 121136.5 Microdissection or Laser Scalpels 121336.6 Cell Sorting 121536.7 The Optical Stretcher 121836.8 Conclusion and Outlook 1222References 1222

37 Mechanical Properties of NanostructuresBharat Bhushan 122737.1 Experimental Techniques for Measurement

of Mechanical Properties of Nanostructures 122937.2 Experimental Results and Discussion 123537.3 Finite-Element Analysis of Nanostructures with Roughness

and Scratches 125337.4 Summary 125937.A Fabrication Procedure for the Double-Anchored

and Cantilever Beams 1260References 1262

Part E Molecularly Thick Films for Lubrication

38 Nanotribology of Ultrathin and Hard Amorphous Carbon FilmsBharat Bhushan 126938.1 Description of Common Deposition Techniques 127338.2 Chemical and Physical Coating Characterization 127738.3 Micromechanical and Tribological Coating Characterization 128338.4 Closure 1304References 1305

39 Self-Assembled Monolayers for Nanotribologyand Surface ProtectionBharat Bhushan 130939.1 Background 130939.2 A Primer to Organic Chemistry 131339.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers: Substrates, Spacer Chains,

and End Groups in the Molecular Chains 131639.4 Contact Angle and Nanotribological Properties of SAMs 131939.5 Summary 1340References 1342

Contents

40 Nanoscale Boundary Lubrication StudiesBharat Bhushan 134740.1 Boundary Films 134740.2 Nanodeformation, Molecular Conformation, Spreading,

and Nanotribological Studies 134840.3 Nanotribological, Electrical, and Chemical Degradations Studies

and Environmental Effects in Novel PFPE Lubricant Films 136640.4 Nanotribological and Electrical Studies of Ionic Liquid Films 137540.5 Conclusions 1392References 1393

Part F Biomimetics

41 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces and Smart MaterialsKerstin Koch, Bharat Bhushan, Wilhelm Barthlott 139941.1 The Architecture of Plant Surfaces 140241.2 Multifunctional Plant Surfaces 141741.3 Technical Uses of Superhydrophobicity 142641.4 Conclusions 1430References 1431

42 Lotus Effect: Surfaces with Roughness-InducedSuperhydrophobicity, Self-Cleaning, and Low AdhesionBharat Bhushan, Yong Chae Jung, Michael Nosonovsky 143742.1 Background 143842.2 Modeling of Contact Angle for a Liquid in Contact

with a Rough Surface 144242.3 Lotus Effect Surfaces in Nature 145342.4 How to Make a Superhydrophobic Surface 146242.5 Fabrication and Characterization of Micro-, Nano-,

and Hierarchical Patterned Surfaces 146842.6 Modeling, Fabrication, and Characterization

of Oleophobic/Oleophilic Surfaces 150942.7 Conclusions 1517References 1518

43 Biological and Biologically Inspired Attachment SystemsStanislavN. Gorb 152543.1 Foreword 152543.2 Attachment Systems 152643.3 Biological Functions of Attachment 152743.4 Time Scale of Attachment 152943.5 Principles of Biological Attachment 153043.6 Locomotory Attachment Pads: Hairy Versus Smooth 153343.7 Dry and Wet Systems 153543.8 Scaling Effects 1536

Contents

43.9 Evolutionary Aspects 153743.10 Attachment Devices and Environment 153743.11 Design Principles 153943.12 Biomimetics: Where We Are Now 154043.13 Conclusions 1544References 1545

44 Gecko Feet: Natural Hairy Attachment Systems for Smart AdhesionBharat Bhushan 155344.1 Overview 155444.2 Hairy Attachment Systems 155444.3 Tokay Gecko 155644.4 Attachment Mechanisms 156144.5 Experimental Adhesion Test Techniques and Data 156344.6 Adhesion Modeling 156644.7 Modeling of Biomimetic Fibrillar Structures 157744.8 Fabrication of Biomimetic Gecko Skin 158544.9 Conclusion 159144.A Typical Rough Surfaces 1593References 1594

Part G Industrial Applications

45 The Millipede -A Nanotechnology-Based AFM Data-Storage SystemGerd K. Binnig, Giovanni Cherubini, Michel Despont, Urs T. Dürig,Evangelos Eleftheriou, Haralampos Pozidis, Peter Vettiger 160145.1 The Millipede Concept 160345.2 Thermomechanical AFM Data Storage 160445.3 Array Design, Technology, and Fabrication 160645.4 Array Characterization 160745.5 Three-Terminal Cantilever Design 160945.6 x,y,z Medium Microscanner 161045.7 First Write/Read Results with the 32x32 Array Chip 161345.8 Polymer Medium 161445.9 Read Channel Model 162145.10 System Aspects 162445.11 Conclusions 1629References 1630

46 NanoroboticsBradley J. Nelson, Lixin Dong 163346.1 Overview of Nanorobotics 163446.2 Actuation atNanoscales 163546.3 Nanorobotic Manipulation Systems 1637

Contents

46.4 Nanorobotic Assembly 164-246.5 Applications 1651References 1654

Part H Micro-/Nanodevice Reliability

47 MEMS/NEMS and BioMEMS/BioNEMS:Materials, Devices, and BiomimeticsBharat Bhushan 166347.1 MEMS/NEMS Basics 166447.2 Nanotribology and Nanomechanics Studies of Silicon

and Related Materials 168347.3 Lubrication Studies for MEMS/NEMS 169147.4 Nanotribological Studies of Biological Molecules on Silicon-Based

and Polymer Surfaces and Submicron Particles for Therapeuticsand Diagnostics 1698

47.5 Surfaces with Roughness-Induced Superhydrophobicity,Self-Cleaning, and Low Adhesion 1708

47.6 Component-Level Studies 171747.7 Conclusions 172847.A Micro-Nanofabrication Techniques 1729References 1733

48 Friction and Wear in Micro- and NanomachinesMaarten P. de Boer, Alex D. Corwin, Frank W. DelRio, W. Robert Ashurst 174148.1 From Single- to Multiple-Asperity Friction 174348.2 Nanotractor Device Description 174748.3 Concluding Remarks 1755References 1756

49 Failure Mechanisms in MEMS/NEMS DevicesW. Merlijn van Spengen, Robert Modlinski, Robert Puers, Anne Jourdain.... 176149.1 Failure Modes and Failure Mechanisms 176249.2 Stiction and Charge-Related Failure Mechanisms 176349.3 Creep, Fatigue, Wear, and Packaging-Related Failures 176949.4 Conclusions 1779References 1779

50 Mechanical Properties of Micromachined StructuresHarold Kahn 178350.1 Measuring Mechanical Properties of Films on Substrates 178350.2 Micromachined Structures for Measuring Mechanical Properties 178550.3 Measurements of Mechanical Properties 1795References 1799

Contents

51 High-Volume Manufacturing and Field Stability of MEMS ProductsJack Martin 180351.1 Background 180451.2 Manufacturing Strategy 180651.3 Robust Manufacturing 180851.4 Stable Field Performance 1825References 1828

52 Packaging and Reliability Issues in Micro-/NanosystemsYu-Chuan Su, Jongbaeg Kim, Yu-Ting Cheng, Mu Chiao, Liwei Lin 183552.1 Introduction MEMS Packaging 183552.2 Hermetic and Vacuum Packaging and Applications 184152.3 Thermal Issues and Packaging Reliability 185152.4 Future Trends and Summary 1858References 1859

Part I Technological Convergence and Governing Nanotechnology

53 Governing Nanotechnology: Social, Ethical and Human IssuesWilliam Sims Bainbridge 186753.1 Social Science Background 186753.2 Human Impacts of Nanotechnology 187153.3 Regulating Nanotechnology 187453.4 The Cultural Context for Nanotechnology 187653.5 Conclusions 1879References 1880

Acknowledgements 1885About the Authors 1887Subject Index 1919