A Dynamic Perspective oj School Effectives^outcome variables can be used as indicators of effectiveness. Basically, both Hackman r^and Walton (1986) and Hoy and Miskel (1991) assume the existence of congruence 2facn?ss the different effectiveness models, and hence the different effectiveness criteria or categories. But we should pay attention to a basic dilemma, that maximizing school effectiveness in multiple criteria at the same time is often impossible (Hall, 1987). For example, when a school is very academically productive through very tense working pressure, this pressure may frustrate teachers' personal ' "satisfaction and growth and also increase the conflict between school members. , Since the resources available for a school are always limited, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to maximize effectiveness on all the criteria, or to achieve the goals of all the constituencies in a short time. Inevitably, there are conflicts and contra- : dictions in schools. Hall (1987) proposed a contradiction perspective to describe the conflicting * characteristics inherent in every organization. According to this perspective, no school is always effective because of the existence of multiple and conflicting " environmental constraints, goals, constituencies and time frames. Or instead, schools - can be viewed as effective (or ineffective) to some degree only in terms of some specific criteria based on certain effectiveness models.Along this line of thinking, ensuring congruence across all models or categories of school effectiveness as well as maximizing effectiveness at all criteria seems very difficult, at least in a short time. In current educational reforms, we emphasize maximizing school effectiveness. What should we do when facing this dilemma or limitation?rIt seems that from an organizational perspective, the conception of school effectiveness is complex and problematic, and raises many debates over model selection and level of analysis among investigators (Cameron, 1984; Cameron and Whetten, 1981). Some researchers even argued that the concept of organizational effectiveness in general, or school effectiveness in particular is futile and has no inherent meaning in 'scientific analysis of comparative organizational effectiveness' (Hannan and Freeman, 1977: 131).