Paradigmatic issues

• Positivist and critical/interpretive research• Qualitative and quantitative research• Induction and deduction• Experimental and non-experimental

research

Paradigm: a framework for looking at and understanding the world

Research Paradigms

• Provide guidelines and principles concerning the way research is conducted

• In the social sciences, rival, and sometimes complimentary paradigms coexist

• Reflected in competing or alternative approaches

• The two dominant paradigms are the positivist and interpretive approaches

Positivist and critical/interpretive research

• Positivist– Universal truths and laws– Researcher seeks objectivity/detachment– World to be researched is 'external'– Deductive, quantitative methods common - similar to

natural science model

• Critical/interpretive– Multiples realities– Researcher accepts subjectivity– Researcher engages with research subject– Inductive, qualitative methods common

Qualitative and quantitative research• Quantitative– Involves numerical data– Often involves large numbers of cases– Seeks to generalise to whole population– Use of questionnaires, observations, secondary

sources (e.g. sales date)

Qualitative and quantitative research• Qualitative– Generally does not involve numerical data– Generally involves small numbers of cases– Findings typically not generalisable – Informal, unstructured in-depth interviews,

participant observation (e.g. diaries)

Inference – Induction & Deduction

• Induction – “The process of drawing a conclusion in an empirical study by observing and generalising from a set of data.”

• Deduction – “The process of drawing conclusions from other propositions or from data on the basis of logical reasoning.”

Induction and deduction• Induction begins at A and moves to B then to point C• Deduction begins at C and moves to A then B

Experimental and non-experimental research

• Experimental – Research conducted in a controlled environment (eg.

laboratory)– Researcher has control over a limited number of

variables

• Non-experimental– Research conducted in a 'real world' environment– Researcher has no control over many of the variables

involved– Focus on relationships rather than causality

Data Issues• Primary and secondary data• Self-reported and observed data

Primary and secondary data• Primary– Data collected for the purposes of the research in

hand– Researcher is primary user

• Secondary– Data already collected by other researchers for

other projects or for non-research (eg. administrative) purposes

– Researcher is secondary user.

Self-reported and observed data• Self-reported data– Research based on information provided by

subjects - eg. in an interview– Includes self-reports of past, recent and

intended behaviour (eg. Surveys, interviews)

• Issue– Dependent on people responding honestly (and

being able to do so)

Self-reported and observed data

• Observed data– Research is based on observation of subjects'

behaviour (eg. use of record sheets, financial transaction)

• Issue– Dependent on being able to observe area of

interest

Range of research approaches• Scholarship – reading and reflecting• 'Just thinking‘ • Using the existing literature – see Chapter 4• Using secondary data – see Chapters 5 & 12• Observation – see Chapter 6• Qualitative methods – see Chapters 7 & 15• Questionnaire-based surveys – see Chapters 8 &

13• The case study method – see Chapter 9• Experimental methods – see Chapter 10• Cross-cutting/subsidiary techniques – see below

Cross-cutting/subsidiary techniques• Textual analysis – analysis of print and audio-visual materials• Longitudinal studies – replication of surveys etc. with same

subjects over time• Panel surveys – a recruited sample responds to several surveys• Projective techniques – ‘what if’ questions• Use of scales – Likert-type scales re-used by a number of

researchers• Meta-analysis – analysis of many studies on a single topic and

with similar format conclusions (eg. correlation)• Action research – research committed to changing the world• Historical research – typically using documentary resources• Media-sponsored surveys – surveys responded to by readers/

viewers• Delphi technique – consolidation of views of experts

Triangulation• Use of more than one method to focus on the

same problem/issue/question– Use of both qualitative and quantitative methods at the

same time - eg. Survey methods and Case study– Results of one method are essential for planning the next

method - eg. Exploratory Pilot study precedes Experimental design

• The methods used are often complementary (e.g. the weaknesses in one are offset by the strengths in the other)

Choosing a method• Considerations in choosing a method– The research question or hypothesis– Previous research– Data availability/access– Resources– Time– Validity, reliability and generalisability– Ethics – Uses/users of the findings