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Acute Toxicity of Percutaneously Absorbed Malathion, anOrganophosphate, on Bufo sp. Larvae
Mej Amm M. BatoonNatural Sciences and Mathematics Division
UP in the Visayas, Gorordo Ave., Lahug Cebu City 6000
Abstract
Anurans are important bioindicators for environmental toxinsdue to their biphasic lifestyle, permeable skin and sensitivity tochemical toxins, such as malathion. This experiment studied theacute toxicity of 5 concentrations (1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 15 ppm and20 ppm) of technical grade malathion through percutaneousabsorption in Bufo sp. field stage IV larvae. The calculated values ofLC50 from 9th-12th day ranged from 6 to 13 ppm in a decreasing
pattern, showing that levels of toxicity ofBufo sp. field stage IV larvawith malathion increase with constant exposure. Mortality was foundto be dosage dependent (R2 = 0.9194). Exposure also producedabnormalities in morphology including: axis deformities in the headand tail and the presence of a bulge on the lower right abdominalregion. Abnormalities such as tail curvature and head bending weredosage dependent (R2 = 0.9431 and 0.7876, respectively) signifyingpositive relationships with increase malathion concentration. Tailcurvature was significantly greatest in the highest concentration(P
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Important toxins introduced to the environment are pesticides, which
are chemicals used in agriculture and households to remove pests from crops
and many insects. Organophosphate pesticides are the most widely used
class of insecticides in the world. These pesticides have numerous
agricultural, horticultural, industrial, and medical applications spanning every
conceivable insecticide, acaricide, and nematocide in the market (Racke,
1992; Diana et al., 2001).
Malathion is one of the earliest organophosphate developed and
introduced in 1950 and has been used to kill insects on many types of crops
since this time (Hunter and Barker, 2003). In the Philippines, malathion is the
second most common pesticides used for crops (Dioquino, 2002). Malathion
is also used to control mosquitoes, flies, household insect, animal parasites
(ectoparasites) and head and body lice. However, studies have shown that
malathion in certain concentrations can cause adverse effects to nontarget
species, such as frogs and toads, found in areas where pesticides spraying
usually occur (Fordham et al. 2001; Gilbertson et al. 2003; Taylor et al. 1999;
Giles and Roberts, 1970).
In aquatic habitats, malathion has been detected at concentrations up
to 0.6 mg/L. Although, malathion does not persist in the environment with its
half-life of only 6 days up to several weeks. Degradation depends on
environmental conditions such as pH, moisture, presence of bacteria and
light. Despite malathions rapid degradation, even brief exposure can alter the
development of non-target animals, particularly aquatic vertebrate embryos
(Cook et al., 2005). Concentrations as small as 1 ppm can already cause
adverse effects to frog larvae after 4 days of exposure (Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination Toxicology, 31, 170-176, 1983). In addition,
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malathion degradation also results to compounds more toxic than malathion
(Effect of Impurities on the Mammalian Toxicity of Technical Malathion and
Acephate. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 25 (4): 946-953, 1977).
Most studies on organophosphates are focused on chronic toxicities on
the development of anuran larvae to adult. The results of which are
deformities such as extra or missing limbs or digits. This study, however,
focuses on the acute toxicity of absorbed malathion on Bufo sp. larvae, which
is the most common anuran species found in the Philippines. Acute toxicity
studies on malathion were usually done on mammals, such as rats and
rodents. Amphibian toxicity studies were more on Gosner stage 25, where
mouthparts are prominent and the spiracle is visible. This study followed the
simplified 8-stage of tadpole development where each stage or field stage
includes several Gosner stages with similar developmental occurrence, e.g
limb bud formation under field stage 2 or Gosner stages 26-30. This study
involved field stages 2 and 3, which includes Gosner stages 26-30 and 31-35,
respectively, or when the limb bud and toe development occurs.
Review of Literature
What is Malathion?
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Malathion is a manufactured product (molecular weight: 330.3503) that
belongs to a class of insecticides known as organophosphate (OPs). Its
structure containing a P=S bond and another S attached with an alkyl group
places it in the subclass of OPs known as phosphorothionothiolates (Figure 1)
(Masicotte, 2001).
Malathion pesticides usually come in two forms: a purified form (which
is approximately 99% malathion) of colorless liquid and a technical-grade
solution (which contains approximately 96.5% malathion) with a brownish-
yellow liquid and garlic-smell). It is available under different product names
including Celthion, Cythion, Dielathion, El 4049, Emmaton, Exathios, Fyfanon
and Hilthion, Karbofos and Maltox. It is usually available in emulsifiable
concentrate, wettable powder, dustable powder and ultra low volume liquid
formulations. Most common solvent used for technical grade malathion
include xylene. Application is usually done by spraying over target areas.
Application in pets usually includes dipping of the animal into a solution of
malathion.
Figure 1. Molecular structure of Malathion
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Malathion toxicity
EPA toxicity tests classified malathion under toxicity class III as a
slightly toxic compound. Malathion interferes with the nervous system function
by inhibiting acetylcholine esterase, an enzyme that degrades acetylcholine
signals so the next nerve impulse can be transmitted across the synaptic gap,
thereby paralyzing and killing insects. Studies have shown that malathion is
carcinogenic and has been linked with increased incidence of leukemia in
mammals. Chronic effects of malathion includes: delayed mutagen and
teratogen, delayed neurotoxin, allergic reactions, behavioral effects, ulcers,
eye damage, abnormal brainwaves and immunosupression (Effect of
Impurities on the Mammalian Toxicity of Technical Malathion and Acephate.
Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 25 (4): 946-953, 1977).
In humans, exposure to high amounts of malathion in the air, water, or
food may cause difficulty in breathing, chest tightness, vomiting, cramps,
diarrhea, watery eyes, blurred vision, salivation, sweating, headaches,
dizziness, loss of consciousness, and death (DuBois, 1971).
Degradation of malathion
Malathion is easily degraded in the environment; a reason why it is one
of the most popularly used pesticide. Degradation can be through different
pathways, such as: volatilization, photolysis, hydrolysis, and microbial
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degradation (Racke, 1992; Massachusetts Department of Agricultural
Resources, 2005). Conditions in aquatic environments can also enhance or
decrease the rate of degradation. Hydrolysis (halflife=6 days) degradation of
malathion can be enhanced by high pH, high temperatures and ultraviolet
radiation (Chambers, 1992). Oxidation or desulfuration (oxidation of malathion
P=S to P=O oxon intermediate) can produce two metabolites, malaoxon and
0,S,S-trimethyl phosphorothioate, which is respectively 60 times and 500
times more toxic than malathion. Malaoxon, however, has lower lyphophilic
property, therefore percutaneous absorption is less likely to occur (Tsuda et
al., 1997).
Percutaneous absorption in anurans
Percutaneous absorption of xenobiotics, or chemicals not naturally
occurring within the body, such as malathion is an important route for
anthropogenic environmental exposure in amphibians considering the
potential for extended contact with this compounds in aquatic environments
where they are found (Wallace, 1992; Taylor 1999a,b; Johnson et al. 2000;
Fordham 2001; Relyea 2004). Paracellular, transcellular, and
transappendageal pathways are three routes whereby xenobiotics are
percutaneously absorbed (Riviere, 1999). Paracellular involves transport
through intercellular lipids. Amphibians also posses this kind of morphology.
Trancellular pathway involve molecules transfer through cells, as well as
intercellular lipid matrix. While transappendageal pathway aids in cutaneous
absorption through transport involving hair follicles and other adnexa. This
type of cutaneous absorption contributes to the high bioaccumulation of OP
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pesticides in amphibian skin (Hall and Kolbe, 1980; Ling, 1990). The
transappendageal pathway aids in cutaneous absorption through transport
involving hair follicles and other adnexa, which are appendages of an organ
e.g hair follicle of skin. However, amphibians do not possess hair follicles
contains a significant distribution of cutaneous serous and mucous glands as
sites for absorption (Goniakowska-Witalinska and Kubiczek, 1998; Green,
2001).
Anuran skin maintains a bifacial cell system with respect to solute
permeability which results to a unidirectional flow of solutes from exterior to
interior. This is due to the depolarization of the exterior cell surface of skin
epithelium and not in the basal surface, which therefore results to a higher
permeability to the contaminant in the former and lower permeability in the
latter (Ling, 1990).
Hypotheses
Based on the known impacts of malathion and readings from literature,
it was hypothesized that:
1) Malathion at varying concentrations will kill fifty percent (50%) of the
population of the test Bufo sp. larvae
2) Number of deaths will vary significantly across treatments and from
control group.
3) Mortality ofBufo sp. larvae will be dose dependent.
4) Malathion will cause a significantly higher degree of deformities (such
as, deformed body axis and increase liver size) in Bufo sp. larvae.
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5) The increase of degree of deformities (body axis and liver size) will
increase with concentration.
Objectives
This study was conducted to determine the acute toxicity of malathion
on a population of tadpoles collected from Family Park, Talamban, Cebu.
Specifically it aimed:
1) to identify the LC50 at different exposure time.
2) to determine if the number of deaths will vary significantly across
treatments and from the control group.
3) to determine if mortality ofBufo sp. larvae will be dose dependent.
4) to identify and determine if degree of deformities associated with
exposure to malathion is significantly different across treatments and
the control.
5) to determine if the degree of deformity (body axis and liver size) will
increase with concentration.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
The acute toxicity test for malathion to tadpoles were performed within
the Biology laboratory of the University of the Philippines Cebu College Arts
and Sciences Building.
Sample Collection
Bufo sp. larvae were collected from a clean permanent pond located in
Family Park, Talamban, Cebu. Only a single collection of samples was
performed for all treatments. Tadpoles collected were of similar sizes and
similar developmental stage. Basing from previous sampling, it was observed
that new eggs were not laid before tadpoles fully developed to adult frogs.
This is due to the tendency of tadpoles to cannibalize on small and weaker
tadpoles. Therefore, samples collected were of similar age and come from the
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same egg clusters. Sample collected belonged to field stage 4 larval stage
[36th 40th Gosner (1960) stages]. Prior to experimentation, the samples were
subjected to 24-hour acclimatization.
Preparation of Treatment Set-up
Prior to the conduct of final experiment, several test runs were
performed to determine acceptable conditions, such as: the concentration
range of malathion, type of medium (natal water or distilled water), condition
of the larvae (starved or fed) and type of vessel (petri dish or 5-L jar) for the
acute toxicity test.
Acceptable concentrations included: 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 ppm, which
were prepared by serial dilution of technical grade malathion (570 g/L
malathion, 80 g/L emulsifier and 350 g/L xylene). Distilled water was preferred
over natal water as medium since the latter could contain dissolved
substances that could potentially affect the results of the experiment. The
volume of the solution used was 300 ml, since previous test runs had shown
that higher volumes with the same concentration contain higher amounts of
dissolved malathion resulting to higher exposure, while much lesser volumes
limit available oxygen required for respiration. The vessel found appropriate
for the each set-up was a 5-L jar, which had greater volume-capacity and
bigger diameter at the bottom than Petri dish, in order to allow more space for
the larva to swim and avoid stress due to crowding.
Three set-ups were made per treatment with 10 tadpoles, which served
as individual cases rather than replicates, per set-up. Therefore, 30 individual
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cases were used per treatment including the control groups, which only
contained 300 ml distilled water per set up.
Throughout the experiment, external conditions were controlled: lights
were turned on and off with a 12:12 hour ratio on a daily basis for
photoperiodism. The larvae were starved throughout the experiment to limit
exposure through percutaneous absorption and to avoid exposure through the
gut, which was found to be more lethal and biological factors such as
degradation of food also result to mortality of the larvae in both treated and in
the control as observed in previous test runs.
The experiment lasted until mortality was observed in the control,
which was after 12 days.
Acute Toxicity Testing
The static toxicity test was patterned after Sayim et al. (2005).
Tadpoles were observed for occurrence of mortality and malformations at the
end of every 24 hour period throughout the course of the experiment. Dead
animals were removed during each observation.
Deformities including degree of tail curvature and increased liver size,
were measured using the profile projector. Behaviors, including swimming and
balance of larvae were also noted.
Data Analysis
LC50and 95% confidence interval
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Mortality data from the replicate samples from each malathion
concentration were pooled prior to calculating LC50 and 95% confidence
intervals. The 96-hour LC50 and 95% confidence interval were determined
using Probit analysis with SPSS version 10.0 for windows.
Tail curvature, head bending and liver size
Mean of tail curvature was compared per treatment and with the control
if they varied significantly using ANOVA SPSS version 10.0 for windows. The
change in degree of tail curvature in response to increasing concentration of
malathion were analyzed using linear regression.
Similar procedure was done in the analysis of other abnormalities, such
as degree of head bending and increase liver size.
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RESULTS
Mortality
One hundred percent (100%) mortality in the population of Bufo sp.
larvae was observed after 48 hours (2 days) of exposure to 20 ppm
concentration of malathion. Fifty percent (50%) mortality was attained after
144 hours (6 days) of exposure to 15 ppm malathion and after 264 days (11
days) of exposure to 10 ppm malathion. Death occurred simultaneously with
the lower concentrations but did not reach to 50% of the population at the end
of the observation period (Figure 2). Meanwhile, no mortality occurred in the
control group throughout the course of the experiment.
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0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 1 5 10 15 20
Concentration (ppm)
Mortality
(%)
Figure 2. Percent mortality of Bufo sp. in different concentrations of
malathion.
Larvae mortality was observed to be dose-dependent (Figure 3). Using
Linear regression, the R2 value obtained was 0.9194, signifying that the
increase in mortality is dependent and related to the increase in the
concentration of malathion.
R2
= 0.9194
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 5 10 15 20 25
Concentration (ppm)
Mortality(%
Figure 3.Bufo sp. field stage 4 larvae mortality throughout 12-day exposure
period to malathion.
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The calculated LC50 values for malathion for 9-12 days of exposure is
displayed in Table 1. As seen in Table 1, the concentration to achieve LC50 in
the experiment is decreasing as the length of exposure was increased.
Table 1. Lethal concentrations (LC10, LC50, and LC90) in ppm for Buffo sp.larvae exposed to malathion
DayLC10
(95% CI)
LC50
(95% CI)
LC90
(95% CI)P value
95.96889
(-52.98967-10.72630)
13.47137
(8.67738-70.22988)
20.97385
(14.53161-185.54629)0.026
103.39752
(-15.83596-7.56189)
12.13965
(8.01651-27.44735)
20.88179
(14.57982-64.62197)0.086
112.04066
(-0.70704-3.83990)
9.58642
(8.13695-11.35248)
17.13217
(14.70630-21.13970)0.477
120.03329
(-8.43267-3.12100)
6.42104
(3.40900-10.03471)
12.80879
(9.41705-22.78203)0.141
Occurrence of Degree of Deformities
Observable deformities in the tadpole exposed to different
concentrations of malathion included curved tail in dead larvae, bent head
resembling the structure of a golf club and a bulge in the right abdominal
region, which became more prominent in higher concentrations (Figure 4).
Although most of these deformities were found in the tadpoles exposed to 15
ppm of malathion, only tail curvature was found in tadpoles that were exposed
to 20 ppm, which died after 48 hours of exposure.
Mean tail curvature ranged from 2 at 5 ppm to 12 at 20 ppm. These
values were found to differ significantly among treatment groups and from the
control with tail curvature at 20 ppm as significantly highest among the
treatment groups. However, the degree of tail curvature at 20 ppm did not
significantly differ with degree of tail curvature at 15 ppm, but was
significantly higher (p
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ppm, 5 ppm and 10 ppm) and the control. Degree of tail curvature in 15 ppm
differed significantly (p
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R2
= 0.9431
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 5 10 15 20 25
Concentration (ppm)
Angle(degrees)
Figure 5. Tail curvature of Bufo sp. field stage 4 larvae after malathionexposure.
R2
= 0.7876
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20
Concentration (ppm)
Angle(degrees)
Figure 6. Angle of head bending of Bufo sp. field stage 4 larvae aftermalathion exposure.
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R2
= 0.2689
1.45
1.5
1.55
1.6
1.65
1.7
1.75
0 5 10 15 20
Concentration (ppm)
Averagelive
rsize(mm)
Figure 7. Liver size ofBufo sp. field stage 4 larvae exposed to malathion at
varying concentrations.
In addition, abnormal behaviors including circular swimming pattern
instead of a straight trajectory, decreased frequency of swimming and tail
twitching were observed with tadpoles exposed to malathion. Circular
swimming pattern were found to be associated with axis bending as observed
in the tadpoles exposed with malathion.
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DISCUSSION
Results of this experiment showed that concentrations at 20 ppm is
already lethal to Bufo sp. larvae in field stage four since 100% mortality was
attained in a short time of exposure of 48 hours. Bufo sp. larvae were found to
be sensitive with the slight difference of the concentration from 15 ppm to 20
ppm. The result showed that Bufo sp. larvae are quite sensitive to malathion.
Not all Bufo species, however, offer the same sensitivity. For instance,
embryos of arenarum were found to be quite resistant to malathion with an
LC505d of 42 ppm (Rosenbaum et al. 1988).
Mortality caused by exposure to malathion can be attributed to its
AChE inhibitory effect and other mechanisms such as increase susceptibility
to microbial infections due to decreased immunocompetency due to exposure
to malathion (Kiesecker, 2002).
The LC50 values were found to decrease with increasing length of
exposure to malathion owing to the bioaccumulation of malathion in exposed
tadpoles. This was so because exposure to high concentrations such as 20
ppm already caused death after 48 hours but in lower concentrations, deaths
were more apparent as length of exposure was increased.
At lower concentrations, anurans were found to be capable of
bioaccumulation of OP pesticides to levels considered lethal to other
organisms (Hall and Kolbe, 1980). This can be related to their reduce
dependence on pulmonary respiration, making them relatively resistant to
AChE (Acetylcholine esterase) inhibition. AChE inhibition often results to
respiratory paralysis, bronchoconstriction and increase bronchial excretions.
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Effects of toxicity were manifested through morphological abnormalities
such as curved tail, bent body axis (head) and bulging at the lower right
abdominal region. This result was consistent with the study conducted by
Chemotti et al. (2006) onXenopus laevis after a 3-day exposure to malathion.
The maximum average degree (65.6 degrees) of curvature of tail occurred in
the larvae exposed to 0.25 ppm malathion. In the experiment, however, the
maximum average degree (12.6 degrees) of tail curvature of Bufo sp. was
observed in 15 ppm. In a previous study, Pawar et al. (1983) also found body
curvature ofMicrohyla ornata tadpoles when exposed to 510 ppm malathion.
In addition, Pawar et al. (1983) observed unusual behaviors including loss of
balance, circular pattern of swimming, and decrease in activity. Similar results
were obtained in this study.
The mechanisms by which the pesticide causes axis deformation are
not well understood. Chemotti et al. (2006) argued, however, that bending of
axis may be related to the integrity of the extracellular matrix making up the
notochord. Snawder and Chambers (1993) showed that malathion reduces
the number of extracellular collagen by reducing the amount of ascorbic acid
and hydroxyproline levels necessary for the formation of collagens triple helix.
In this study, the direction of tail bending was found to be dorsal suggesting
that bending was possibly caused by deformities of the notochord and not by
contractions of the tail muscles. This was not tested, however, in this study.
Head bending was not observed in the group exposed to 20 ppm.
Unlike that of tail curvature which was observed after 48 hours, axis deformity
in the head takes time to develop. This means malathion must first be
bioaccumulated in the body of the tadpoles to induce axis deformation at the
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head region. This requires exposure at lower concentrations than that which
can cause lethality at short exposure.
Liver toxicity of malathion was not clearly defined in the experiment
since it was also found that liver size in the control group had no significant
difference to those in the experiment group. Liver toxicity of malathion has
limited literature. However, studies have shown that malathion, when
absorbed, is degraded in the liver and produces products more potent than
the original compound. It is therefore, recommended in this study to
investigate further the effects of malathion on liver size and function of Bufo
sp. larvae or other anuran species.
Organ displacement was also considered in the presence of bulging of
the lower right abdominal region since the opposite region was found to be
depressed.
Abnormal behaviors were also manifested by the exposed organisms.
These abnormalities in behavior include loss of balance, swimming in a
circular pattern and constant twitching of the tail during swimming and at the
stationary state. Loss of balance and swimming in a circular pattern were
more prominent in tadpoles which developed axis deformation. The direction
of swimming also tends to go to the direction of the bend. It was therefore
believed that these behaviors are consequences from the bending of body
axis. Muscle twitching in the tail, on the other hand, was considered to be the
caused by the anticholinesterase property of the organophosphate, malathion.
Ragnarsdottir (2000), as well as a couple of people studying
organophosphate toxicities, had confirmed that continuous muscle contraction
is a result of the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (Webb et al., 2006).
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Abnormal behaviors were usually followed by death as observed in the
current study. In the natural environment, these effects can have
consequences on the organisms survival. Tadpoles that develop a bent body
axis reduce its ability for normal locomotion, which in turn can limit the ability
to reach food sources and increase the risks of predation and desiccation.
CONCLUSION
The calculated values of LC50 from 9th-12th day ranged from 6 to 13
ppm in a decreasing pattern, showing that levels of toxicity of Bufo sp. field
stage IV larva with malathion increases with constant exposure. Mortality in
Bufo sp. larvae exposed to malathion was dosage dependent (R2 = 0.9194).
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Exposure also produced abnormalities in morphology including: axis
deformities in the head and tail and the presence of a bulge on the lower right
abdominal region. Axis deformities include: tail curvature and head bending
with a golf-like pattern. Tail curvature and head bending was dosage
dependent (R2 = 0.9431 and 0.7876, respectfully) signifying a high influence
of malathion in larval deformities. The degrees of curvature of tail significantly
differed (P
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studies must be pursued regarding the toxicity of malathion and other
organophosphates on other anuran species.
One specific malformation observed in the experiment was liver
edema, however the mechanism on how malathion can cause such result was
not clearly defined. Therefore, further investigations on liver edema as a
response to malathion exposure should be considered.
This study was designed in the lab to solely define the acute toxicity
effects of malathion only. The experiments done definitely did not replicate the
natural environment of the Bufo sp. larvae. Therefore, the effects observed in
the lab may vary with those present in the real environment due to other
environmental factors such as presence or absence of other chemicals,
presence of predators, and etc. It is recommended, therefore, that further
studies should also consider designing set ups that could replicate the true
environment of Bufo sp. or other anuran species and the effects of other
environmental factors (if factors increase or decrease the degree of response
towards organophosphates).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to give my sincere gratitude to my adviser, Prof. Florence
Evacitas, for her patience and guidance in the laboratory and in making the
manuscript. I would also like to thank Miss Ruby Caminade and especially Mr.
Tristan Arvin Jain, who generously gave their assistance in the field and in the
laboratory. Lastly, I would also thank the University of the Philippines in the
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Visayas Cebu College for the equipment and facilities and as the place to
conduct my laboratory work.
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Chemotti, D. C., Davis, S. H., Cook, L. W., Willoughby, I. R., Paradise, C. J.and Lom, B. 2006. The Pesticide Malathion Disrupts Xenopus and
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Deminti, B. (2000). Letter to William Burnam, Cancer Assessment ReviewCommittee Chiarman Re: evaluation of the carcinogenic potential ofmalathion. April 27th. Office of Pesticide Programs. Washington, DC.
DuBois KP. The toxicity of organophosphorous compounds to mammals. Bull
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Goniakowska-Witalinska L, Kubiczek U. 1998. The structure of the skin of thetree frog (Hyla arborea arborea L.).Anat Anz180:237-246.
Hall RJ, Kolbe E. 1980. Bioconcentration of organophosphorus pesticides tohazardous levels by amphibians. J Toxicol Environ Health 6:853-860.
Johnson MS, Holladay SD, Lippenholz KS, Jenkins JL, McCain WC. 2000.Effects of 2,4,6- trinitrotoluene in a holistic environmental exposure regimeon a terrestrial salamander, Ambysoma tigrinum. Toxicol Pathol 28:334-341.
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