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1 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Psychosocial DevelopmentDuring The First Three Years
Chapter 6
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2 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Guideposts for Study
When and how do emotions develop, and
how do babies show them? How do infants show temperamental
differences, and how enduring are thosedifferences?
What roles do mothers and fathers play inearly personality development?
When and how do gender differences
appear?
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3 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Guideposts for Study
How do infants gain trust in their world andform attachments, and how do infants andcaregivers read each others nonverbalsignals?
When and how does the sense of self arise,and how do toddlers develop autonomy and
standards for socially acceptable behavior? How do infants and toddlers interact with
siblings and other children?
How do parental employment and early childcare affect infants and toddlers development?
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4 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Emotions
Subjective responses to experience
Sadness, joy, fear
Associated with
Physiological changes
Behavioral changes Expressions depend upon culture
and personality
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5 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
First Signs ofEmotion: Crying!
It is obvious when newborns are upset! Piercing cries, flailing of limbs, stiff body
Types of cries: Hunger
Pain
Frustration
More difficult to tell when
the newborn is happy
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6 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Emotions: First Month
Baby becomes quiet at:
Sound of human voice
Being picked up
Baby smiles when gently moved
Pattycake
Smiling and cooing
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7 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Smiling & Laughing
Involuntary smiles
Appear at birth
Result of subcortical brain activity
Waking smiles after one month
Considered more social Elicited through gentle jiggling,
tickling or kissing
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8 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
SelfEmotions
Self-Awareness
A realization that ones existence is separatefrom others
Self-Consciousness
Depends on having self-awareness
Embarrassment and empathy
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9 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Self-Evaluative Emotions
Pride, shame and guilt
Require self-awareness and
knowledge of socially accepted
behaviors
Children compare their own
thoughts and behaviors against
what is socially OK
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10 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Empathy
Ability to put oneself in anothers place
Requires social cognitionUnderstanding that others have thoughts and
feelings
Ideas about others feelings are used to
gauge own behavior
Egocentrism absence of empathy
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11 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Brain Growth and
Emotional Development
Four MajorShifts:
Cerebral cortex becomes functional
Frontal lobes interact with the limbic system
Infant develops self-awareness and
consciousness Hormonal changes coincide with evaluative
emotions
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12 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Temperament
A biological predisposition of
reactivity
Highly heritable and stable
Generally, how mellow are you from
situation to situation?
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13 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Three Temperaments
Easy
Generally happy Responds well to change and novelty
Slow to Warm Up Generally mild reactions
Hesitant about new experiences
Difficult Irritable
Intense emotional responses
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,how enduring are thosedifferences?
Difficult Children: Somebabies come into the world
with an especially intenseand sensitive temperament.They cry a lot, they reactintensely to any irritation ordiscomfort, they want to becarried and nursed
constantly, they fall asleepwith difficulty and never forlong.Because they havehigher-than-average needs,these babies needmore -andmore sensitive -
parenting.
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2. How do infants showtemperamental differences,
Slow to warm up: hard todescribe but heres a story
about a baby that fits theprofile:"Brianna is reallypretty easy - until somethingnew or unexpected comesup. Then she's like Ms.Hyde. New food, new places,new people disrupt her in am
ajor way. I thoughtplaygroup was going to be acomplete no-go: a group oftoddlers she didn't know in aplace she hadn't beenbefore. But after weeks andweeks onmy knee she got
into it a bit, and now sheenjoys herself there."
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Easy Baby:Some
babies are relaxed and
easygoing. They areeager to explore new
places and things. They
respond quickly to
change. They can often
calm themselves in
times of stress. These
babies are likely to be
sound sleepers and
eager eaters.
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,how enduring are thosedifferences?
Making a good fit: coming together
"Fit" describes the way a baby'senvironment - that is, her parents andother caregivers - accommodates hertemperament. Parentsmake the fitgood by expecting a baby to behavein a way that feels "right" for her:they expect their shy toddler to takeawhile to get used to playgroup; they
anticipate that their active baby willtear around Grandmas house; they
understand why their slow-to-warm-up baby is upset by a new caregiver.Good fit starts with acceptance: Yourchild's behaviour reflects the way shefeels. No one chooses a
tem
peram
ent, it just is.
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18 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Goodness ofFit
Adjustment is easiest when the childs
temperament matches the situation
Physically
Socially
Culturally
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,how enduring are thosedifferences?
What challenges some
parents is not thetemperament of their baby,but their own expectations
another challenge issupport- parents need
support and advice. Acceptance of your child
the way s/he is is awonderful gift
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20 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Emotions During First 3 Years
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21 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
The Mothers Role:
Harry Harlow
Research with rhesus monkeys
Newborns placed with foster mother
Cloth mother offered no food
Wire mother provided food
Babies preferred cloth mother
The importance of contact comfort
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Harry Harlow, 1950s
Surrogate mother experiments
Critical period for attachment
Harlows experiment separatedinfant monkeys from their mothers a
few hours after birth, then arranged
for the young animals to be raised
by two kinds of surrogate monkey
mother machines, both equipped todispense milk. One mother was
made out of bare wire mesh. The
other was a wire mother covered
with soft terry cloth.
Link to
video of
harlow
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23 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
The Fathers Role
Entails emotional commitment and
direct involvement
Amount of involvement can vary greatly
In North America., father involvement
has increased dramatically since 1970s
More women work outside the home
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24 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Gender Differences
Gender
What it means to be male or female
Gender-typing
Socialization by which children learn
gender roles Parents important in socialization
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25 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Gender differences
Measurable differences are few
Behavioral differences between 1 and 2years
Boys play more aggressively
Word choices
Perceptions of gender
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26 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Basic Trust v. Basic Mistrust
Newborns and infants develop a sense of
reliability of people and objects
Erikson Stage 1: Basic Trust
Sensitive, responsive and consistent care.
Can I count on you to feed me when Imhungry?
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Eriksons theory of
psychosocial development list
trust vmistrust as the firstcrisis that must be developed.
This stage lasts until about 18
months and requires infants
to develop a sense of being
able to rely upon theircaregivers. They need to
believe that their physical and
emotional needs will bemet.
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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28 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Attachment
Attachment: Children develop
different styles of attachment based on
experiences and interactions with their
primary caregivers. Four different
attachment styles have been identifiedin children: secure, anxious-
ambivalent, anxious
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29 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Attachment in Strange Situation
Attachm
ent ChildsB
ehav
ior
SecurePlays freely when mother is near
Happy when mother returns
Insecure-
Resistant
Hovers around mother
Angry when mother returns
DisorganizedInconsistent & erratic
Seems overwhelmed by stress
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31 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Disorganized children dont
know what to expect from
their parents. Children withrelationships in the other
categories have organized
attachments. This means
that they have all learned
ways to get what they need,even if it is not the best way.
This happens because
a child learns to predict
how his parent will
react, whether it is
positive or negative.
They also learn that
doing certain things willmake their parents do
certain things.
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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33 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Influences on Attachment
Parental
Level of warmth and responsiveness
Employment and amount of separation
Own memories about their attachment
Babys temperament
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34 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Long-TermEffects
of Attachment
More securely attached children develop
good relationships with others
Larger vocabularies
Higher levels of curiosity and self-
confidence
Preparation for adult intimacy
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35 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Box 1: Postpartum Depression
Detrimental effects
Babies may become depressed
themselves
Unusual patterns of brain activity
Insecurely attached
Treatment strategies
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36 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Mutual Regulation
ofEmotions
Infant and caregiver responding to each
others emotional states
Social Referencing
Babys attempt to understand an
ambiguous situation by seeking out cuesfrom caregiver
What would baby do if you said YECH! to a toy?
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37 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Emergence of Self Concept
Self-concept: The image of ourselves
Personal agency I can make that move!
Self-efficacyIm GREATat making it move!
Self-awareness Knowledge of the self as a distinct being
Rouge test
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38 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Box 2: Toddler Struggles
Are terrible twos universal?
Methods of handling sibling conflict
Individual needs versus group needs
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Erikson identifies this period from 18
months to 3 years where a child solvesthe crisis of autonomy vs. shame. The
virtue is Will
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between
the ages of one and three, children begin toassert their independence, by walking away
from their mother, picking which toy to play
with, and making choices about what they
like to wear, to eat, etc. (negativism) Ifchildren in this stage are encouraged and
supported in their increased independence,
they become more confident and secure in
their own ability to survive in the world 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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If children are criticized, overly controlled, or
not given the opportunity to assertthemselves, they begin to feel inadequate in
their ability to survive, and may then become
overly dependent upon others, lack self-
esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubtin their own abilities.
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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42 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Autonomy v. Shame
Autonomy
A shift from external control to self-control
Emerges from trust and self-awareness
The Terrible Twos
Sham
e and doubt Help toddler recognize need for limits
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43 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Moral Development
Socialization
How children develop habits and values that
make them productive members of society
Internalization
Making the standards of society your own
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Socialization: Human infants are born without any
culture. They must be transformed by their parents,
teachers, and others into cultural and socially adept
people. The general process of acquiring culture is
referred to as socialization. During socialization,
we learn the language of the culture we are born into
as well as the roles we are to play in life. We alsolearn and usually adopt our culture's norms through
the socialization process. (internalization)
2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
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Developing Self-Regulation
Having control over own behavior
Conforming with caregivers standards
.even if caregiver is not present
Depends on attentional processes
Ability to monitor negative emotions
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46 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Origins of Conscience
Emotional discomfort about doing
something wrong
The ability to refrain from doing something
wrong
Refraining because they believe it is theright thing to donot just self-regulation
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47 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Committed and
Situational Compliance
Committed Compliance
Willingly follows orders without lapses
Shows internalization of household rules
Situational Compliance
Follows orders with prompting and
reminders
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48 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Factors in the
Success of Socialization
Security of attachment
Receptive cooperation
Mutual responsiveness of
parent and child
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49 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Sociabililty with Siblings
Becomes a vehicle for
understanding socialrelationships outside the
home
Constructive conflict helpschildren with empathy
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50 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Sociability with Non-Siblings
Babies who spend more time
with other babies tend to bemore sociable
Toddlers can learn by imitatingeach other Playing follow-the-leader
Paves the way for more complexgames
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51 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Effects of
Parental Employment
NLSY found little or no effect of maternal
employment on childrens: Compliance
Behavioral problems
Self-esteem
Cognitive development
Academic achievement
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52 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Factors in Impact of Child Care
Structural characteristics
Staff training
Ratio of children to staff
Process characteristics
Warmth and sensitivity of workers Appropriateness of activities
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53 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Types of Child Abuse
Physical
Neglect
Sexual
Emotional Maltreatment
Causes behavioral, cognitive or mentaldisorders
May include rejection
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54 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Traits of Abusive &
Neglectful Families
Perpetrator usually mother
Aggravated by: Marital problems
Stressful events (getting laid off)
Lack of parental education
Poverty
Alcoholism
Depression
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55 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Community & Cultural
Factors in Child Abuse
Abuse is more likely if:
Criminal activity is rampant in community
There are few community programs
Violent crime is frequent in that country
USA v. Japan
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56 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
Abuse-Prevention Programs
Teach parenting skills
Offer respite homes and relief
parents
Investigate reports of maltreatment
Provide shelters and therapy
Facilitate foster care
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Long TermEffects
of Maltreatment
1/3 of adults abused as children victimize
own children
Sexually abused children grow up with:
Lower self-esteem
Greater risk of depression and anxiety Risk of precocious sexual behavior