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The historical origins of weightlifting havebeen lost in the mists of time but can betraced back to man’s eternal desire to chal-lenge the forces of nature, with gravity beingthe greatest contender. In this ancestral defiance, man has adoptedthree techniques: the first, to reduce theeffect of gravity on his body by attempting topropel himself into the air using his ownstrength (this gave rise to the various sportsinvolving jumping); the second, to use hisstrength to give an object of any weightenough speed to temporarily defy the forcesof gravity (giving rise to throwing sports): thethird technique was based on the fact thatman could not as yet assess the effects thatthe forces of gravity posed, but he couldmeasure the number of kilos that he wascapable of lifting. And this marked the dawnof weightlifting. If a philosophical interpretation were plausi-ble, one might venture to say that the actualconquest of space, a symbol of modern civi-lization, represents none other than the most

blatant and obvious acclamation, from atechnological viewpoint, of man’s innatestruggle with the force of gravity. However, itis no wonder that the advent and the successof Homo Tecnologicus have not detractedfrom his timeless fascination with strength.On the contrary, it would appear that modernman’s ever-growing thirst for knowledge is adriving force to test his limits, continuouslyquestioning his capabilities and possibilitieseven on a physical level. It may also be saidthat at present, it seems that such limits inthe field of strength are far from beingreached. Lifting weights has been indicated as ahealthy complementary activity for physicalimprovement. The father of scientific medi-cine, Hippocrates of Cos (5th-6th centuryBC), listed a series of exercises, includingwrestling and anakinemata (weightlifting), tokeep the body healthy. Training with halteres

recommended also by Antillus (2nd centuryAC) and Oribasius (4th century AC), gave riseto alterobolia and was practiced under the

12 WEIGHTLIFTING. PAST AND PRESENTCHAPTER 1

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What is the purpose of qualitative biome-chanical analysis? With the correct inter-pretation of available data, the basic aimis to improve personal technique and itsevolution by upgrading the quality ofcoaching techniques. There are two typesof analyses:

Basic: by simply observing the phenome-non without the use of equipment (videorecorders, cameras or monitoring devices).

In-depth: total or partial movements aremonitored or reconstructed by systemsproviding sets of data, which can be usedin cross assessments. This type can besubdivided into six important areas ofassessment:

•optimum use of athletes’s motor skillswithin the limits set by the actual sportand its rules;

•reassessment of exercise methods inorder to improve efficiency;

•awareness, determining and explain-ing motor errors;

•research into solutions to avoid, pre-vent and compensate motor errors;

•identification and development ofeffective exercises for physical prepa-ration and conditioning;

•objective acquisition of informationregarding techniques or actions toimplement in competitions.

Biomechanical analysis can also be quan-titative when based on the evaluation offactors that either produce or prevent themovement and the relative assigning ofnumeric values compared to their varia-tion over time. Quantitative analysis still holds its impor-tance in acyclic sports such as weightlift-ing. The advantages and limits of biomechan-ics are illustrated below, analysing someOlympic weightlifting exercises, developingtechnical aspects from a mechanical pointof view. The biomechanical process has generallytwo phases:

•studying the phenomenon;•comparison with an ideal pre-exisiting

model; or the formulation of a newmodel which best responds to the phe-nomenon in question.

It is evident that this type of analysis canbe carried out with various levels of preci-sion and reliability. They depend, aboveall, on the margin of error of the observa-tion devices, secondly, on the knowledgeof the theoretical models (or sportingtechniques) referred to, and thirdly onhuman error. The most common means of qualitativeobservation are generally the coach-observer’s naked eye. The coach carefully observes the athlete’smovements and then mentally comparesthem to what he considers the move-ment’s ideal theoretical model.Only after this mental overlap can thecoach assess the movement and suggestimprovements.This method of analysis is known as sub-jective, as the result does not dependsolely on the physical-biomechanical char-acteristics of the observed movement, butalso on the condition of the observer. Themonitoring of the relative parameters ofthe same movement, as well as the men-tal elaboration, can be different. These dif-ferences, which make the monitoring and

22 QUALITATIVE BIOMECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF OLYMPIC WEIGHTLIFTINGCHAPTER 2

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One of the fundamental elements inweightlifting training is technique. Only agood technical input can produce the bestphysical output. For this reason it isessential to pay close attention to tech-nique in the initial stages of sports prepa-ration. A technique is an ideal system ofmovements, of varying complexity, thatwhile respecting the laws of economy andrationality, result in the athlete channellingall his physical qualities onto a piece ofequipment, as in the case of weightlifting,to create a personal model that at thesame time respects the general guidelinesof the theoretical model. It is a considerably difficult and complextask to develop a high level technique asit depends to a great extent on numerousfactors such as:

•coordination;•sensory skills;•joint mobility and flexibility;•proportion of bone levers; •development of force and speed.

By way of summary, it is possible to devel-op a rational technique, proportional to ourability to apply greater force and speedwhen performing the movement.

When analysing and understanding atechnique we must take into considerationkinematic components such as speed,time, acceleration and joint angles and onthe other, dynamic components such asforce and barbell flexibility. We can there-fore conclude that a sports technique canonly be defined as such, if all the abovephysical qualities are developed in a har-monious and subjective manner, especial-ly if this technique is associated with lift-ing heavy loads.

The basic requirements that characterisethe effectiveness of a technique can besummed up as follows:

•balance skills: static and dynamic;•differentiation skills: the differentia-

tion of force impulses of suitable inten-sity developed over time. This deter-mines the structure of the athleticmovement, conferring a sequence ofeffective and economic move;

• fluidity of movement: the perfectcoordination of the distinct phases themove incorporates, optimising themechanics of the development. This iswhat is commonly defined as move-ment coordination, or rather, a logicaldistribution of internal and externalforces. Correct trajectory: perform-ance of the move in the most rationalform possible. The barbell must notdeviate considerably from the valuesregarded as excellent in the theoreti-cal model.

The ideal technique is not subject to theevolution of a sport, although it remainsdependant on applications combined withthe subjective characteristics dictated bythe varying characteristics of the individualathletes, not least, gender.

In weightlifting, the performance tech-nique is apparently quite consolidated anddoes not seem to have undergone sub-stantial changes in recent years. An indi-vidual technique, which is generally limit-ed for a series of anatomical reasons,requires the combination of as many pos-sible elements from the theoretical modelso as to create the most rational movepossible for the characteristics of the sub-ject in question.

40 WEIGHTLIFTING TECHNIQUESCHAPTER 3

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The term “grip” refers to the way in whichthe hands grasp and hold the barbell.

There are three grip variants in weightlift-ing:

58 USING THE BARBELLCHAPTER 4

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Hook grip: also called the “crochetage”, inwhich the barbell is first gripped with thethumb and then the remaining fingers. Theindex and middle fingers close over thethumb. This ensures a secure grip on thebarbell guaranteeing better performance inthe first pull – loading – second pull.

Palm grip: the barbell is gripped in succes-sion by the index, middle, ring and smallfingers and then the thumb closes downover the index and middle finger. This typeof grip is only used in the jerk phase of theclean & jerk.

Strap grip: a strap is looped around thewrist and then around the bar where it isblocked with a hook grip or a normal grip.This type of grip is used in training, aboveall in exercises that require repeated veryheavy lifts.


As in other sports, we can classify weight-lifting exercises into four types:

1. Competition exercises The snatch and clean & jerk performercorrectly avoiding the errors laid out in theTechnical Rules.

2. Auxiliary exercises these contain one or more typical mainelements of the competition exercisesrespecting the parameters of space andtime.

3. General strength training exercisesThese may have no connection to the spe-cific muscle activity of the competitionexercises and are designed to improvestrength in all the muscles of the body. As

they are not characteristics of weightlift-ing, we have not listed them here. Thoughlimiting our attention to the exercises thatuse barbells, we cannot however neglectthe importance of “natural load” exercis-es, in other words, without the use ofexternal loads.

4. Specific strength training exercisesConfined to one or more muscle groupsused in the competition exercise in ques-tion.

They can be divided into:

•exercises for general athletic prepara-tion;

•exercises for specific athletic prepara-tion.

62 TYPES OF EXERCISESCHAPTER 5


The technique of the Olympic exercisessnatch and clean & jerk is very complexand therefore quite difficult to learn, nor isit an easy task to correct faults in the per-formance. This difficulty arises from vari-ous sources:

•the speed of movement;•the necessity to carry out great effort

in a determined moment;•precision;•the participation of a high number of

muscle groups in a coordinatedsequence;

•interaction between the athlete-equip-ment;

•maintaining static-dynamic balance.

When a fault occurs in a certain exercise,the coach should not limit himself to point-ing it out if he is unsure of the origin of themistake and of the strategy to adopt in cor-recting it.

There are various usual causes that favourfaults and/or difficulty in learning the righttechniques:

•a bad interpretation of the informationthat an athlete receives both fromexternal and internal sources (kinethe-sis). This condition can give rise toincorrect movements which lead to apoor performance. The athlete doesnot have the correct and sufficientknowledge to elaborate the idea of an

exact move. The coach must have thisknowledge and transmit it to the ath-lete thus reducing the discrepancybetween the perception of the moveand the actual performance of theideal model;

•insufficient physical conditions. As acompensatory action during the tech-nical move, different muscle groupsare used contrary to those required bythe kinetics chain for that specificmovement. In this way there is an irra-tional action and the entire effortprocess will compromise the endresult. This deficiency is often due tothe use of unsuitable loads (excessiveor faulty) in the physical-technicaldevelopment of the athlete;

•information is provided only on theresult and not on the cause of theproblem;

•unsuitable use of exercise and/orloads that invalidate the technique ofthe Olympic movements.

When we have an athlete with technicalproblems, we must always bear in mindthat any action intended to solve the prob-lem must take into account the athlete’sability and necessity, as well as the cir-cumstances of the learning situation. Thecoach-athlete interaction must focus onthe following points:

•level of ability and capabilities of theathlete;

•motivation;•performance fatigue;•expectations;•ability to take in and process the infor-

mation;•self confidence and self esteem.

The coach must focus on verbal, visualand tactile information. Generally theobservations must be made immediatelyafter the exercise has been performed,pointing out both the mistake and the cor-rective action: the aspects of the sameaction. Before giving specific indications,it is vital to be sure of the cause of thefault and to know the right information andexplanations to give.To prevent mistakes from becoming com-monplace, it is necessary that the correc-tion is made in context and never in a pre-ventative manner.

88 MAIN TECHNICAL FAULTS AND HOW TO CORRECT THEMCHAPTER 6

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Given the characteristics of this sport,technique and physical preparation gohand in hand, and this is reflected in themajority of exercises carried out in a train-ing session. Physical preparation is basi-cally reached by means of technical exer-cises. Only very few exercises for thedevelopment of strength are not directlylinked to technique. Technique trainingplays a determining role in the trainingprogramme throughout the entire season,alternating periods of greater or lesserattention. In the first stages (2-4 weeks)of a 10-15 week training programme, it ispossible to plan, with less frequency, theclassic exercises (snatch and clean &jerk), substituting them with exercises thataddress technique in an analytical man-ner. As the training progresses, the tradi-tional exercises will take over. The trainingvolume (the number of series per kg) cor-responding to the technical exercises,within a cycle, is between 50-60% of thetotal series of the entire period.

A considerable reduction in the number oftechnical exercises will result in less spe-cific training, with a very high averageintensity due to the fact that the auxiliaryexercises are carried out with heavyweights (pulls and squat). Therefore it willbe difficult to produce the hypotheticaltransfer of explosive strength because bio-mechanically, the auxiliary exercises arevery different from the traditional ones. If,on the other hand, the training volume isgreatly increased, solely in favour of thetechnical exercises, then there is a greaterpossibility to hyperstimulate the neuromus-cular system, leading to a deterioration inthe technique and hence in the results.

Training can be intensified by progressive-ly increasing the weights used in all theexercises, especially in traditional ones.This increase in intensity is necessary asmuch from a physical standpoint as atechnical one. Training with sub maximalpercentages (85-100%), when the tech-nique is sufficiently stable, allows it to beperfected. This is due to the fact that thestructure of the move, at such intensity, isvery similar to that necessary in competi-tions. Each sports technique is in relationto the physical conditions of the athlete.In weightlifting there must be a balanceddevelopment between the quality ofstrength, velocity and rapidity. If strengthtraining is carried out with low intensity, itwill be very difficult to perfect the techni-cal model. Having intense strength may benegative if it is not channelled into thedynamic action of the Olympic exercises.In these cases, when strength does notcorrespond to a good technical result, it isnecessary to modify the distribution of thetraining weights (volume), including agreater percentage of technical exercisesand reducing those for general strength.Bearing in mind however the subjectivecharacteristics or differences, it is alwaysnecessary to start with the technicaldevelopment as opposed to strengthdevelopment, especially in the initialstages of training. To obtain strengththrough technical exercises (the only formto achieve specific strength), it is neces-sary to have sufficient technical stability.The ideal method to develop technique, isto practice only the snatch and clean &jerk, in this way avoiding any negativeinterference from other exercises. If on

100 TRAINING THE TECHNIQUE. LEARNING THE TECHNIQUECHAPTER 7

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Training is a complex task that does notobey any theory without respecting thefundamental principles that regulate it. A training process must take into accountthe basics that permit the programmingprocess and how to reach the prestab-lished goal. A schedule is therefore con-ceived as a combined system of elementsthat produces a balanced fusion. It is anorganised structured designed to reachcertain goals which takes into account aplan that justifies and defines the marginsof variation where it is possible to put intoaction the training stimuli. In fact, a schedule does not only consist intreating some training factors (volume,intensity, exercises, frequency, etc.) butrather the coordination of an entire systemwhich takes into account the interaction ofall its components. We can define theschedule as a process, that on one handensures unity of the parts and on the otherhand, guarantees flexibility, giving rise to aprocess of adaptation without losing sightof the merging of the single factors.From this definition we can draw two morebasic considerations that characterize thewhole aspect of programming. The firstcharacteristic, unity, that presupposes con-tinuity and coherence, considers program-ming as a single unit which must be per-formed without substantial modifications,maintaining coherency within the intendedtraining project, which may only be modi-fied through a careful reading of the follow-ing parameters that can justify the presentor future review of a training programme:

•realisation of the practical aspect;•general evolution of the form;•analysis of the training parameters; •results.

Respect for the parameters can preventthe “athletic form” from being consider-ably brought forward or delayed in relationto a competition, highlighting falling per-formance trends when compared to whatwould be expected from the actual com-petition. The second point is characterised by flexi-bility or reversibility. All scheduled activities are susceptible tochange when put into practice. It is wiseto be alert to these changes and if neces-sary modify aspects of the training sessionbased on the physical and psychical con-

dition of the athlete and his evolution ofthe form.Any change in programme always presup-poses a slight modelling of the pre-intend-ed schedule. This however does not meana loss of direction and goal. Each physicalactivity should be tailor made to the adap-tation skills of each athlete. This topic is as important as it is difficultbecause in sport it is rarely possible tomake a precise diagnosis of an athlete’scharacteristics or to know what is themost suitable training programme for thesaid characteristics.Therefore continuous close examination isvital, nourished with the knowledge andexperience of a good coach, who can bringabout the appropriate changes to the gen-eral work load and to the type of generaland specific exercises of each lifter.Simultaneously there should be suitablepacing of the work phase that recovers andbalances out the technical deficiencies. Inother terms, the program must try to har-monise and blend the above know-how in atraining process without ever neglecting thepsychological and technical aspects of anathlete. A coach-programmer, in addition to estab-lishing a detailed series of activities to becarried out in a session, must have anexcellent ability to analyse and constantlyreview what is intended as a trainingprocess. This concept requires fostering asports technology, in other words, a pro-gramming procedure in which a trainingsystem is developed, taking into consider-ation the following aspects and bearing inmind the characteristics of the athlete orwork group it is being applied to:

•putting into practice;•managing the system;•control;•assessment.

Putting into action a plan that includes theabove aspects requires a priori the use ofmeans that are not always available to allcoaches. Very often the first difficultyencountered by coaches-programmers isidentifying each athlete’s characteristicsand producing the best results in a certaintimeframe. Producing a result also meansapplying the fundamental knowledge ofmedicine, psychology and physics so as tobalance the work load.

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As already mentioned, the exercises are tobe learnt in phases or element by ele-ment. We will now take a look at a teach-ing process from an experimental study byU.A. Druzhimin (1980), which is stillextremely valid. This form of teachingpresents some advantages and apparent-ly no drawbacks; according to statisticsfrom studies carried out on a considerableamount of beginners, there is a significantincrease (in terms of learning time and

quality) compared to other methods. Theresult is that the lifters assimilate a ration-al technique better and faster and pro-duce less mistakes than with the tradition-al method (learning through the sameorder of the exercise phases). Bearing this study in mind and consideringthe experience of the Italian School ofWeightlifting, the below system has beendevised, which gives rational order to thelearning of each exercise.

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To illustrate the concept of similarities, thefollowing is a description of a classic exer-cise – squat with the barbell positionedacross the shoulders – carried out with dif-ferent kinematic body methods (figure11.1). It can be easily noted that althoughthe load of the barbell remains constant,it exerts an equal external force. With regard to joints however, the loadvaries depending on the lever arm in rela-tion to the joints (not indicated in the fig-ure, but mainly depending on the horizon-tal distance from the bar to the axis of thejoints). This is all expressed in the calcula-tion of the rotary moments of the groundreaction force in relation to the rotationaxis of the joints.

Another example of the variability of thedynamic structure according to theanatomical-functional modalities of motorexecution of lifting can be observed in theprevious figure.

In this case, the pull exercise is carried outusing a special dynamometer. In the figurethere are four types of typical executions(A-B-C-D) and the respective graphs ofthe time trends of force, velocity andpower expressed during the movement.

It is interesting to note how, for example,the peak values for power, force andvelocity are not so dissimilar neither invariants A and B, nor in respectively C andD.

In trying to explain the meaning of theinterrelations between the internal kine-matic structure and the external dynamic(or kinematic) response, we have provid-ed an example relative to the functionwhich connects the maximum forceapplied to the barbell, its height from theground and the different position of thejoints in relation to the load (figure11.3).

126 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN WEIGHTLIFTING EXERCISES & SPORTS MOVEMENTSCHAPTER 11

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145°

110°

145°

165°

90°

100°

130°

110°

a

b

c

d

FIGURE 11.1Variations of posture while

lifting a 50 kg bar unto the shoulders. The external

force is represented by the weight of the bar,

which remains constant, whereas the strain on

the joints varies according to posture. This is expressed

while solving the moments of the ground-projected

force resultant for the joint rotation axes

(see following table)

POSITION JOINTS COXOFEMORAL KNEE TIBIOTARSAL

A 185 70 25

B 6 175 4

C 185 10 38

D 218 22 22

TABLE 11.1Intensity of torque

(Newton metre) in jointsbased on posture in squat


Weights are universally recognised as anessential support both for correct develop-ment and for specialisation in othersports.It is therefore appropriate to provide gen-eral instructions for use in the form ofeasy to read charts for the specific needsof the user.

Although this method is undoubtedly use-ful on a teaching level, it may pose somerestrictions when it comes to application.In these cases, the various sports must becombined using parameters which areunbiased to assessment, that allow aclassification designed for operative use ora more in-depth correlation, based on theaspect to be highlighted or emphasised. There may be various criteria or parame-ters used, for example, energy, limb kinet-ics or barycentre motion. As we will deal with the use of weights inall sports, it is appropriate to focus on thedynamic-coordinative characteristics ofthe sports in order to have all the informa-tion necessary on the exercises to use, bymeans of their similarities with competi-tion movements. The energetic mecha-nisms, on the other hand, give us detailsof the most suitable applicative methodol-ogy for the various needs. The appropriate use of weights will beworthwhile and necessary only on thedetermining, but essentially restrictiveconditions that the trained kinetic chainworks with angles that are as similar to theperformance conditions and therefore arefunctional. The possibility to train the motor specifici-ty of the exercise is the only way of mak-ing valid use of weights in the specialisa-tion phase of any sport. If these conditions are not respected, themassive use of weights, with diverseangles, trajectories and torques, as wellas weights that employ different contrac-tion or energetic mechanisms, can resultunnecessary or even harmful. If there is no opportunity to train the nec-essary motor specificity of the technicalmovement, the weights can be used to anadvantage regardless, focussing on gener-al weightlifting and not on specialisedimprovement. In fact, if it is not possible to reproducethe kinetics of the performance for specif-ic training, it is more useful to train moregeneral qualities such as, the energeticsubstrates that come into action in per-formance, increasing the ability to developa higher level of performance.However, an athlete is not a machine, heis a living being that develops ontogeneti-cally, with his own daily intrinsic variability(circadian rhythms) and a personal psy-cho-emotional structure in evolution.

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The evaluation of body composition repre-sents an important area in research, fruitof estimating the energy requirement andthe nutritional state of the patient, and forthe subsequent applications in the med-ical-health field. In fact, biological andmedical sciences have long been advocat-ing the knowledge of the dimensional andmorphological characteristics of thehuman body and of its interindividual dif-ferences. The study of body composition is of extremeimportance for both non-athletes, given thedirect correlation to health conditions, andfor athletes as it defines their functionalcharacteristics and abilities.Body composition is significantly differentfor both sexes, it is also modified by fac-tors such as age, genome and pathologi-cal state and is substantially influenced bydiet and physical exercise. When practising sport, with reference tointense periods of training or following acompetitive event, the body is faced withvarious degrees of change in relation to itsstate of hydration, the distribution of bodyfluids (intra and extracellular), electrolytebalance and muscle, fat and bone mass.Such variations can seriously damagephysical integrity and can lead to a declinein performance. As previously mentioned, diet has impor-tant repercussions on body composition,and the need to lose weight, in order to“fit” into the desired category, results inmany athletes resorting to “extreme”methods of weight loss (sauna, fasting,use of laxatives, etc.) that can negativelyalter performance and compromise theathlete’s health.

It is therefore vital to evaluate the bodycomposition of the athlete so as to mon-itor growth, training results and diet, andto investigate changes that come aboutwith physical development in order toprepare suitable athletic training ses-sions; this provides a predictive value forthe aptitude selection in many sportingactivities and performance optimisation,which can be reached by nutritionalhomeostasis, obtained when the bodyweight is in perfect relation to the fatmass (FM) and the fat free mass (FFM).This relation depends on age, gender,genetics and the characteristics of thesport in question.

The two-compartment model is based onthe model in which the Body Weight (BW)is subdivided into two distinct chemicalcomponents, Fat Mass (FM) and Fat FreeMass (FFM).

The term Fat Mass or Total Lipid Massindicates the total body fat tissue which isalways measured in kg, has a density ofcirca 0.9 g/ml, and is an anhydrous tissuewhich does not contain potassium.

According to the Behnke model, the fatmass has two specific storage areas:

•Essential fat which is the fat massthat the body requires, present in thelipid-rich cellular membrane of theCNS and the PNS, between musclefibres, in the (yellow) bone marrow, inthe long bones of the CNS and PNS,in the liver, the spleen, the lungs andthe heart; it amounts to 3-5% of thetotal body mass in men and 10-12%in women as it forms the tissue con-nected to secondary gender charac-teristics.

•Storage fat, is an accumulation offat in the adipose tissue, made up ofcirca: 83% lipids, 2% protein and 15% water. The storage fat is dividedinto visceral fat and sub-skin fat; theformer protects the internal organswithin the thoracic and abdominalcavities from trauma and the latter isdeposited beneath the skin’s sur-face.

The Fat Free Mass includes the rest of thebody with an almost constant density1.099-1100 g/ml; it contains water inconstant quantities (70-73%) with a den-sity of 0.993 g/ml; the rest is made up ofprotein, with a density of 1.34 g/ml; min-eral salts (in particular those relative tothe skeletal apparatus with a density of 3g/ml) and glycogen. The Fat Free Masscontent in men is 69 mEq, with 10% lessin women. The LBM (Lean Body Mass) ismade up all the tissues in the FFM withthe addition of the “essential fat”.

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FM FFM


The injuries that occur during competitiveweightlifting are similar to the cases andtypes of injuries sustained in other sports. The specific analysis of the movement inthe snatch and clean & jerk, the continu-ous repetition of the movement at highspeed and with the use of maximumloads, show how the anatomical structureis subject to continuous stress, which inthe long term can result in injury if suitabletherapies and prevention exercises are notimplemented. An analysis of the injury mechanism, themost common, and the level of frequency,

provide the coach, athlete and physiother-apist with sufficient information to preparea safe and optimal training schedulewhich may be integrated, if the need aris-es, with an injury prevention programme(2, 7, 8).

There are three main anatomic areas thatare prone to injury: the knee, the lowerback and the shoulder. Scientific docu-mentation indicates that most injuries aresustained by the knee, followed by theshoulder and then the lower back (2, 3, 7,11, 14).

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