Pa Lecture2

8/22/2019 Pa Lecture2

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Prague November 2012 1

public administration: theory and

practiceProf. El Thalassinos

Chair Jean Monnet

University of Piraeus

Editor, ERSJ, IJEBA

www.ersj.eu

www.jeanmonnet-emu.eu

www.maritime-unipi.gr
http://www.ersj.eu/http://www.jeanmonnet-emu.eu/http://www.maritime-unipi.gr/http://www.maritime-unipi.gr/http://www.maritime-unipi.gr/http://www.maritime-unipi.gr/http://www.jeanmonnet-emu.eu/http://www.jeanmonnet-emu.eu/http://www.jeanmonnet-emu.eu/http://www.ersj.eu/


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public administration Public administration is both an academic discipline

and a field of practice;

Public administration houses the implementation ofgovernment policy and an academic discipline that

studies this implementation and that prepares civil

servants for this work;

As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its

fundamental goal is to advance management and

policies so that government can function;


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definitions

"the management of public programs"

"translation ofpolitics into the reality that citizens see

every day" "the study of government decision making, the

analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputsthat have produced them, and the inputs necessary to

produce alternative policies
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics


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concerns Centrally concerned with the organization of

government policies and programmes as well as thebehavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally

responsible for their conduct; Many unelectedpublic servants can be considered to

be public administrators, including heads of city,county, regional, state and federal departments such as

municipal budget directors, human resources (H.R.)administrators, city managers, census managers, state[mental health] directors, and cabinet secretaries;

Public administrators arepublic servants working inpublic departments and agencies, at all levels of

government;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_servanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_managerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_secretarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_servanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_servanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_secretarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_managerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_servant


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Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy Until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of

the German sociologist Max Weber's theory of

bureaucracy there was not much interest in a theory ofpublic administration;

The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the

various proposals for public administration's sub-fields

sets out six pillars, including human resources,

organizational theory,policy analysis and statistics,

budgeting and ethics.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidisciplinarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budgethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budgethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidisciplinarityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber


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more Public administration has no generally accepted

definition, because the scope of the subject is so great

and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define. Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a

discipline) and an occupation. There is much

disagreement about whether the study of public

administration can properly be called a discipline,

largely because of the debate over whether public

administration is a subfield ofpolitical science or a

subfield ofadministrative science.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_(government)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science


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theNorth American Industry

Classification System definition Public administration comprises establishments

primarily engaged in activities of a governmental

nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretationof laws and their pursuant regulations, and the

administration of programs based on them.

This includes legislative activities, taxation, national

defense, public order and safety, immigration services,

foreign affairs and international assistance, and the

administration of government programs are activities

that are purely governmental in nature.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System


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from the academic perspective Defines the study of public administration as a

program that prepares individuals to serve asmanagers in the executive arm of local, state, andfederal government and that focuses on the systematicstudy of executive organization and management.

Includes instruction in the roles, development and

principles of public administration; the managementof public policy; executive-legislative relations; publicbudgetary processes and financial management;administrative law; public personnel management;

professional ethics and research methods.


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history: antiquity to the 19th century

Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, Kings and

Emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax

collectors to administer the practical business ofgovernment.

Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public

administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and

political patronage, which was often referred to as a

spoils system.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoils_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoils_system


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Public administrators have been the "eyes and ears" ofrulers until relatively recently. In medieval times, theabilities to read and write, add and subtract were asdominated by the educated elite as public employment.

Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whoseability to read and write formed the basis fordeveloping expertise in such necessary activities aslegal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies andlevying taxes. As the European Imperialist age

progressed and the militarily powers extended theirhold over other continents and people, the need for asophisticated public administration grew.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax


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The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick WilliamI of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in aneffort to train a new class of public administrators.

The universities ofFrankfurt an der OderandUniversity of Halle were Prussian institutionsemphasizing economic and social disciplines, with thegoal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi

was the most well-known professor of Cameralism.Thus, from a Western European perspective, Classic,Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed thefoundation of the discipline that has come to be called

public administration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kameralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_an_der_Oderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_Justihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_Justihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hallehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_an_der_Oderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kameralismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia


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history: antiquity to the 19th century Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from

Vienna, is considered the founder of the science ofpublic administration in many parts of the world. Inthe time of Von Stein, public administration was

considered a form of administrative law, but Von Steinbelieved this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taughtthat public administration relies on many pre-established disciplines such as sociology,politicalscience, administrative law andpublic finance. He

called public administration an integrating science, andstated that public administrators should be concernedwith both theory and practice. He argued that publicadministration is a science because knowledge is

generated and evaluated according to the scientificmethod.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_von_Steinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_financehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_financehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viennahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_von_Stein


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In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is

considered the father of public administration. He first

formally recognized public administration in an 1887article entitled "The Study of Administration." The

future president wrote that "it is the object of

administrative study to discover, first, what

government can properly and successfully do, and,secondly, how it can do these proper things with the

utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost

either of money or of energy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilsonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_America


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history: antiquity to the 19th century Wilson was more influential to the science of public

administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an articleWilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts:

Separation of politics and administration;

Comparative analysis of political and private organizations; Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes

toward daily operations;

Improving the effectiveness of public service throughmanagement and by training civil servants, merit-based

assessment; The separation of politics and administration has been the

subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regardingthis dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of thesuggested generations of public administration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_payhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merit_pay


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By the 1920s, scholars of public administration hadresponded to Wilson's solicitation and thus textbooks in thisfield were introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that

period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol,Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915),

another prominent scholar in the field of administration andmanagement also published a book entitled The Principlesof Scientific Management (1911). He believed thatscientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the one

best way to do things and /or carrying out an operation.

This, according to him could help save cost and time.Taylors technique was later introduced to privateindustrialists, and later into the various governmentorganizations (Jeong, 2007).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndall_Urwickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndall_Urwickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulick


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US in the 1940s

The separation of politics and administration

advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant

role in public administration today. However, thedominance of this dichotomy was challenged by

second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s.

Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key

contender for Wilson's proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first

generation split, Gulick advocated a seamless web of

discretion and interaction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)


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Taylor's approach Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles,

and/or Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consistedof main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911):

Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods basedon a scientific study of the tasks;

Scientifically select, train, and develop each employeerather than passively leaving them to train themselves;

Provide Detailed instruction and supervision of eachworker in the performance of that worker's discrete task

(Montgomery 1997);

Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers,so that the managers apply scientific management principlesto planning the work and the workers actually perform the

tasks.


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Taylor's approach

Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce

his system (approach). It is only through enforced

standardization of methods, enforced adoption of thebest implements and working conditions, and

enforced cooperation that this faster work can be

assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of

standards and enforcing this cooperation rests withmanagement alone.


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Taylor's approach

Luther Gulickand Lyndall Urwickare two second-

generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new

generation of administrators built on the work ofcontemporary behavioral, administrative, and

organizational scholars including Henri Fayol,

Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul Appleby, Frank

Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The newgeneration of organizational theories no longer relied

upon logical assumptions and generalizations about

human nature like classical and enlightened theorists.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndall_Urwickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredrick_Winslow_Taylorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Fayolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndall_Urwick


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POSDCORB Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of

organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency,professionalism, structural reform, and executive control.Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an

acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing,staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayoldeveloped a systematic, 14-point, treatment of privatemanagement. Second-generation theorists drew upon privatemanagement practices for administrative sciences. A single,

generic management theory bleeding the borders between theprivate and the public sector was thought to be possible. Withthe general theory, the administrative theory could be focusedon governmental organizations.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSDCORBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSDCORBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSDCORBhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSDCORB


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postworld war II to the 1970s

The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and

Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy

remained the center of criticism. In the 1960s and1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective,

inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly

American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic

scandals including the bugging of Democratic partyheadquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two

examples of self-destructive government behavior that

alienated citizens.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War


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There was a call by citizens for efficient administration

to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public

administration would have to distance itself from

politics to answer this call and remain effective.Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover

Commission, chaired by University of Chicago

professorLouis Brownlow, to examine reorganization

of government. Brownlow subsequently founded thePublic Administration Service (PAS) at the university,

an organization which has provided consulting

services to all levels of government until the 1970s.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Brownlowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Brownlow


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Concurrently, after World War II, the whole conceptof public administration expanded to include policy-making and analysis, thus the study ofadministrative policy making and analysis wasintroduced and enhanced into the governmentdecision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor

became a predominant concern and emphasis in the

study of Public Administration.


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Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as, Fritz

Morstein Marx with his book The Elements of Public

Administration (1946), Paul H. Appleby Policy and

Administration (1952), Frank Marini Towards a

New Public Administration (1971), and others that

have contributed positively in these endeavors.

Public administration can be defined as a departmentin the executive arm of government responsible for

the formulating and implementation of government

policies and programmes.


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1980s1990s

In the late 1980s, yet another generation of publicadministration theorists began to displace the last. Thenew theory, which came to be calledNew PublicManagement, was proposed by David Osborne and TedGaebler in their bookReinventing Government. Thenew model advocated the use of private sector-stylemodels, organizational ideas and values to improve theefficiency and service-orientation of the public sector.

During the Clinton Administration (19932001), VicePresident Al Gore adopted and reformed federalagencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new

public management became prevalent throughout thebureaucracies of the US, the UK and, to a lesser extent,in Canada.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Public_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Public_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Public_Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Public_Management


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1980s1990s

Some modern authors defineNPM as a combination

of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more

fragmented agencies, encouraging competition

between different public agencies and encouraging

competition between public agencies and private firms

and using economic incentives lines (e.g.,

performance pay for senior executives or user-paymodels.

NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in

the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.


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1980s1990s Some critics argue that theNew Public Management

concept of treating people as "customers" rather than

"citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the

private sector model, because businesses see customersare a means to an end (profit), rather than as the

proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to

merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In

New Public Management, people are viewed aseconomic units not democratic participants.

Nevertheless, the model is still widely accepted at all

levels of government and in many OECD nations.


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late 1990s2000

In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposeda new public services model in response to thedominance of NPM. A successor to NPM is digital era

governance, focusing on themes of reintegratinggovernment responsibilities, needs-based holism(executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization(exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern

IT and digital storage).One example of this isopenforum.com.au, an Australian non-for-pronvitespoliticians, senior public servants, academics, businesspeople and other key stakeholders to engage in high-

level policy debate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_era_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_era_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Forum_(Australia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Forum_(Australia)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_era_governancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_era_governance


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late 1990s2000

Another new public service model is what has been

calledNew Public Governance, an approach which

includes a centralization of power; an increased

number, role and influence of partisan-political staff;personal-politicization of appointments to the senior

public service; and, the assumption that the public

service is promiscuously partisan for the government

of the day.


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approaches to the study of public

administration i Behavioural Approach

System's Approach

Ecological Approach

Structural Functional Approach

Public Choice Approach

Contingency Approach
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=System%27s_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structural_Functional_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_Choice_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contingency_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Contingency_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_Choice_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Structural_Functional_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecological_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=System%27s_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1


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administration ii

In academia, the field of public administration

consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have

proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields.One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":


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administration iii

Human resource management is an in-housestructure that ensures that public service staffing isdone in an unbiased, ethical and values-based

manner. The basic functions of the HR system areemployee benefits, employee health care,compensation, etc.

Organizational Theory in Public Administration isthe study of the structure of governmental entities

and the many particulars inculcated in them.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Resource_Management_in_Public_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organizational_Theory_in_Public_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Organizational_Theory_in_Public_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Resource_Management_in_Public_Administration


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administration iv

Ethics in public administration serves as a

normative approach to decision making.

Policy analysis serves as an empiricalapproach to decision making.

Public budgeting is the activity within a

government that seeks to allocate scarce

resources among unlimited demands.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_budgetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_budgetinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_sector_ethics


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international public administration i

There are several organizations that are active.The Commonwealth Association of PublicAdministration and Management CAPAMhttp://www.capam.org/ is perhaps the mostdiverse, covering the 54 member states of theCommonwealth from India to Nauru. Its biennialconference brings together ministers of public

service, top officials and leading scholars in thefield.
http://www.capam.org/http://www.capam.org/


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international public administration ii The oldest is the International Institute of

Administrative Sciences. Based in Brussels,Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform

providing a space for exchanges that promote

knowledge and practices to improve theorganization and operation of Public

Administration and to ensure that public agencieswill be in a position to better respond to the

current and future expectations and needs ofsociety. The IIAS has set-up four entities: theInternational Association of Schools and Institutesof Administration (IASIA), the European Groupfor Public Administration (EGPA).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Administrative_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Administrative_Scienceshttp://www.iias-iisa.org/IASIAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/IASIAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/EGPAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/EGPAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/EGPAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/EGPAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/IASIAhttp://www.iias-iisa.org/IASIAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Administrative_Scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Institute_of_Administrative_Sciences


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international public administration iii

The Latin American Group for PublicAdministration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group forPublic Administration (AGPA). IASIA is an

association of organizations and individuals whoseactivities and interests focus on publicadministration and management.

The activities of its members include education

and training of administrators and managers. It isthe only worldwide scholarly association in thefield of public management. EGPA, LAGPA andAGPA are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS.
http://www.grupofisco.com/glaphttp://www.grupofisco.com/glaphttp://www.iiasagpa.com/http://www.iiasagpa.com/http://www.iiasagpa.com/http://www.iiasagpa.com/http://www.grupofisco.com/glaphttp://www.grupofisco.com/glap


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international public administration iv

Also the International Committee of the US-basedNational Association of School of Public Affairsand Administration (NASPAA) has developed anumber of relationships around the world. Theyinclude sub regional and National forums likeCLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.

The Center for Latin American Administration forDevelopment (CLAD), based in Caracas,Venezuela, this regional network of schools of

public administration set up by the governments inLatin America is the oldest in the region.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASPAAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASPAA


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behavioural approach i

Behavioralism (or behaviouralism) is an approachinpolitical science, which emerged in the 1930s inthe United States. It represents a sharp break from

previous political science. This is because itemphasized an objective, quantified approach toexplain and predict political behavior.

It is associated with the rise of thebehavioralsciences, modeled after the natural sciences. Thismeans that behavioralism tries to explain behaviorwith an unbiased, neutral point of view.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1


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behavioural approach ii

Behavioralism seeks to examine the behavior,

actions, and acts ofindividualsrather than the

characteristics of institutions such as legislatures,executives, and judiciariesand groups in

different social settings and explain this behavior

as it relates to the political system.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1


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behavioural approach iii

Behavioralists used strict methodology and empiricalresearch to validate their study as a social science.

The behavioralist approach was innovative because itchanged the attitude of the purpose of inquiry. Itmoved toward research that was supported byverifiable facts.

During its rise in popularity in the 1960s and 70s,behavioralism challenged the realist and liberalapproaches, which the behavioralists called"traditionalism", and other studies of political

behavior that was not based on fact.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Behavioural_Approach&action=edit&redlink=1


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behavioural approach iv

To understand political behavior, behavioralism usesthe following methods: sampling, interviewing, scoringand scaling and statistical analysis.

Behavioralism studies how individuals behave ingroup positions realistically rather than how theyshould behave. For example, a study of the UnitedStates Congress might include a consideration of how

members of Congress behave in their positions. Thesubject of interest is the how Congress becomes an"arena of actions" and the surrounding formal andinformal spheres of power.
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behavioural approach v

From the beginning, behavioralism was a political,

not a scientific concept. Moreover, since

behavioralism is not a research tradition, but apolitical movement, definitions of behavioralism

follow what behavioralists wanted.

Therefore, most introductions to the subject

emphasize value-free research. This is evidencedby Easton's eight "intellectual foundation stones"

of behavioralism:


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behavioural approach vi Regularities- The generalization and explanation of

regularities.

Commitment to Verification - The ability to verify onesgeneralizations.

Techniques - An experimental attitude toward techniques. Quantification - Express results as numbers where possible or

meaningful.

Values - Keeping ethical assessment and empiricalexplanations distinct.

Systemization - Considering the importance of theory inresearch.

Pure Science - Deferring to pure science rather than appliedscience.

Integration - Integrating social sciences and value


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behavioural approach vi

According to David Easton,behavioralism soughtto be "analytic, not substantive, general rather than

particular, and explanatory rather than ethical.

In this, the theory seeks to evaluate politicalbehavior without "introducing any ethicalevaluations"; Rodger Beehler cites this as "theirinsistence on distinguishing between facts andvalues."


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criticismi

The approach has come under fire from bothconservatives and radicals for the purported value-neutrality. Conservatives see the distinction

between values and facts as a way of underminingthe possibility ofpolitical philosophy.

Neal Riemer believes behavioralism dismisses"the task of ethical recommendation" because

behavioralists believe "truth or falsity of values

(democracy, equality, and freedom, etc.) cannot beestablished scientifically and are beyond the scopeof legitimate inquiry."
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criticismii Christian Bay believed behavioralism was a

pseudopolitical science and that it did notrepresent "genuine" political research. Bayobjected to empirical consideration taking

precedence over normative and moral examinationof politics.

Behavioralism initially represented a movementaway from "naive empiricism", but has been

criticized as an approach has been criticized for"naive scientism". Additionally, radical criticsbelieve that the separation of fact from valuemakes the empirical study of politics impossible.
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system's approach i

Systems thinking is the process of understanding

how things influence one another within a whole.

In nature, systems thinking examples includeecosystems in which various elements such as air,

water, movement, plants, and animals work

together to survive or perish. In organizations,

systems consist of people, structures, andprocesses that work together to make an

organization "healthy" or "unhealthy".
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system's approach ii Systems thinking has been defined as an approach to

problem solving, by viewing "problems" as parts ofan overall system, rather than reacting to specific

part, outcomes or events and potentially contributingto further development ofunintended consequences.

Systems thinking is not one thing but a set of habitsor practices within a framework that is based on the

belief that the component parts of a system can bestbe understood in the context of relationships witheach other and with other systems, rather than inisolation. Systems thinking focuses on cyclical ratherthan linear cause and effect.
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system's approach iii

In science systems, it is argued that the only way tofully understand why a problem or element occursand persists is to understand the parts in relation to

the whole. Standing in contrast to Descartes'sscientific

reductionism andphilosophical analysis, it proposesto view systems in a holistic manner. Consistent withsystems philosophy, systems thinking concerns anunderstanding of a system by examining the linkagesand interactions between the elements that composethe entirety of the system.
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system's approach iv

Science systems thinking attempts to illustrate thatevents are separated by distance and time and thatsmall catalytic events can cause large changes in

complex systems. Acknowledging that an improvement in one area

of a system can adversely affect another area ofthe system, it promotes organizationalcommunication at all levels in order to avoid thesilo effect. Systems thinking techniques may beused to study any kind of systemnatural,scientific, engineered, human, orconceptual.
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system's approach v

The several ways to think of and define a systeminclude:.

A system is composed of parts.

All the parts of a system must be related (directly orindirectly), else there are really two or more distinctsystems.

A system is encapsulated, has a boundary.

The boundary of a system is a decision made by anobserver, or a group of observers.

A system can be nested inside another system.


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system's approach vi

A system can overlap with another system.

A system is bounded in time.

A system is bounded in space, though theparts are not necessarily co-located.

A system receives input from, and sends

output into, the wider environment. A system consists of processes that

transform inputs into outputs.


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system's approach vii Science systems thinkers consider that:

a system is a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as astructured functional unit;

energy, material and information flow among the different

elements that compose the system; a system is a community situated within an environment;

energy, material and information flow from and to thesurrounding environment via semi-permeable membranes or

boundaries;

systems are often composed of entities seeking equilibrium butcan exhibit oscillating, chaotic, orexponential behavior.
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system's approach viii

The systems thinking approach incorporates severaltenets:

Interdependence of objects and their attributes -independent elements can never constitute a system.

Holism - emergent properties not possible to detectby analysis should be possible to define by a holisticapproach.

Goal seeking - systemic interaction must result in

some goal or final state. Inputs and Outputs - in a closed system inputs are

determined once and constant; in an open systemadditional inputs are admitted from the environment.
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system's approach ixTransformation of inputs into outputs - this is the process bywhich the goals are obtained:

Entropy - the amount of disorder or randomness present inany system;

Regulation - a method offeedbackis necessary for the systemto operate predictably;

Hierarchy - complex wholes are made up of smallersubsystems;

Differentiation - specialized units perform specialized

functions; Equifinality - alternative ways of attaining the same

objectives (convergence);

Multifinality - attaining alternative objectives from the sameinputs (divergence) ;
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ecological approach i The ecological model of competition is a

reassessment of the nature ofcompetition in theeconomy. Traditional economics models the economyon the principles ofphysics (force, equilibrium,inertia, momentum, and linear relationships).

This can be seen in the economics lexicon: terms likelabour force, market equilibrium, capital flows, and

price elasticity. This is probably due to historicalcoincidence. ClassicalNewtonian physics was thestate of the art in science when Adam Smith wasformulating the first principles of economics in the18th century.
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ecological approach ii

According to the ecological model, it is more

appropriate to model the economy onbiology (growth,

change, death, evolution, survival of the fittest,complex inter-relationships, non-linear relationships).

Businesses operate in a complex environment with

interlinked sets of determinants. Companies co-evolve

they influence, and are influenced by, competitors,customers, governments, investors, suppliers, unions,

distributors, banks, and others.
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ecological approach iii

We should look at this business environment as abusiness ecosystem that both sustains, andthreatens the firm. A company that is not well

matched to its environment might not survive.

Companies that are able to develop a successfulbusiness model and turn a core competency into asustainable competitive advantage will thrive and

grow. Very successful firms may come todominate their industry (referred to as categorykillers).
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ecological approach iv Ecological economics is referred to as both a transdisciplinary and

interdisciplinary field of academic research that aims to address theinterdependence and coevolution of human economies and naturalecosystems over time and space.

It is distinguished from environmental economics, which is themainstream economic analysis of the environment, by its treatmentof the economy as a subsystem of the ecosystem and its emphasisupon preserving natural capital.

One survey of German economists found that ecological and

environmental economics are different schools of economicthought, with ecological economists emphasizing "strong"sustainability and rejecting the proposition that natural capital can

be substituted by human-made capital.
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ecological approach v

Ecological economics was founded as a modern

movement in the works of and interactions

between various European and Americanacademics, see the section on history and

development below.

The related field ofgreen economics is, in general,

a more politically applied form of the subject.
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ecological approach vi

Mainstream economics has attempted to become avalue-free 'hard science', but ecologicaleconomists argue that value-free economics is

generally not realistic.

Ecological economics is more willing to entertainalternative conceptions of utility, efficiency, andcost-benefits such as positional analysis or multi-

criteria analysis. Ecological economics is typicallyviewed as economics for sustainable development,and may have goals similar to green politics.
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ecological approach vii

Ecological economics is distinguishable fromneoclassical economics primarily by its assertion thatthe economy is embedded within an environmental

system. Ecology deals with the energy and matter

transactions of life and the Earth, and the humaneconomy is by definition contained within thissystem.

Ecological economists argue that neoclassicaleconomics has ignored the environment, at bestconsidering it to be a subset of the human economy.
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ecological approach viii

Ecological economics challenges the conventional

approach towards natural resources, claiming that

it undervalues natural capital by considering it asinterchangeable with human-made capitallabor

and technology.
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ecological approach ix

Neoclassical economists tend to maintain that

man-made capital can, in principle, replace all

types of natural capital. This is known as the weaksustainability view, essentially that every

technology can be improved upon or replaced by

innovation, and that there is a substitute for any

and all scarce materials.
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ecological approach x

At the other extreme, thestrong sustainability

view argues that the stock of natural resources and

ecological functions are irreplaceable.

From the premises of strong sustainability, it

follows that economic policy has a fiduciary

responsibility to the greater ecological world, and

that sustainable development must therefore take adifferent approach to valuing natural resources and

ecological functions.
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structural functional approach i

Structural functionalism, or simplyFunctionalism, is a framework for buildingtheory that sees society as a complex systemwhose parts work together to promote solidarity

and stability. This approach looks at societythrough a macro-level orientation, which is a

broad focus on the social structures that shapesociety as a whole. This approach looks at both

social structure and social functions.Functionalism addresses society as a whole interms of the function of its constituent elements;namely norms, customs, traditions, andinstitutions.
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structural functional approach ii

A common analogy, popularized by Herbert Spencer,presents these parts of society as "organs" that worktoward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole. Inthe most basic terms, it simply emphasizes "the effort to

impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom,or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedlystable, cohesive system".

ForTalcott Parsons, "structural-functionalism" came todescribe a particular stage in the methodological

development ofsocial science, rather than a specific schoolof thought. The structural functionalism approach is amacrosociological analysis, with a broad focus on socialstructures that shape society as a whole.
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structural functional approach iii Classical functionalist theories are defined by a

tendency towards biological analogy and notions ofsocial evolutionism:

Functionalist thought, from Comte onwards, haslooked particularly towards biology as the science

providing the closest and most compatible model forsocial science. Biology has been taken to provide aguide to conceptualizing the structure and the

function of social systems and to analyzing processesof evolution via mechanisms of adaptation ...functionalism strongly emphasises the pre-eminenceof the social world over its individual parts.
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structural functional approach iv

Durkheim, who, following Comte, believed thatsociety constitutes a separate "level" of reality,distinct from both biological and inorganic matter.

Explanations of social phenomena had therefore tobe constructed within this level, individuals beingmerely transient occupants of comparatively stablesocial roles. The central concern of structuralfunctionalism is a continuation of theDurkheimian task of explaining the apparentstability and internal cohesion needed by societiesto endure over time.
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structural functional approach v Societies are seen as coherent, bounded and fundamentally

relational constructs that function like organisms, with theirvarious parts (or social institutions) working together in anunconscious, quasi-automatic fashion toward achieving anoverall social equilibrium.

All social and cultural phenomena are therefore seen asfunctional in the sense of working together, and are effectivelydeemed to have "lives" of their own. They are primarilyanalyzed in terms of this function. The individual is significantnot in and of himself, but rather in terms of his status, his

position in patterns of social relations, and the behavioursassociated with his status. Therefore, the social structure is thenetwork of statuses connected by associated roles.
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structural functional approach vi

Auguste Comte, the "Father of Positivism",

pointed out the need to keep society unified as

many traditions were diminishing. He was the first

person to coin the term sociology. Auguste Comte

suggests that sociology is the product of a three-

stage development.
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structural functional approach vii1. Theological Stage: From the beginning of human history

until the end of the European Middle Ages, people took areligious view that society expressed God's will. In thetheological state, the human mind, seeking the essential natureof beings, the first and final causes (the origin and purpose) of

all effectsin short, absolute knowledgesupposes allphenomena to be produced by the immediate action ofsupernatural beings.

2. Metaphysical Stage: People began seeing society as a naturalsystem as opposed to the supernatural. Began with the

Enlightenment and the ideas of Hobbes, Locke,and Rousseau.Reflected the failings of a selfish human nature rather than the

perfection of God.

3. Scientific Stage: Describing society through the applicationof the scientific approach, which draws on the work of

scientists.
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structural functional approach viii

Herbert Spencer(18201903), a British

philosopherfamous for applying the theory of

natural selection to society. He was in many ways

the first true sociological functionalist.
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structural functional approach ix

Spencer concluded that society is constantly facingselection pressures (internal and external) that force it toadapt its internal structure through differentiation.

Every solution, however, causes a new set of selectionpressures that threaten society's viability. It should benoted that Spencer was not a determinist in the sense thathe never said that:

Selection pressures will be felt in time to change them;

They will be felt and reacted to; or

The solutions will always work.
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structural functional approach x

He was in many ways a political sociologist andrecognized that the degree of centralized and consolidatedauthority in a given polity could make or break its abilityto adapt. In other words, he saw a general trend towards

the centralization of power as leading to stagnation andultimately, pressures to decentralize.

Spencer recognized three functional needs or prerequisitesthat produce selection pressures: they are regulatory,operative (production) and distributive.

He argued that all societies need to solve problems ofcontrol and coordination, production of goods, servicesand ideas, and, finally, to find ways of distributing theseresources.
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public choice approach i Public choice theory is the use of modern economic tools to study

problems that traditionally are in the province ofpolitical science.From the perspective of political science, it is the subset ofpositive

political theory that models voters, politicians, and bureaucrats asmainly self-interested.

It studies such agents and their interactions in the social system eitheras such or under alternative constitutional rules. These can berepresented in a number of ways, including standard constrainedutility maximization, game theory, ordecision theory.

Public choice analysis has roots inpositive analysis ("what is") but isoften used fornormative purposes ("what ought to be"), to identify a

problem or suggest how a system could be improved by changes inconstitutional rules, the subject ofconstitutional economics.
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public choice approach ii

Public choice theory is intimately related to social

choice theory, which uses mathematical tools to

study voting and voters.

Much early work had aspects of both, and both use

the tools of economics and game theory. Since

voter behavior influences the behavior of public

officials, public choice theory often uses resultsfrom social choice theory.
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public choice approach iii

Prior to the emergence of public choice theory,many economists tended to consider the state as anagent outside the scope of economic theory, whose

actions depend on different considerations thanthose driving economic agents. (The many othereconomists who didplace the state and its agentswithin such theory include Vilfredo Pareto.)
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public choice approach iv

Public choice theory attempts to look atgovernments from the perspective of the

bureaucrats and politicians who compose them,

and makes the assumption that they act based on abudget-maximizing model in a self-interested wayfor the purpose of growing their own power andinfluence.

The theory aims to apply economic analysis

(usually decision theory and game theory) to thepolitical decision-making process in order toreveal certain systematic trends towards inefficientgovernment policies.
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public choice approach v

Public choice theory is often used to explain how politicaldecision-making results in outcomes that conflict with the

preferences of the general public. For example, many

advocacy group andpork barrel projects are not the desireof the overall democracy.

However, it makes sense for politicians to support theseprojects. It may make them feel powerful and important. Itcan also benefit them financially by opening the door to

future wealth as lobbyists. The project may be of interest tothe politician's local constituency, increasing district votesorcampaign contributions.
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public choice approach vi

One way to organize the subject matter studied by publicchoice theorists is to begin with the foundations of the stateitself. According to this procedure, the most fundamental

subject is the origin ofgovernment. Although some work has been done on anarchy, autocracy,

revolution, and even war, the bulk of the study in this areahas concerned the fundamental problem of collectivelychoosing constitutional rules. This work assumes a group

of individuals who aim to form a government, then itfocuses on the problem of hiring the agents required tocarry out government functions agreed upon by themembers.
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public choice approach vii Another major sub-field is the study ofbureaucracy. The usual

model depicts the top bureaucrats as being chosen by the chiefexecutive and legislature, depending on whether thedemocratic system ispresidential orparliamentary. The typicalimage of a bureau chief is a person on a fixed salary who isconcerned with pleasing those who appointed him. The latterhave the power to hire and fire him more or less at will.

The bulk of thebureaucrats, however, are civil servants whosejobs and pay are protected by a civil service system againstmajor changes by their appointed bureau chiefs. This image is

often compared with that of a business owner whose profitvaries with the success of production and sales, who aims tomaximize profit, and who can in an ideal system hire and fireemployees at will.
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contingency approach i

Contingency approach, also known as situationalapproach, is a concept in management stating thatthere is no one universally applicable set of

management principles (rules) by which tomanage organizations.

Organizations are individually different, facedifferent situations (contingency variables), and

require different ways of managing. Contingencyapproaches remain less common than changemanagement approaches.
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contingency approach ii

Contingency approach evolved during the 1960s. Managementtheory and research began to adopt a new orientation, one thatembodied a simple concept and enabled significantadvancements in the study of management and organizations,

now referred to as the contingency approach. It emphasised the importance of situational influences on the

management of organisations and questioned the existence ofa single, best way to manage or organise. Today, thecontingency approach dominates theory and research in themanagement literature. Contingency approach challenged theclassic process and models designed by management theoristssuch as Taylorand Fayol.
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contingency approach iii

A conceptual model of the contingency approachwas developed by Kieser and Kubicek. Accordingto the model, the formal structure of an

organization defines the roles of its members in aspecific way and thereby directs their behaviour toa certain degree.

The performance of the organization depends on

the degree to which these role definitions enablemembers to cope with the requirements resultingfrom the context of the organization.


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contingency approach iv While classical management theorists such as Taylor and

Fayol, were looking for the one best way in management andorganization design, in the late 50s and early 60s a shift of

paradigm arose, claiming that the organizational structure of acompany or administration has to fit to the situation in whichit finds itself. As these situations vary, different structures turnout to be most effective.

In other words the optimal organizational structure iscontingent, depending on certain contextual factors. Thereforethis approach is labelled Contingency Approach, in German

the context is termed situation; and the approach is calledsituational approach (Situativer Ansatz).


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contingency approach v

Different researchers focussed on different contextual factorsand investigated their influence in empirical studies. JoanWoodward (1958) looked into the production technology,Blau and Schoenherr (1971) into the size of the organizations,

Burns and Stalker (1961) as well as Lawrence and Lorsch(1967) into the economic environment, in particular marketcompetition and technological change.

A broader approach was developed by a British team ofresearchers at the University of Aston by developing aconceptual scheme for the comparative analysis oforganizational structure which took account of severalcontextual factors at the same time (Pugh & Hickson et al.,1963).


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contingency approach vi

In a survey of more than 30 organizations, seven contextualvariables such as size, technology, geographical dispersion aswell as five dimensions of organization structure (specialization,centralization of decision making, standardization,

formalization and configuration) were operationalized by morethan 80 indicators.

Statistical analysis was directed towards identifyingcorrelations, which were found, for example, between the sizeof an organization and the degree of specialization and

formalization, as predicted by Max Weber. Later John Childjoined the Aston Team and added variables describing the rolestructure and behaviour of organizational members and the

performance of the organization, which are considered to be therelevant criteria for judging the fit between the structure and itscontext.


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contingency approach vii

The Aston research programme was adopted in

studies in more than ten countries. The whole

research is summarized in four volumes

(Pugh/Hickson, 1976; Pugh & Hinings, 1976;

Pugh & Payne, 1977; Hickson & McMillan?,

1981). Kieser and Kubicek summarized this and

related research in a German Textbook in 1976,using the following conceptual model (figure 1):


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contingency approach viii

According to this model, the formal structure of anorganization defines the roles of its members in aspecific way and thereby directs their behaviour to a

certain degree. The performance of the organizationdepends on the degree to which these role definitionsenable members to cope with the requirementsresulting from the context of the organization.

For example if there is strong competition and a highdegree of technological change, decisions about newproducts and marketing strategies have to bechanged frequently and be taken close to the market.


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contingency approach ix

The method to analyze and assess these kinds ofrelationships is the comparative quantitative analysis,in the most advanced stage a multi-level quantitative

analysis, assigning data to the level of the context, theorganization and its members.

These variables are operationalized in quantitativeindicators, and data are collected by standardized

questionnaires distributed to several members of eachorganization under inv

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