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AUTHOR Clark, Wilma; Innes, JoannaTITLE Reading Comprehension in ESL: A Selected, Annotated

Bibliography.PUB DATE 88

NOTE 21p.; In: ESL/EFL Methodology: Topical, AnnotatedBibliographies, Volume 1 (FL 018 315).

PUB TYPE Reference Materials - Bibliographies (131)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.

DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; Classroom Techniques;Educational Research; *English (Second Language);Interaction; *Reading Comprehension; *ReadingInstruction; Second Language Instruction; TeachingMethods; Vocabulary Development

ABSTRACTThe annotated bibliography, developed as a part of a

course in methodology for teaching English as a Second Language(ESL), focuses on classroom techniques for developing readingcomprehension. References appear under the following five headings:(1) background information on theory; (2) interaction; (3) currentresearch findings; (4) vocabulary skills; and (5) classroomprocedure. Many of the 66 items are included in more than onecategory. The bibliography contains citations of books, collectionsof articles and reports, and journal articles dated mostly since1985. Each citation contains basic bibliographic information and abrief annotation. (MSE)

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ai

English 740Dr. Jerry GebhardIndiana University of Pennsylvania

READING COMPREHENSION IN ESL:A SELECTED, ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPY

Wilma ClarkJoanna InnesFall, 1988

This bibliography draws on sources which can help theESL/EFL teacher with questions concerning readingcomprehension. References appear under 5 headings:1) background information on theory, 2) interaction,3) current research findings, 4) vocabulary skills, and5) classroom procedure. Please note that many of thereferences can be cross-indexed under several of the 5headings. The sources are drawn from books, collectionsof articles and reports, and from journals with themajority of material dating from 1985.

BACKGROUND

Anderson, R. C. & Pearson, P. S. (1984). A schema-theoreticview of basic processes in reading comprehension. InP. D. Pearson (Ed.) , Handbook of readiaangleargh(pp. 255-291) . New York: Longman.

Traces history of the notion of a schema and outlinesbasic elements of the theory, including anexamination of the components of encoding (attention,instantiation, inference) and retrieval (retrievalplans, editing and summarizing, and reconstructiveprocesses).

Bloome, D. & Grein, J. (1984). Directions in thesociolinguistic study of reading. In P. D. Pearson(Ed.), Hand ook of reading research (pp. 395-421). NewYork: Longman.

Identifies the directions that researchers have takenin the study of the sociolinguistic nature of readingand explores (1) reading as a cognitive activityembedded in social and linguistic contexts and(2) reading as a social and linguistic process.

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Meyer, B.J.F. & Rice, G.E. (1984). The structure of text.In P.D. Pearson (Ed.), Elondbook of reading_cepearch

(pp. 319-351). New York: Longman.

Defines the term "structure of text" from ahistorical approach giving several points of view,examines prominent text analsis procedures, andevaluates past and future dirlctions of textstructure. Meyer and Rice point out the '.,alue oftext structure analysis in determining comprehension.

Samuels, S.J. & Kamil, M.L. (1984). Models of the readingprocess. In David Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of readingresearch (pp. 185-224). New York: Longman.

Gives a brief histor.y of reading models beginning in1879 and ending in the 1980's, indicating researchersand their contributions; gives a discussion ofproblems with construction and characteristics ofreading models; presents in detail several recentmodels.

Sticht, T.G. & James, H.J. (1984). Listening and reading.In P.D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research(pp. 293-317). New York: Longman.

Discusses the three most prevalent theoreticalpositions regarding listening and reading: code,meaning, and psycholinguistics. The authors arguefor the interactive concept of listening and reading.Empirical studies are reviewed to support theinteractive concept. The authors also discus"closing the gap" between auding and reading.

Venezky, R. L. (1984) . The history of reading research. InP.D. Pearson (Ed.) , Handbook of reading research(pp. 3-38). New York and London: Longman.

Gives account of early reading research includingareas of interest from nineteenth century to presentday research: eye movements, field of vision,perceptual span, word recognition, comprehension,memory organization, legibility, and oral to silentreading. States somw past as well as currentproblems in research including reliability,appropriateness of topic, lack of contact withteacher and curriculum, failure tc study enoughbeginning readers as subjects, political and economicfactors.

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Interaction

Carrell, P.L. (1987). A view of written text ascommunicative interaction: Implications for reading in asecond language. In J. Devine, P.L. Carrell, ane D.E.Eskey (Eds.) , Research in reading in English as a secondLitaaulaft (pp. 21-35). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Argues the importance of using de Beauguarde andDressler's seven standards of textuality, cohesion,coherence, intentionality, acceptability,informativity, situationality, and intertexuality inthe study of reading in a second language. Thetheory is based upon the need for the second languagelearner to interact with the text in order tocomprehend successfully.

Carrell, P. L. (1988). Interactive text processingimplications for ESL second language reading classrooms.In P. Carrell, J. Devine, & D. Eskey (Eds.), Interacti,yemangachestoseconaereadin (pp. 239-259). NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Proposes some comprehension strategies designed tohelp L2 readers to become interactive readers (i.e.,using both top-down and bottom-up strategies in anoverlapping fashion). Carrell discusses use ofgrammatical and vocabulary skills ir bottom-upprocessing and use of background knowledge viavarious recognized methods (such as LEA and SO3R),text-mapping strategies, predicting, and use ofanomalies and nonsense passages in top-downproessing.

Carrell, P.L. (1988). Introduction: Interactive approachesto second language reading. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, andD. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive a..roaches to secondlanguage readino (pp. 1-7). New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Discusses the importance of reading as a secondlanguage skill and briefly outlines the history oftheories of reading in a second language includingreferences to the major contributors in the field.CArrell argues for the reading being an interactionof both top-down and bottom-up processes.

Carrell, P.L. (1988) . Some causes of text-roundedness andschema interference in ESL reading. In P. Carrell,J. Devine, & D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approaches toEEMML_LIEMWSALEfflAgIDA. (pp. 101-113). New York:Cambridge University Press.

Explores the "bidirectionality" (Carrell's term) oftext-based and knowledge-based processing of text inESL reading comprehension. Carrell argues that overreliance on either bottom-up processing or top-downprocessing creates schema interference, therebyhindering the reader's comprehension. She discussesfive possible causes of the lack of bidirectionality:1) absence of relevant knowledge structures (schema)2) failure to activate appropriate schemata 3) skilldeficiencies 4) misconceptions about reading,specifically about reading in a second language andin response to typical classroom evaluation5) individual differences in cognitive styles.

Carrell, P.L. & Eisterhold, J.C. (1988). Schema-theory andESL reading pedagogy. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, and D.Eskey (Eds.) , Interactive approaches to second languagereading (pp. 73-92). New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Presents an overview of schema theory as based upon apsycholinguistic approach and explores therelationship of culture-specific background knowledgeand EFL/ESL reading methodology. Classroomactivities and procedures for a reader-centeredprogram are given.

Clarke, M.A. (1988). The short circuit hypothesis of ESLperformance. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, and D. Eskey(Eds.) , Interactive al..roaches to second lan ua e readin(pp. 114-124). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Uses the results of a research project conducted atUniversity of Michigan to argue that languagecompetence may have a greater role in second langua9ereading than had previously been assumed. Instead, abalance of the two is needed plus an awareness ofexplanations for students' diverse reading problems.Py using a system which focuses on both language andreading skills, more reading problems will beaddressed.

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Devine, J. (1988). The relationship between general languagecompetence and second language reading proficienCy:Implications for teaching. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, &D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactive approaches to secondlanguage reading (pp. 260-277). New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.

Reviews the relevant research on the relationship ofgeneral language competence and second languagereading proficiency and draws implications for theclassroom from that research. Devine supports aninteractive approach which stresses the overlappingof bottom-up and top-down processing and thereforecalls for holistic or integrative instruction.

Eskey, D. E. (1988). Holding in the bottom: An interactiveapproach to the language problems of second languagereaders. In P. Carrell, J. Devine, and D. Eskey(Eds.) , Interac ive approaches to second languagereading (pp. 93-100). New York: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Argues that the new concept of interaction betweentop-down and bottom-up reading processes is necessaryir understanding ESL reading problems. Becausesecond language readers initially have difficulty indecoding rapidly, it is wrong to assume that bysimply stressing background knowledge and "guessing"strategies, the readers' problems will be solved.Instead, an interactive model of reading should beemployed.

Eskey, D. E. & Grabe, W. (1988). Interactive models forsecond language reading: Perspectives on instruction. InP. Carrell, J. Devine, & D. Eskey (Eds.) , Interactiveapproaches to second langmage_reading (pp. 223-238). NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Discusses 1) ways both "bottom-up" and "top-down"reading strategies can be viewed as interative,2) possible weaknesses of earlier reading models,3) implications for teachers of second languagereading. Specific applications of top-down andbottom-up reading skills are also discussed.

Grabe, W. (1988). Reassessing the term "interactive". In P.Carrell, J. Devine, and D. Eskey (Eds.), Interactiveaaproaches to second language reading (pp. 56-90). NewYork: Cambridge University Press.

Clarifies relationships among the uses of the term"interactive" as it occurs in ESL reading research,first language research, and research on writtentexts as well as the concepts "interactive process"and "interactive model" as they appear in readingresearch and finally the notion of "textualinteraction" as being used by Biber and Grabe. Grabealso addresses problems of ESL readers in conjunctionwith the various interaction concepts.

Hershfield, A. (1984). Hey, look at me! I can read! TESLTalk, 15(3), 47-55.

Presents reading as a search for meaning and as acognitive operation. It presents methods to helpstudents develop skills of problem solving.Discusses the social aspect involved in learning toread.

RESEARCH

Carrell, P. L. (1985). Facilitating ESL reading by teachingtext structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19(4), 727-749.

Reports the results of research which indicate thattraining on the top-level rhetorical organization onexpository texts significantly increased the amountof information that ESL students could recall. Priorto this study some investigators had begun to suggesta variety of techniques for teaching various aspectsof text structure, but there were no researchfindings whether explicitly teaching text structurefacilitated ESL reading comprehension. The articlefirst reviews previous research done to answer thisqu.estion when English is a native language. Thetraining for the ESL students showed positive resultsin recall of detail and quantity of information, aswell as a positive reaction by the students.

Carrell, P. L. (1987) Content and formal schemata in ESLreading. TESOL Quartenly, 21(3), 461-479.

Presents the results of a first-time study conductedto determine the effects on ESL reading comprehensionof both culture-specific content and formal schemata.It was determined that each plays a significant, butdifferent, role in the comprehension of text.Although more research is needed, the article makesESL teachers aware of the important role ofbackground knowledge of text content, and that theymust often be facilitators of appropriate, relevantinformation. Since rhetorical form was moreimportant in the comprehension of top-level episodicstructure in event sequences and temporalrelationships among events, teachers should helpstudents recognize and use this skill to facilitatecomprehension and recall.

Connor, U. (1987) . The eclectic synergy of methods ofreading research. In . Devine, P. L. Carrell, D.E.Eshey (Eds.), Research in readins_in En lish as asecond language (pp. 9-20). Washington, DC: TESOL

Discusses currently used methods of reading research,experimental and descriptive: miscue analysis, thethink-aloud method, the Fillmore interview method,computerized on-line method, longitudinal care study,ethnographic research, and metacognitive studies.

Connor draws comparisons, evaluates the methods, andsays that benefits will occur due to the wide choiceof research available.

Cooper, M. (1984) . Linguistic competence of practised andunpractised non-native readers of English. In J. C.Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Readias in a foreignlanguage (pp. 122-135). New York: Longman.

Reviews a study of Malay students, half "practised"readers and half "unpractised" readers of English,that assesses attitudes and linguistic competence,draws general conclusions, and suggwats implicationsfor a reading program. Cooper's findings dictatethat a reading program should give massive assistancein building lexical competence, but that great stressmust be placed on training students to take advantageof the larger text so that students are drawn awayfrom word-by-word analysis and encouraged to usetheir inference and prediction powers.

Devine, J. (1987). General language competence and adultsecond language reading. In J. Devine, P.L. Carrell, &D. E. Eskey (Eds.) , Research in reading in English as aEglmilljummbuis (pp. 73-86). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Reports results from an on-going study of ESLstudents that explores the relationship betweenlanguage proficiency and reading strategies.Proficient language students are good readers whoemploy the interaction of various processes, not justtop-down ones. Other findings suggest that teachingof second language reading should use the holisticapproach of real-world language which avoidsexcessive, isolated emphasis on vocabulary andgrammar drill.

Guebert, L. (1984) . Learning to read in a second language.TESL TALK, 15 (1&2), 52-59.

Compares students involved in ESL's more successfulimmersion program to those involved in the minoritylanguage program (minority students in regular schoolprograms). It suggests four main factors the schoolshould keep in mind to effect a change and promotesuccess: mother tongue maintenance, prior experienceswith literacy, relevance of reading materials, andlevels of proficiency demanded by the school.

James, M.O. (1987). ESL reading psychology: Implications ofschema-theoretical research. In J. Devine, P.L. Carrell,& D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Reseaceadiag_ilariasasecond language (pp. 175-188). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Reviews briefly schema-theory and draws distinctionsamong linguistic, content, and formal schema. Jimessuggests classroom implications in terms of readingmaterial, prereading aEtivities, and postreadingactivities. A general theme is the admonishment toteachers to find the level of their students andsupply material accordingly despite previously orcurrently popular theories.

Koda, R, (1987). Cognitive strategy transfer in secondlanguage reading. In J. Devine, P.L. Carrell, & D.E.Eskey (Eds.), Researcli_LIJMEtimiLAILSIMLLEILAI_A secondlanguage (pp. 127-144). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Investigates in an empirical study the transfer ofJapanese ESL students' reading strategies from theirfirst language to their second language. Koda arguesthat Japanese students differ significantly fromEnglish-speaking students and provides evidence thatthe students transfer a reading strategy from theirJapanese reading experience which English readers donot use: phonological recoding. Japanese ESLstudents do not obtain lexical sounds throughphonetic analyzing as extensively as native speakers.

Parry, K.J. (1987). Reading in a second culture. In J.Devine, P.L. Carrell, & D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Research inreadin in En lish as a second langua e (pp. 1-70).Washington, DC: TESOL.

Focuses on the cultural dimensions of second languagereading. Reports findings of enthnographic researchdone with Nigerian students. Major differences occurbetween literate cultures and oral cultures.Comprehension problems result from difficulties withcomplex interactions of lexical, syntactic,rhetorical, and schematic factors.

Perkins, K. (1987). The relationship between nonverbalschematic concept formation and story comprehension. InJ. Devine, P.L. Carrell, & D.E. Eskey (Eds.), Research inreadins_ingaglitt_lii_p second language (pp. 153-171).Washington, DC: TESOL.

Reports an empirical study that focuses on therelationship between English as ESL readers'performance on a schematic concept formation task andtheir performance on a reading task. The resultssuggest that an ESL student who exhibits proficiencyin a nonverbal task also has proficiency ininternalizing the construction of a simple story;

in forming hypotheses about the schemafamilies, finding common features, and evaluating thefit of hypotheses against the differentcharacteristics of the text.

Royer, J.M. & Konold, C. E. (1984) . Learning from text:Methods of affecting reader intent. In J. C. Alderson &A. H. Urquhart (Eds.) , Reading in a foreignlar_mta(pp. 65-65). New York: Longman.

Reviews three techniques for controlling a reader'sintent while reading text: 1) "presenting readerswith learning objectives that specify what is to beacquired from the text, 2) inserting questions intothe text, and 3) asking readers questions thatspecify more than the recall of specific information(i.e., higher order questions)" (p. 66). Theunderlying premise is that reader's comprehension canbe improved if the reader's intent is directed.Numerous empirical studies are reviewed, givingpositive support to the authors' premise; however,it must be noted that the studies all take place inartificial settings, not real world settings.

Sarig, G. (1986) . High-level reading in the first and in theforeign language: SoMe comparative process data. In J.Devine, P.L. Carrell, & D,E. Eskey (Eds.) , Research inreading in English as a second language (pp. 105-120).Washington, DC: TESOL.

Reports an empirical study using think-aloudprotocols to investigate the similarities betweenfirst and second language reading, showing theprocesses to be highly individualized but with a highdegree of overlap in use of high-order readingstrategies, which further indicates that readinginstruction in Ll carries over into L2.

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Steffensen, M. S. (1987). The effect of context and cultureon children's L2 reading: A review. In J. Devine, P. L.Carrel, & D. E. Eskey (Eds.), Research in reading ingnaliAb_m_a_moLI_Larau (pp. 41-54). Washington, DC:TESOL.

Presents the current state of the art research on therole of cultural background knowledge and its effectson children's reading. It advocates the use ofFillmore's (1981) interview method in assessing theeffects of cultural background knowledge onchildren's L2 reading.

Steffensen, M.S. & Chitra, J. D. (1984). Cultural knowledgeand reading. In J.C. Alderson & A.H. Urquhart (Eds.),Reading in a forsimalanguffga pp. 48-64). New York:Longman.

Provides evidence from an empirical study thatcultural knowledge plays a part in comprehension.Texts are never totally explicit and require thereader's contribution of his/her scheml. Meaningsare distorted according to the reader previousworld knowledge. Teachers, knowing the student'slimitations, can produce appropriate interpretationby comparing the events cross culturally and canavoid texts with heavy cultural loadings.

Taglieber, L.K., Johnson, L.L., & Yarbrough, D.B. (1988).Effects of prereading activities ...)n EFL reading byBrazilian college students. TESOL Quarterly,22(3), 455-472.

Reports the results of an empirical study on the useof three prereading activities for EFL students:pictorial context, vocabulary preteaching, andprequestioning. The activities produced an increasein motivation as well as comprehension. Of the threeactivities, vocabulary study was least effective.

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VOCABULARY

Al-Kufaishi, A. (1988). A vocabulary building program is anecessity not a luvury. En21isb_Iegghing_Forum, 2A(2),42-43.

Recommends the teaching of vocabulary through studyof component units (root and affix meaning) andexposure to many different contexts with an emphasisplaced on words used most frequently.

Celce-Murcia, M. & Rosensweig, F. (1979). Teachingvocabulary in the ESL classroom. In M. Ceice-Murcia & L.McIntosh (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreignlanguage (pp.241-257). Rowley, Massachusettes: NewburyHouse Publisher.

Presents background information on the subordinaterole of vocabulary instrucion and criteria forelevating it to a more prominent position. It givesfactors and research information to consider inteaching both active and passive vocabulary,appropriate techniques available, and the need forthe teacher to arouse the students' interest so thattheir vocabulary growth will not be limited to justthe classroom.

Crow, J. T. & Quigley, J. R. (1985). A semantic fieldapproach to passive vocabulary acquisition for readingcomprehension. TESOL, Quarterly., 19(3), 497-513.

Suggests that a semantic field approach to passivevocabulary acquisition is a more effective andefficient vocabulary builder than the traditionalapproaches which are not based on meaning. Thisstudy used a keyword and an association of 5 relatedwords verifying previous research that long-termretention of information is aided by organizing thatinformation into some type of cognitive categories.

Fox, L. (1987). On acquiring an adequate second languagevocabulary. In M. H. Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.),Methodologv in TESOL (pp. 307-311). New York: NewburyHouse Publishers.

Stresses the importance of 1) learning a rela -elysmall number of words correctly, 2) reading at leastseven books a semester, and 3) combining reading and

,

writing activities in place of isolated grammardrill.

Haskell, J. F. (1978). Teaching beginning reading in ESLbilingual and adult literacy classes through languageexperience. In J. H. Haskell (Ed.), Sele_c_ted articlé

g_Lsslettera_)-83fromtheTESOL_nv (pp. 190-191).Washington: DC: TESOL.

Describes and gives rationale for use of the LanguageExperience Approach (LEA) for beginning reading foreither children or adults. LEA uses the experiencesand existing vocabulary of students to constructtheir own reading materials. The underlyingrationale is 1) what a student can/does think about,he can talk about 2) what a student says can bewritten (or dictated to the teacher) 3) what hasbeen written can then be read.

Honeyfield, J. G. (1987). Word frequency and the importanceof context in vocabulary learning. In M. H. Long & J. C.Richards (Eds.), Methodology in TESOL (pp. 318-324). NewYork: Newbury House Publishers.

Emphasizes the value of contextual exercises forvocabulary learning. Examples of cloze,words-in-content, and context enrichment exercisesare given.

Konopak, Bonnie. (1988). Eighth graders' vocabulary learningfrom inconsiderate and considerate text. Reading Researchand Instruction, 27(4), 1-14.

Investigates the comprehension of students usinginconsiderate and considerate text passages. Interms of comprehension, four text factors wereidentified: structure, coherence, unity, andelaboration. Results suggest the students may notrealize that they frequently acquire partial orerroneous knowledge for word meaning in inconsideratetext and yet are satisfied with the information theyacquire. Amount of helpfulnesi of contextualinformation is to be judged by proximity, clarity,explicitness, and completeness.

Krashen, S. D. (1981). The call for narrow r ading. In J. F.Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles from th TESOL

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Newsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 189-190). Washington, DC:TESOL.

Argues that "narrow reading and perhaps narrow inputin general is more efficient for second languageacquisition." Krashen says narrow reading providesacquisition of both structure and vocabulary becausethere are many exposures in a comprehensible text.These texts provide built-in review coming fromreading in one area at a time, an area in which thereis already a degree of comprehension.

Kruse, A. F. (1979) . Vocabulary in context. In M. H. Long &J. C. Richards (Eds.) , Methodology in TESOL(pp. 312-317). New York: Newbury House Publishers.

Argues the merits of vocabulary learned in context.Lists of contextual aids appropriate for TESOL aregiven. A detailed program for developing skillsthat focuses on word building and types of guessingis outlined.

Marc,uez, I. (1980). The meaning of "blurp": Teachingdictionary use. In J. H. Haskell (Ed.), Selected articlesfrom the TESOL newsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 198).Washington, DC: TESOL.

Gives specific ways to use dictionary work in the ESLclassroom. The use of nonsense words can effectivelyshow the multiple uses of a single word whileintroducing humor.

Martin, A.V. (1982) . Concept Relationships: Helping thebeginning student read English. In M. Hines & W.Rutherford (Eds.), On TESOL '81 (pp. 97-104). Washington,DC: TESOL.

Describes reading problems, presents techniquesdeveloped to address the problems, and offers acognitive explanation of them. Students frequentlyknow vocabulary items but cannot make associationsbetween basic concepts. Concept-relationshipexperiences in categorization, analogy, anddefinition are stressed so that students developcognitive networks to relate bits of informationaccording to categories and interrelationships.

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Olshtain, E. (1982). English nominal compounds and theESL/EFL Reader. In M. Hines & W. Rutherford (Eds.), On

TESOL 'Al (pp. 153-167). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Focuses on strategies the ESOL reader uses to processthe interpretation of nonlexicalized compounds.Discusses 6 hypothesis and their strategies forreading expository material and the use the ESOLreader makes with one or more of three types ofcompetence (linguistic, textual, pragmatic). Helpfulguidelines are given for a number of effectivestrategies for noun-compound interpretations.

Ramsey, J. W. (1981) . Vocabulary preparation for reading inthe content area. In J.C. Fisher, M. A. Clarke, & J.Schachter (Eds.), On TESOL '80 (pp. 214-225) . Washington,DC: TESOL.

Presents a procedure for selecting and presentingvocabulary in a content area to facilitate reading,to allow the use of authentic materials, and toincrease comprehension. Specific vocabulary ofcontent area is combined with the general vocabularypreparation which uses the SRA Reading Laboratory andstandard reading texts.

Richards, J. C. (1985) . The context of language teaching.New York: Cambridge University Press.

Proposes 8 assumptions in his chapter "Lexicalknowledge and the teaching of vocabulary" concerningword knowledge and their implications for vocabularyteaching. The syllabus should be based on what itmeans to know a word, and the techniques of teachingvocabulary should be a reflecton of this knowledge.

White, C. J. (1988) . The role of associational patterns andsemantic networks in vocabulary development. EnglishIgaching_Egrum, 26(4), 9-11.

Argues that although beginning learners operate withlexical associations that are quite different +romthose of native speakers, semantic organizationdevelops over time. Therefore, classroom activitiesare suggested which encourage semantic networks sothat the learner can have the same degree ofmeaningfulness from words that native speakers have.

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PROCEDURE

Adamson, D. (1977). Prediction and explanation. In J. H.Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles from the TESOLnewsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 194-195) . Washington, DC:TESOL.

Demonstrates the use of questions based on predictionand explanation that check reading comprehension forEST (English for Science and Technology) by insertingquestions at mid-points to be used during the readinginstead of the traditional placement, at the end ofthe reading. Adamson suggests that this methodteaches correct use of reading strategies.

Bransford, J. D., Stein, B. S., & Shelton, T. (1984).Learning from the perspective of the comprehender. InJ. C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in aforei n lan uage (pp. 28-47). New York: Longman.

Explores some of the cognitive activities that peoplemust engage in to comprehend and rememberinformation. The authors illustrate how languagecomprehension depends on the activation of relevantknowledge such as general knowledge surrounding asituation. Students need ways of asking themselvesand others appropriate questions which aidcomprehension, clarify concepts, and developevaluation techniques.

Bryden, M. (1988). Reading but not curiously--possiblecountermeasures. English Teaching Forum, 26(3), 48-50.

Gives advantages for using newspapers: 1) current,relevant, topical conversational material for thestudent 2) provides either a simple lesson or anadvanced one 3) has great adaptability. Brydenoutlines in step-by-step detail a lesson plan usingdaily newspapers.

Casanabe, C. P. (1988) . Comprehension monitoring in ESLreading: A neglected essential. TESOL Quarterly, 22(2),283-302.

Presents the concept of comprehension monitoring (anybehaviors that allow readers to judge whethercomprehension is taking place and actions to help thereader compensate if necessary). Students can behelped to monitor themselves through summarizing,predicting, and questioning.

Christison, M. A. (1982). Using poetry in ESL. In J. H.Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles from the TESOLnewsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 198-199). Washington, DC:fESOL.

Outlines some criteria for selecting poetry for ESLreaders and offers suggestions for developingactivities for the classroom.

Dubin, F., Eskey, D. E., & Grabe, W. (1986). Teaching secondlanguage reading for academic purposes. Reading,Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Presents theory, research, and techniques of reading,and their implications for the second languagereader. The book's 8 authors each develop one ofthese areas as well as assessment, CARI, and textevaluation. Although each section is complete initself, there is a unifying theme: the need ofawareness of special problems of ESL readers and thecrucial role the teacher plays in aiding readercomprehension.

Duppenthaler, P. (1987). Search-a-word puzzles as languageteaching tools. LESILamiumter, 20(2), 30-40.

Gives advantages and suggestions for use of a puzzlewhich can be used for the simplist activity(spelling, word recognition) or for more complexactivity (advanced vocabulary work) . Students canmake them themselves, for all that is needed arepaper, pen, and imagination.

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Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills. New York:Cambridge University Press.

Views reading as a constant process of guessing,predicting, checking--taking comprehension from whatis known to what is unknown. Presents reading as avariety of skills including understanding,interpreting, identifying, distinguishing andclarifying. The author lists various techniquesaiding comprehension, such as inference,understanding relations within sentences, and linkingsentences and ideas.

Haskell J. L. (1979). Using cloze to select readingmaterial. In J. H. Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles fromthe TESOL newsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 196-197). Washington,DC: TESOL.

Desi:ribes explicitly the procedures for making,us:Ang, and evaluating cloze tests for the purpose ofselecting suitable levels of reading material.

Jacobs, G. (1988) . Ideas for using cloze to teach reading.QMILLPii_LtacJILMIJE112.2n, 26(2), 46-48.

Explains and gives examples of ways in which teacherscan develop and use cloze passages to teach readingskills. Fixed deletion and rational deletion arediscussed with examples included.

Kalnitz, J., & Rudd, K. R. (1982). An approach to teachingESL reading to literate adults. In J. H. Haskell (Ed.),Selected articles from the TESOL newsletter 1966-1983(pp. 201-203). Washington, DC: TESOL.

Describes approaches to improve ESL readingstragegies in both bottom-up and top-down processing.Language skills activites include exercises thatteach grammatical markers, syntactic clues,morphological analysis, and context throughsubstitution and deletions. Text-related skillsconcentrate on recognition of rhetorical devices usedfor generalizations and examples in expository proseand practice in skimming and scanning with prereadingactivities that focus on cultural specific concepts.

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Knapp, D. (1978). The utility of oral reading in teachingESL. In J. H. Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles from theTESOL newsletter 1966-1983 (p. 192). Washington, DC:TESOL

Discusses the use of oral reading in ESL. Althoughthere are times for use of oral reading (diagnosticpurposes), it is a bad teaching practice when usedfor students to read aloud for the class. Instead,silent reading skills (skimming, reading forinformation, reading that requires the ability totake chunks rather than individual words) must betaught.

Larson, D. (1979). Reading up to expectations. In J. H.Haskell (Ed.), Selected articles from the TESOLnewsletter 1966-1983 (pp. 195-196). Washington, DC:TESOL.

States the positive points for various uses of thecloze format. By using this approach students arepushed into guessing and using context clues. Bothvocabulary and functional words can be deieted. Alsosuggestions for pair and group work are given as wellas use of relevant topics, natural language, andlistening activites.

Meyer, R. M., & Letrault, E. S. (1988). Getting started:Reading techniques that work from the very first day.Forei_gn Language Annals, 21(5), 423-431.

Argues that first day reading techniques should usereal discourse in the target language regardless ofthe obstacles, e.g., non-Roman orthographics, nocognates with English, no readily discerniblerelationship with English. Opening day activitiesare given for languages that reflect the aboveexamples.

Rauf, S. M. A. (1988). Culture and reading comprehension.English Teachima Forum, 26(2), 44-46.

States the problems between culture and readingcomprehension and offers specific suggestions for therole of the teacher in overcoming the problems aswell as suggesting specific classr000m activities.

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Rivers, W. M. & Temperley, M. S. (1978). Apractical guideto the teAtial_g_f_Eallist_ALLA_aEund or foreignlanguage. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chapters 6 & 7 take students through 6 stages ofreading development as an integrated part of languagestudy, not a specialized field; wants readers to usethe techniques as vehicles and models, not as an end.Reading activities should be directed toward normaluses enabling the students to extract meaning fromsomething of interest to themselves. The teacherselects suitable passages which encourage thestudents' interest and aid their progress through thevarious stages until autonomy and independence arereached.

Williamson, J. (1988). Improving reading comprehension: Somecurrent strategies. English Teaching Forum, 26(1), 7-8.

Discusses several current reading comprehensionstrategies: 1) reader-generated question (e.g., usethe first sentence of the text to elicit studentquestions) , 2) write-before-you-read (students writeon own experience on the topic before reading theselection) 3) Krashen's Sustained Silent Reading.

Winer, L. (1986). Beware the reading block, my son. TESLTALK, 16(1), 42-56.

Describes a technique for teaching students tounderstand English passages through structural andcontextual clues. Lewis Carroll's poem "Jabberwocky"is used to unblock and improve students' previousreading strategies. The method startles studentsinto new ways of seeing textual analysis. Detailedsteps and examples are given.