Outline

• Attributes of “restored” ecosystems

• Reference conditions, range of variability

• Western USA ponderosa pine forests as examples

SER definition of ER:

“The process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed.” It is an intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem.

• Broad, encompassing definition

• 9 basic criteria of restored ecosystems

From NPS, GC NP

Colorado River – flooding

Reestablish flooding regime = partly reestablishing trajectory

When is an ecosystem restored?

• Sufficient biotic/abiotic resources to continue its development

• Need for subsequent maintenance and management

• It could be argued, quite effectively, that often restoration is never complete

9 attributes of restored ecosystems

(1) Species composition resembles reference ecosystem

(2) Indigenous species as much as possible

(3) Key functional groups present (e.g., nitrogen fixers)

9 attributes of restored ecosystems

(4) Abiotic envt. can support biota

(5) “Normal” function for its ecological development stage along trajectory

(6) Integrated into larger landscape

9 attributes of restored ecosystems

(7) Threats reduced

(8) Ecosystem resilient to endure normal stress

(9) Self-sustaining similar to reference ecosystem

9 attributes of restored ecosystems

• Simply guides, basic criteria

• Other attributes may be important

• Full expression of all attributes not necessary to qualify for restoration (e.g., need for continued mgt.)

• Measurement challenges

Restored Cultural EcosystemsRestoration and rehabilitation of species-rich grasslands

– Restoration Ecology 6:94-101

Midwestern USA oak savannas – another cultural ecosystem

Photo by TNC

Continuum of restoration projects

• “idealized” projects – do happen

• Commonly restore components (e.g., raking ORV tracks – aesthetics, minimize damage, function?)

• Sometimes useful to differentiate between mgt. and restoration

Continuum of restoration projects

• Yes, there is gray area, which may not be fully comfortable

• Keep in mind the “bottom line” – is the ecosystem better off before or after the activity? If trajectory improved, at least partly successful

Bass River Recreation Area, Western Michigan

Photo from N.W. MacDonald

Our study occurs on the continuum between what many restoration ecologists consider reclamation, rehabilitation, and restoration (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science and Policy Working Group, 2004). ….. Because of severe soil degradation and knapweed dominance at our study site, we deviated from attempting to restore mixed-oak savanna or forest by establishing a grassland community composed of warm-season grasses native to the reference ecosystem. This is an initial intervention to align the site on a trajectory toward recovery of native species and processes (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science and Policy Working Group, 2004). Reducing knapweed, reestablishing native species, and restoring a historical process (fire) are key steps in manipulating this trajectory away from the current monotypic stands of spotted knapweed. MacDonald et al. 2007. Restoration Ecology 15:118-128.

Reference conditions/range of variability

• Concepts underpin ER

• Reference conditions – attributes of target ecosystem

• Only a guide – linked to historical range of variability

What variables to measure for reference conditions?

• Theoretically all, but not practical

• Focus on variables thought to be key drivers of the system

• Example of reference data – 1875 = 60 pine/ha, fire frequency = 3 years

Time

Eco

syst

em v

aria

ble

UPPER LIMIT

LOWER LIMIT

Modified from: Morgan, P., G.H. Aplet, J.B. Haufler, H.C. Humphries, M.M. Moore, and W.D. Wilson. 1994. Historical range of variability: a useful tool for evaluating ecosystem change. Journal of Sustainable Forestry 2:87-111.

Range of Variability Concept

Case study of reference conditions/HRV concepts – ponderosa pine example

• Reference conditions = ~ 1875 forests – low-density forests + frequent fire

• Compare current conditions to reference conditions, and identify sources of degradation

• “Forest restoration” in this case does not = planting trees – rather, removing trees to return to within range of variability

• Major restoration tmts = thinning + reestablishment of frequent fire

Forest change at Walker Lake, Coconino National Forest, AZ

www.eri.nau.edu

1875

2003

April 22, 1909

Sept 7, 1949

June 16, 2003

Historical photos from: http://www.rmrs.nau.edu/fortvalley/

Before restoration

4 years after restoration

www.eri.nau.edu

1820 2005

Reference point

FireGoodsprings, 3 December 2006

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

1937

1941

1945

1949

1953

1957

1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

1993

1997

2001

2005

Year

Pre

cip

itat

ion

(in

ches

)

Annual precipitation

1937-2006 mean

Las Vegas Precipitation, 1937-2006

Data from Western Regional Climate Center, Reno, NV

Types of Reference Information

(i) Current conditions

Climate

Topography/hydrology

Composition, structure

Successional trends

Types of Reference Information

(ii) Historical Records

Archived data

Written/oral history

Photos

U.S. Govt. land surveys

Management/land use records

Weather/hydrologic records

Types of Reference Information

(iii) Legacy and Latency

Snags/coarse woody debris

Dendroecology

Pollen spores, phytoliths

Geomorphological features

Another reference classification

(i) Same time, same place x2007

(ii) Same time, different place x2007 y2007

(iii) Different time, same place x1840

(iv) Different time, different place x2007 y1840

Moore et al. 2004. Forest Science 50:162-176.

Historical Photographs

Examples:

New Mexico State University University Collections – Jornada Experimental Range – http://archives.nmsu.edu/rghc/photo/photos.html

U.S. Forest Service Southwestern Region – http://www.fs.fed.us/r3/about/history/photo.shtml

Historical Descriptions

• Early Euro-American settler journals

• U.S. Army expeditions

• U.S. Govt. geological reconnaissance

• Early botanists

U.S. Army Lieutenant A.W. Whipple –

March 3, 1854 - …”We reached, at the point of the mountain, Pai-Ute Creek, a finely flowing stream of water. Finding good grass also, we encamped.

March 5, 1854 – “Passing over the prairie, nearly seven miles west, we arrived at a spring of water oozing from a rocky ravine.” …”The hill-sides and ravines are covered with excellent grass..”

From Carpenter, D.E., et al. 1986. Madrono 33:111-122.

From USGS

Rhyolite, Nevada

Kurt Wenner, http://www.ghosttowns.com/states/nv/rhyolite.html

Dendroecology

U of A tree ring lab

Paul Martin, University of Arizona, next to Pleistocene (<11,000 ybp ) midden.

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/

Agropyron spicatum

Bluebunch Wheatgrass

Artemisia tridentata

Big Sagebrush

http://coss.stcloudstate.edu/mblinnikov/phd/phyt.html

Plant Phytoliths

War Zones and Game Sinks in Lewis and Clark’s West – Conservation Biology 13:36-45.