Otvety Po Fon Ke1 1580

8/12/2019 Otvety Po Fon Ke1 1580

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1. The subject matter of phonetics

Phonetics is a science devoted to the physical analysis of the sounds of human speech, including their production, transmission,and perception.Phonetics is traditionally divided into two branches: acoustic, concerned with the structure of the acoustic signal itself, andarticulatory, concerned with the way these sounds are produced.Theoretical Phonetics studies speech sounds:1) from every point of view.Articulatory point of view - every speech sound is a comple of definite finely coordinated and differentiated movements andpositions of the various speech organs.

Acoustic - speech sounds have certain physical properties.Phonological - speech sounds are studied through the phonological oppositions.Auditory - all of speech sounds have infinite number of features.!) studies mechanisms of vowel and consonant production:"ibrator mechanism - vocal cords#esonator mechanism - oral cavity, nasal cavity$bstructer mechanism - tongue, "%, teethPower mechanism - lungs, diaphragm&) sounds are studied not only separately but in clusters and in speech. Thus we've come to (inetics and (inesthetic factors.) the matter of analysis:- description - setting down as many as possible features which are present in sounds.- classification - mentioning those features by which sounds utter.$ne of the main sub*ects is intonation. Theoretical phonetics views it from the point of view of different schools and approaches:

#ussian - intonation consists of speech melody, tones, change in pitch.+ritish - intonation is a contour, that is a unit of intonation consisting of pre-head, head, nucleus and tail.American - intonation is pitch. ifferences in pitch cause differences in meaning.pea(ing about sounds we usually view them in words, which consist of syllables. This is another sub*ect of theoretical phonetics- syllable division and different approaches to it.

2. The way phonetics is connected with other branches of linguistics and other sciencesPhonetics is an independent branch of linguistics li(e leicology, grammar and stylistics. t studies the sound matter, its aspects

and functions.Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology, logic, etc.The connection of phonetics with grammar, leicology and stylistics is eercised first of all via orthography, which in its turn

is very closely connected with phonetics.Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation for separate sounds and sound combinations. The rules of reading are based on

the relation of sounds to orthography and present certain difficulties in learning the /nglish language, especially on the initial stage ofstudying. Thus, vowel sounds, for instance, are pronounced not only as we name the letters corresponding to them: the letter a as0ei0, the letter e as i'v.l, the letter i as 0ai0, the letter as 0wai0, the letter u as i{j)n:l, the letter 2 as 0340, *n5 a can be pronouncedas: 0ae06 can, 0a0 6 car, 7sa06care-, e can be pronounced as:Id6them, 89:16fern, libl6here, etc.

Through the system of rules of reading phonetics is connected with grammar and helps to pronounce correctly singular andplural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of /nglish regular verbs, e.g. 0d0 is pronounced after voiced consonants(beg begged), It!6after voiceless consonants (wish6wished), 0id06after It! (wantwanted). tis only if we (now that 0s0 ispronounced after voiceless consonants, 0;0 after voiced and 0i;0 after sibilants, that we can pronounce the words boos, bags, boescorrectly. The ending -ed is pronounced 0id0 following 0t0 or 0d0, e.g. waited 0iweitid0,folded 0ifauldid0. ome ad*ectives have a formwith 0id0, e.g. crooed 0'(ru-(id0, naed 0inei(id0, ragged 0'rsegid0.

$ne of the most important phonetic phenomena6sound interchange6is another manifestation of the connection of pho-netics with grammar. 0 helps to differentiate singular and plural forms of such nouns as: calfcalves IIv0, leafleaves IIv0, ho"se-ho"ses 0s6;0.

"owel interchange helps to distinguish the singular and the plural of such words as: basisbases 0'beisis6?beisi:;0, crisis

crises 0i(raisis6'(raisi:;0, anal#sisanal#ses 0ainaelaaia 6ainaatesh;0 .and also: manmen 0man6men0, footfeet 0fut6fi:t0,goose $geese 0gu:s6gi:;0, mo"semice 0maus6mais0."owel interchange is connected with the tense forms of irregular vverbs, for instance: singsangs"ng% writewrotewritten,etc. "owel interchange can also help to distinguish between

a) nouns and verbs, e.g@ baih6bathe 0a:6ei0,b) ad*ectives and nouns, e.g. hoteet &v6i:0,c) verbs and ad*ectives, e.g. moderate6moderate 0ei610,d) nouns and nouns, e.g.shadeshadow 0ei6se0,e) nouns and ad*ectives, e.g. t#e6t#ical 0ai6*0."owel interchange can also be observed in onomatopoeitic compounds:

*iggle6*oggle 2BC2D, E2DFCGHFIGJ flip6flop BJKDG4 LFM, NBJE2D chip6chop MOG 2E2M2Q,NRD2HF flap6flop NBJEF, NBJEI hip6hop E2LEMRKGHF EMG S2LOJ%onsonants can interchange in different parts of speech for eample in nouns and verbs:

etent6etend 0t6d0 mouth6mouth 06=0 relief6relieve 0f6v0

Phonetics is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. ometimes intonation alone can serve to single outthe logical predicate of the sentence. %ompare:

UVe came home. Wot Xary or Yohn. Ve 'came home. o you can see him now. Ve came 'home.Ve is at home, and you said he was going to the club.

n affirmative sentences the rising nuclear tone may serve to show that it is a 5uest ion. %f.:Ve 'came t home. Ve came ,home.


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Phonetics is also connected with leicology. t is only due to the-presence of stress, or accent, in the right place, that we canditi guish certain nouns from verbs Zformed by conversion), e.g.

abstract MJ[JMF6to abstract G9HBJDF 'ob*ect EMJLQJ6to ob'*ect IJ 2L2OM\ 'transfer EJMJI2]6to transfer EJMJI2]G.

Vomographs can be differentiated only due to pronunciation, because they are identical N spelling, e.g.bow 0bau0 BD6bow 0bau0 E2DB2Ilead 0li:d0 MD2H2L]H26lead 0led0 ]HGIJ^row 0K3G0 M\L6row 0rau0 NQsewer 093G30 NHJ\6sewer 0s*us0 ]2CIF\ MOFtear 0tea0 MF9MRH6tear 0G30 ]BJ9Fwind 0wind0 HJJM6wind 0wamd0 HG2D

ue to the position of word accent we can distinguish between homonymous words and word groups, e.g.'blac(bird LM29L6'blac( bird CJMIF\ EG^F

Phonetics is also connected with stylistics_ first of all through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance stress,rhythm, pausation and voice tamber which serve to epress emotions, to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the authorand spea(er. "ery often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special words and remar(s such as: a a"se, a short

a"se, angril#, hoef"ll#, gentl#, incred"lo"sl#, etc.


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3. Components of the phonetic system of English

The Ph sys of /ng is a systemic combination of all the components of the sound matter, which constitute the materialforms of all the morphems, words, phrases and sentences and serve a spea(er of the lang to epress his thoughts, feelings,emotions.

The first componentof the Ph structure of /nglish is the sys of its segmental phonemes eisting in the material form oftheir alophones constituted by the spectral, fundamental fre5uency, force and temporal components of the sound matter of lang invarious combinations.

The systemic character of the phonemic component is reflected in various classifications of its phonemes in which theletters are devided first into ! fundamental sound types vowels and consonants with futher subdivisione of each sound type

according to the principles of vowel and cons classifications.The phonemic component of the Ph structure of the / lang manifests itself not only in the sys of its phonemes as discritZMF9M29IJIIR4) isolated units, but also in combinations of their allophones occuring in words and at the *unction of words.

The combinations of allophones are also systemic in character, the allophones of the phoneme occure only in definitepossitions, e.g. the / sounds 8u, never occure at the beginning of a word, whereas the sounds 83J, h never occure at the end of/ word. There is not a single #ussian word, which begins with the vowel 8R.

A typical combination of cons sounds that may occure at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a word is called acons cluster, the combination of vowels is sometimes refered to as a vowel chane. %lusters and chanes also occure in definitpositions. Thus, the / clusters 8tl,dl never occure at the beginning of words, whereas the similar #us clusters 8B,LB neveroccure at the end of words, e.g. sadle, LBFI.

The occurence of the allophones of a phoneme in different positions in a word is called the distribution. ince morphemes,words, phrases and sentences consist of combinations of speech sounds which articulations merge with and interpenitrateZH9FGQ2EM2IGDF) each other. t is also systemic in character because lang-s have regular rules of effecting articulatery vowel

cons transitions, %" transitions, %% transitions, "" tran./.g. the character of the / short stressed vowels in an instance of effecting a "% trans, which is characteristic of / and isnjtused in #ussian because #us vowels are free 8pen-i, 8EJ-IG.

The aspiration of / plosives 8p,t,( imidiatelly before a stressed vow and the unaspirated pronounsiation of the #uscoutyparts in thesame position as well as the politalisation of cons before front high vowels in #us and the nonpalatalisiedarticulation of / cons in the same position are instances of ! different ways of effecting %" transition, e.g. 8phic, 8EGD.

%% tran may serve the loss of plosion by an / plosive immideately before another plosive and the retension Z]2SMFIJIGJ)of plosion by its #us countypart, e.g. 83Jcht, 8FD.

! different ways of effecting a "" tran maybe illustrated by the presence and absence of the glotal stopZHJMLR4 EMG]E)between vowels, e.g. the apple. Thus, the phonemic component of the Ph sys of / has & aspects:

1) The sys of its phonemes as discrit isolated units which may occure in speech as isolated sounds constitutingmonophonemic words and sometimes even sentences_

!) the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes

&) the methods of *oining speech sounds together or the methods of effecting "%, %", %%, "" transitions.The second component is the syllabic structure of words. The syllabic structure of words has ! aspects: syllable formation syllable division ZLJBJIGJ)

+oth aspects are sometimes designed by the cover term syllabication.kang-s may differ from one another both in syllable formation and syl division. ifferences in syl formation involve

differences in the compacity Z]2JLGIJIGJ) of speech sounds to form syl in different positions. /.g. the cons 8m is syll in the /word rythm, whereas the similar #us sound 8Q is nonsyllabic in the same position in the #us e5uivalent of the same word MGQ.

ifferences in syllabic division involve differences in the position of the point of syllable division or the syllasbic boundaryand in the types of the resulting syllables mainly open and closed, e.g. 8mani in which the 1 syllable is closed and 8 QFIG inwhich the 1 syll is pen.

n / differences in syl division may perform a distinctive function.The third component is the accentual structure of its words as items of vocabulary.

The accentual structure of words has & aspects:1.the physical nature of word accent

!.the position of the accent in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words.&.the degrees of word accent.The physical nature of word ascent involves the use components of the sound matter or a combination of them to ma(e a

syllable in a word more prominent than the other syllables in it and pronounce a monosyllabic word with the same acousticcharacteristics which would ma(e it most prominent if it were the accented syllable of a dissyllabic or polysyllabic word, e.g.8po:t, 8impo:t.

The position of the ascent of different degrees in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words is an etremely important aspect./specially in one with the so-called free word ascent, a lang in which the ascent may fall on any syllable in different words. as isthe case in / and #ussian, e.g. dictionary, hojtel, \OB2D2, 9HJ9LF. n such lang-s word ascent performs not only the constitutiveand precognitive functions, but also the word distinctive and form distinctive function, e.g. import, imjport, MDG, MjDG.

The 4thcomponentis the international structure of sentences in it. nternational being understood in the broad sense.

4. The organs of speech and their functions


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7. honeme theory

Ph studies sounds as articulatory and acoustic units, phonology investigates sounds as units which serve communicative purposes.The unit of phonetics is a speech sound, the unit of phonology is a phoneme. Phonemes can be discovered by the method ofminimal pairs. This method consists in finding pairs of words which differ in 1 phoneme, e.g. if we replace 8b by 8t in the wordban we produce a new word tan, ban-tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. ! words of this(ind are termed minimal pairs.The phonemes of a lang form a system of oppositions, in which any one phoneme is usually opposed to any other phoneme in atleast 1 position.The founder of the phoneme theory was +audouin de %ourteney. Vis theory of phoneme was developed and perfected byhcherba, who stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, and that in every langthese sounds are united in a comparatively small number of sound types, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and theform of words. t is these sound types that should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatoryunits of the lang. The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants or allophones of phonemes. Allophones are reali;ed inconcrete words. They have phonetic similarity, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiatingwords, e.g. in speech we pronounce not the sound type 8t which is asperated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive,voiceless-fortis according to the classificatory definition, but one of its variants, e.g. labiali;ed in the word twice, dental in the


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word nineth, post-alveolar in try and so on. The number of sound types, or phonemes, in each lang is much smaller than thenumber of sounds actually pronounced.Phonemic variants or allophones are very important for lang teaching, their mispronunciation doesnjt influence the meaning of thewords, their misuse ma(es a personjs speech sound as foreign.The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. usidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Posit alloph areused in certain positions traditionally, e.g. the /ng 8l is reali;ed in actual speech as a positional alloph: it is clear in the initialposition and dar( ZHJMLR4) in terminal position, e.g. let and mill. #us positional alloph can be obserdved in such words as MOB.%ombinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of the phoneme upon another./ach phoneme manifests itself in a certain pattern of distribution. The simplest of them is free variation, that is the variation of

one and the same phoneme pronounced differently, e.g. the pronunciation of the initial 8( with different degree of aspiration.%omplementary distribution is another pattern of phoneme environment, when one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite setof contet in which no other phoneme ever occurs. %ontrastive distribution is one more pattern of phoneme environment, e.g. bad bed, pit peat these are minimal pairs.Xinimal distinctive features are discovered through oppositions. This method helps to prove whether the phonemic difference isrelevant or not, whether the opposition is single, double or multiple, 8d, 8t have only one distinctively relevant feature singleopposition. f there are two distinctively relevant features, the opposition is double , e.g. 8p and 8d differ after following lines: 8p voiceless, fortis, labial, bilabial_ 8d voiced, lenis, lingual, forelingual, apical, alveolar. The opposition 8b, 8h is multiple,because these phonemes differ along the following lines: 8b - voiced, lenis, labial, bilabial, occlusive_ 8h - voiceless, fortis,pharingal, constrictive.2L3I-LJ-MJIJ defined the phoneme as a physical image of a sound, he originated the so called mentalist view of thephoneme.!."rticulatory transitions of #owel and consonant phonemes.

"ssimilationn the process of speech, that is in process of transition from the articulatory wor( of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified.These modifications can be conditioned:a) by the complementary distribution of the phonemes, e. g. the fully bac( 0u:0 becomes bac(-advanced under the influence of thepreceiding mediolingual sonorant 0*0 in the words t"ne, n"de.The mid-open, front 0e0 becomes more open followed by the dar( 0l0 in hell, tell, sell. %ompare with bet, let, set.b) by the contetual variations in which phonemes may occur at the *unction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme 0n0 in thecombination in theis assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of the following interdental phoneme.c) by the style of speech: official or rapid collo5uial. /. g. slight ress"re 0jslait pre30 may turn into 0jslaipjpre30 in collo5uialspeech.Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of neighbouring consonant.hen a consonant is modified under the influence of an ad*acent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation oraccommodation, e. g. cool, tea.

hen one of the neighbouring sounds is not reali;ed in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. waistaer &jweist peip30 may turn into 0jweisjpeip30.Assimilation which occurs in the present-day pronunciation is called living, and which too( place at an earlier stage of thelanguage is called historical Z EM2G9IJ]JIGJ ]B2H pressure, mesure).The present-day pronunciation of the wordssession, "estion, nat"re, occasion results from the historical assimilation of 0s*0,0t*0, 0;*0 to 00.As far as the direction of assimilation Zand accommodation) is concerned it can be:

) progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation ma(es the second sound similar to itself, e. g.dess, egs.

) #egressive, when the second sound ma(es the first sound similar to itself, e. g. at the./) ouble, when two sounds influence each other, e. g. twice0t0 is rounded and 0w0 is partly devoiced.

/ach sound pronounced in isolation has three stages in its articulation.


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b) the mechanism of the #ussian %" transition, when a consonant is followed by the front 0G0 is more close than the/nglish consonant to 0i0 or 0*0 transition, compare: 9ete 1;2


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raphically it can be represented by an arc of loudness or an arc of articulatory tension.

%onsonants within a sillable are, , , characteri;ed by different distribution

of muscular tension. hcherba distinguishes the following types *ot consonants:finally strong Zinitially wea(), they occur at the beginning of the syllable_.finally wea( Zinitially strong), they occur at the end of a closed syllable_double pea(ed Zcombination of two similar sounds): in their articulation the beginning and the end are energetic and the middle is

wea( .Acoustically they produce an impression of two consonants: flpen znaif0, 0igud 'dei0.G0M02


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1. ord &tress

/nglish words have certain patterns of stress which you should observe strictly if you want to be understood.eneral guidelines on word stress OGJ MJD2QJILF GG E2 LFMJIG H ]B2HFSenerally, common /nglish nouns, ad*ectives and adverbs are more often stressed on the first syllable than on any other syllable."erbs with prefies are usually stressed on the second syllable, i.e. on the first syllable of the root after the prefi. /nglish wordscan't have two unstressed syllables at the beginning of the word_ one of these syllables will be stressed. f a word has four or moresyllables, there are usually two stresses in it: primary stress Zstrong stress) and secondary stress Zwea( stress). Also, secondarystress may be present Zin addition to primary stress) in shorter words in the syllable where the vowel remains long and strong.Prefies are often stressed in nouns and less often in verbs. uffies standing at the end of a word are rarely stressed, ecept for a

few noun, ad*ective and verb suffies that are usually stressed: rooX/TT/, 'ciga'#/TT/ 0 '%a'rette, %hi'W//, 'ni'fy,'$#ga'ni;e, '/%o'rate. n longer derivative words, stress may fall on a suffi or prefi according to the typical patterns of stressdescribed below. /ndings are not stressed.MG]FHDG CF]2 LFMIRJ H ]J]HGJBIRS G MJJ H KBFK2BFS. ~[[GD]R, ]2\GJ H D2I^J ]B2HF, MJLD2 LFMIRJ, 9FG]DBCJIGJQ IJ]D2BDGS ][[GD]2H ]J]HGJBIRS, EMGBFKFJBIRS G KBFK2B2H, D22MRJ 2ORCI2 LFMIRJ: rooX/TT/,'ciga'#/TT/ 0 '%a'rette, %hi'W//, 'ni'fy, '$#ga'ni;e, '/%o'rate. O2BJJ LBGIIRS EM2G9H2LIRS ]B2HFS LFMJIGJQ2J EFLF IF EMG]FHD GBG ][[GD] ]2KBF]I2 GEGCIRQ Q2LJB\Q LFMJIG\, 2EG]FIIRQ IGJ. D2ICFIG\ IJ LFMIRJ.tress in derivatives LFMJIGJ H EM2G9H2LIRS ]B2HFStress in a derivative may remain the same as in the word from which it was derived, or change in a certain way.


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WJw #q - W 2r( %Tyin the afterW$$W - A


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pitch5uality5uantity+y force we understand greater breath effort and muscular energy that is applied when pronouncing the stressed syllable.hen pitch is involved it is the pitch level that ma(e the stressed syllable more prominent than the others, but not the direction ofthe tone. e can pronounce the word with the falling or rising nuclear tone., the meaning will be unchanged.As far as 5uality and 5uantity are concerned, we should mention the reduction of the phonemes in an unstressed position. ketjsta(e the word car-par(j. The first 8a: fully preserved its length and 5uality. The second is reduced due to the unstressed position.ord stress is singling out one or more syllables in a which are made prominent due to the force, pitch, 5uality and 5uantity.

n achieving special pronounce of stress all syllables in different languages ! components usually play the reading role, thus alllanguages can be roughly divided into ! groups that include:dynamic stressmusical stressThe dynamic stress implies greater force with which stressed syllables are pronounced. /uropean languages li(e /nglish, erman,


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blac(bird)&) #ecognitive function manifests itself that due to the stress people can recogni;e words and their stress pattern. se of wordswith misplaced stress can prevent peple from normal understanding.13.&yllable &tructure in English

yllables and their partsords can be cut up into units called syllables. Vumans seem to need syllables as a way of segmenting the stream of speech andgiving it a rhythm of strong and wea( beats, as we hear in music. yllables don't serve any meaning-signalling function inlanguage_ they eist only to ma(e speech easier for the brain to process. A word contains at least one syllable.Xost spea(ers of /nglish have no trouble dividing a word up into its component syllables. ometimes how a particular word is

divided might vary from one individual to another, but a division is always easy and always possible. Vere are some wordsdivided into their component syllables Za period is used to mar( the end of a syllable):tomato to.ma.towindow win.dowsupercalifragilisticepialidocious: su.per.ca.li.fra.gi.lis.ti.ce.pi.a.li.do.cious Zsome people might put some of the periods indifferent places in this word).yllables have internal structure: they can be divided into parts. The parts are onset and rhyme_ within the rhyme we find thenucleus and coda. Wot all syllables have all parts_ the smallest possible syllable contains a nucleus only. A syllable may or may nothave an onset and a coda.$nset: the beginning sounds of the syllable_ the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in /nglish. The nucleusis a vowel in most cases, although the consonants 8 r , 8 l , 8 m , 8 n , and the velar nasal Zthe 'ng' sound) can also be the nucleusof a syllable. n the following words, the onset is in bold_ the rest underlined.read

flopstrapf a word contains more than one syllable, each syllable will have the usual syllable parts:win.dowto.ma.topre.pos.te.rousfun.da.men.tal#hyme Zor rime): the rest of the syllable, after the onset Zthe underlined portions of the words above). The rhyme can also bedivided up:#hyme nucleus codaThe nucleus, as the term suggests, is the core or essential part of a syllable. A nucleus must be present in order for a syllable to bepresent. yllable nuclei are most often highly 'sonorant' or resonant sounds, that can be relatively loud and carry a clear pitchlevel. n /nglish and most other languages, most syllable nuclei are vowels. n /nglish, in certain cases, the li5uids 8 l r and

nasals 8 m n and the velar nasal usually spelled 'ng' can also be syllable nuclei.The syllable structure analysis of the words 'read', 'flop', 'strap' and 'window' are as follows ZPA symbols are used to show thesounds in the word0syllable):read one syllable$nset 8 r #hyme 8 id Zwithin the rhyme:)

Wucleus 8 i %oda 8 d

flop one syllable$nset 8 f l #hyme 8 a p

Wucleus 8 a %oda 8 p

window ! syllables


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0 @$ #0 @ 0 @ W %

8 f l a p ki5uids and nasals as syllable nucleiThe /nglish li5uids 8 r l and the nasals 8 m n can be the nuclei of syllables under certain conditions. 8 r can be a nucleus aseasily as a vowel, in any position: the words 'bird', 'word', 'her', 'fur', the first syllable of 'perceive' and 'surname' and the final

syllables of 'mother', 'actor' Zin casual pronunciation) all have 8 r as the nucleus_ in other words, there is no vowel in thepronunciation of these syllables, even though they have one in the spelling.8 l and the nasals 8 m n become syllable nuclei when they follow an alveolar consonant in the last syllable of a word. Thishappens in the relaed or casual rather than very formal articulation of the word. %ompare casual vs. formal pronunciations of'button', 'bottle', 'bottom'.hen one of these sounds is a syllable nucleus, this is shown in transcription by putting a very short vertical line under the PAsymbol8 r l m n .' ' ' '

Zf the vertical lines don't line up under the symbols on your screen, it is due to webpage transfer complications.)

A word with a syllabic 8 r as nucleus is 'bird':14. %(T'("T%'(

ntonation is a comple unity of non-segmental, or prosodic features of speech: 1. melody, pitch of the voice_ !. sentence stress_ &.temporal characteristics Zduration, tempo, pausation)_ . rhythm_ x. tamber Zvoice 5uality).ntonation is very important. t organi;es a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentencesinto intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, epresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main functions ofintonation are: communicative and epressive.There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in reat +ritain. $ne is (nown as a contour analysis and the othermay be called grammatical.The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: V. weet, . Yones, . Palmer, k. Armstrong, . ard, #. qingdon, Y. '%onnor, A. imson and others. t is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguisticmeaning can be attached is a tone-group Zsense-group). Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basicfunctional `bloc(s . They pay much attention to these `bloc(s` but not to the way they are connected. ntonation is treated bythem as a layer that is superimposed on the leico-grammatical structure. n fact the aim of communication determines theintonation structure not vice versa.The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was wor(ed out by X. Valliday, The main unit of intonation is a clause.ntonation is a comple of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories.Tonality mar(s the beginning and the end of a tone-group, Tonicity mar(s the focal point of each tone-group. Tone is the third unitin Valliday's system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the spea(er. Valliday's theory is based onthe syntactical function of intonation.The founder of the American school of intonation is q. Pi(e. n his boo( `The ntonation of American /nglish` he considers`pitch phonemes` and `contours` to'be the main units of intonation. Ve describes different contours and their meanings, but theword `meaning` stands apart from communicative function of intonation. A. Antipova in her `ystem of /nglish ntonation`characteri;es the approach of the American school to the study of intonation system as `mechanical`.14.1 /E$'0-

peech melody or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sentence stress. %rystal states that `the only reali;ations of stress,which are linguistic, which are capable of creating an effect of relative prominence, of accent, are those which are effected withthe complehelp of pitch, 5uantity and 5uality variations. The most important is pitch. k

uccessive contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined differently: sense-groups Zsemantic approach),breath-groups Zetra-linguistic approach), tone groups Zphonological definition)aintonation groups, tone Ztonetic) units, pitch and stresspatterns. /ach tone unit has one pea( of prominence in the form of a nuclear pitch movement and a slight pause after the nucleus thatend the tone unit and is usually shorter than the term pause` in pausation system.

The tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. t contains one nucleus, which is often referred to asnuclear tone, or pea( of prominence. The interval between the highesfand the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a sense-group. The range usually depends on the pitch level: the higher the pitch, the wider the range. Vigh, medium and low pitch of the voiceis shown on the staves. The change of pitch within the last stressed syllable of the tone-group is called a nuclear tone. t may occur notonly in thenu-cleus but etend to the tail 6 terminal tone.

The inventory of tonal types given by different scholars is different. weet distinguishes tones: - level, ' high rising,, low ris-ing, Bhigh falling, low falling, vcompound rising, Bcompound falling, - rising-falling-rising. Palmer has four basic tones: falling,high rising, falling-rising, low rising. Ve also mentions high-falling and `low level` and describes coordinating tonalse5uences Z`` identical tone groups), and subordinating tonal se5uences (T' ` dissimilar tone groups). qingdon distinguishes high and

low, normal and emphatic tones and gives rising, falling, falling-rising Zdivided and undivided), rising-falling, rising-falling-risingand level tone Zthe latter is not nuclear). $'%onnor and Arnold give low and high falls and rises, rise-fall, fall-rise, and a compoundfall - rise Zthe latter is considered a conflation of two simple tunes). Valliday recogni;es seven ma*or types , @ ', ,, B, v, , B 0.

"assilyev gives ten tone units. Ve states that tones can be moving and level. Xoving tones can be: simple, comple and compound.They are: kow


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and kow level.Xethods of indicating intonation are different: wedge-li(e symbols, staves with dots and dashes, which correspond to unstressed

and stressed syllables within the voice range, tonetic stress mar(s, numerical system, etc. The system of staves is the most vivid, thesystem oftonetic symbols is the most economical and vivid, that's why they are most popular in our tetboo(s.'The tonetic units that constitute the total tone pattern Zcontour) are the following:1. unstressed and half stressed syllables preceding the first stressedsyllable constitute the prehead of the intonation group_!. stressed and unstressed syllables up to the last stressed syllable

constitute the head, body or scale of the intonation group_&. the last stressed syllable, within which fall or rise in the intonation group is accomplished, is called the nucleus_ the syllable mar(edwith the nuclear tone may ta(e a level stress_. the syllables Zor one syllable), that follow the nucleus, constitute the tail, e.g.t's been a 'very igood , even ing for me.The most important part of the intonation group is the nucleus, which carries nuclear stress Znuclear tone).According to the changes in the voice pitch preheads can be: rising, mid and low:cales can be: descending, ascending and level.According to the direction of pitch movement within and between syllables, descending and ascending scales can be: stepping,sliding and scandent_ ascending stepping, ascending sliding and ascending scendent.

The falling tones convey completion and finality, they are categoric in character. The rising tones are incomplete and non-categoric. $f all the level tones mid level tone is used most fre5uently. The level tones may epress hesitation and uncertainty.

Attitudinal function of intonation can be observed in utterances consisting of one word and in utterances consisting of more than asingle word. n the latter cases it is not only that the type of the nucleus is important but also the pitch of the utterance preceding the nu-cleus: prehead and head.

14.2 &entence stress or accententence stress is a greater prominence of words, which are made more prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of

accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changesin the 5uantity of the vowels under stress Zin unstressed position vowels may undergo 5ualitative changes, see unstressed vocalism).

The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component isloudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. egrees of stress in an utterance correlate with the pitch range system. Wuclear stress is thestrongest 6 it carries the most important information. Won-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial.


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'Picca'dilly6-'Piccadilly '%ircus6'close to Picca'dilly princess6a 'royal prin'cesslindiarubber6a 'piece of india'rubber6an Vndiarubber vball

14.4. ausation and timbrePausation is closely connected with the other components of intonation. The number and the length of pauses affect the

general tempo of speech. A slower tempo ma(es the utterance more prominent and more important. t is an additionalmeans of epressing the spea(er's emotions.

Pauses made between two sentences are obligatory. They are longer than pauses between sense-groups and aremar(ed by two parallel bars 00. Pauses made between sense-groups are shorter than pauses made between sentences.They are mar(ed I ltI V l , I V V W

Pauses are usually divided into filled and unfil ed, corresponding to voiced and silent pauses. ilent pauses aredistinguished on the basis of relative length: brief, unit, double and treble. Their length is relative to the tempo andrhythmicality norms of an individual. The eception is `end-of-utterance` pause, which length is controlled by the personwho is about to spea(.

Another subdivision of pauses is into breathing and hesitation.Pauses play not only segmentative and delirnitative functions, they show relations between utterances and intonation

groups, performing a unifying, constitutive function. They play the semantic and syntactic role, e. g. here was no lovetost between them Zthey loved each other). here was no love* lost between them Zthey did not love each other).

Attitudinal function of pausation can be affected through voiced pauses, which are used to signal hesitation, doubt,suspence. uch pauses have the 5uality of the central vowels 03, s:0. They may be used for emphasis, to attach specialimportance to the word, which follows it.

The tamber orTthe voice 5uality is a special colouring of the spea(er's voice. t is used to epress various emotions andmoods, such as *oy, anger, sadness, indignation, etc.

Tamber should not be e5uated with the voice 5uality only, which is the permanently present person-identifyingbac(ground, it is a more general concept, applicable to the inherent resonances of any sound. t is studied along the linesof 5uality: whisper, breathy, crea(, hus(y, falsetto, resonant, and 5ualification: laugh, giggle, tremulousness, sob, cry Zthelist compiled by %afford and kaver).14.6 &tylistic use of intonationThere are five verbal functional styles Zalso referred to as registers or discourses): 1. the belles-lettres style, !. publicistic style, &.newspaper style, . scientific prose style, x. the style of official documents. n the case of oral representation of written tets we spea(about into-national peculiarities of: descriptive and scientific prose, newspapers, drama, poetry, tales, public speeches, spontaneousspeech and phatic communion. They are briefly the following:

Xense-gro"s. n reading descriptive and scientific prose, tales or newspaper material they depend on the synta or thecontents. They are shorter in drama than in descriptive and scientific prose, they are normally short in public speeches. n poetrythe main unit is the line, which corresponds to a sense-group and consists of more than si syllables.

ones. Xostly falling with a Vigh Warrow


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- n see(ing information with 5uestion words such as what, when, which, who, how, etc.Vow much is this mug0hat's your name- n tag 5uestions when the spea(er is sure that what he says is rightt's a tough day, isn't it0 t's a wonderful weather, isn't it-


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"owel merger before intervocalic 00. hich vowels are affected varies between dialects, but the Xary-marry-merry, nearer-mirror, and hurry-furry mergers are all widespread. Another such change is the laing of 0e0, 0i0 and 0u0 to 00, 00 and 00 before 00,causing pronunciations li(e 8p, 8p and 8p* for pair, peer and pure. The resulting sound 8 is often further reduced to 8,especially after palatals, so that cure, pure, mature and sure rhyme with fir.ropping of 0*0 is more etensive than in #P. n most Worth American accents, 0*0 is dropped after all alveolar and interdentalconsonant, so that new, du(e, Tuesday, resume are pronounced 0nu0, 0du(0, 0tu;de0, 0;um0.-tensing in environments that vary widely from accent to accent_ for eample, for many spea(ers, 00 is approimately reali;edas 8e before nasal consonants. n some accents, particularly those from +altimore, Philadelphia, and Wew or( %ity, 8 and 8econtrast sometimes, as in es, can 8(n vs. tin can 8(en.

The flapping of intervocalic 0t0 and 0d0 to alveolar tap 8 before unstressed vowels Zas in butter, party) and syllabic 0l0 Zbottle), aswell as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel Zwhat else, whatever). Thus, for most spea(ers, pairs such asladder0latter, metal0medal, and coating0coding are pronounced the same.

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Otvety Po Fon Ke1 1580